ROLE OF LIBRARY TO IMPROVE QUALITY OF EDUCATION

School libraries have been a subject of policy

recommendations for a long time, but a functioning

library in the school continues to be a rarity. It is

important that future planning treats the library as an

essential component of the school at all levels. Both

teachers and children need to be motivated and trained

to use the library as a resource for learning, pleasure,

and concentration. The school library should be

conceptualised as an intellectual space where teachers,

children and members of the community can expect

to find the means to deepen their knowledge and

imagination. A system of cataloguing books and other

materials available in the library needs to be developed

so that children can become self-reliant library users.

Apart from books and magazines, a school library

should provide access to the new information

technology to enable children and teachers to connect

with the wider world. In the initial stages of planning,

block-level or cluster-level libraries can be set up. In

the future, India must move towards equipping every

school, irrespective of its level, with a library. In many

parts of the country, community libraries are

functioning in rural areas, and government libraries exist

in many district headquarters. Futuristic planning would

require the amalgamation of such structures in a school

libr ary network in order to maximise the use of

resources. The Raja Ram Mohan Roy Library

Foundation can be given additional resources to act as

a nodal agency for conceptualising a library network

for schools and for monitoring it after it has been

created.

In the day-to-day life of a school, the library can

serve many different kinds of purposes. Restricting

the use of the library to one period a week seldom

allows children to cultivate a taste for reading. Facilities

are to be provided to allow children to borrow books.

Training of teachers in library management and use is

required to meet the demands of this situation. Where

the size of the school building permits a separate room

for the library, it is important to pay attention to creating

a positive ethos in this space by providing good lighting

and seating arrangements. It should even be possible

for a teacher to conduct a class in the library by drawing

upon its resources. It could also serve as a place for

holding discussions, watching a craftsman from the

community giving a demonstration, or listening to a

stor yteller. Creating such resource libraries to support

teachers at the cluster and block levels will complement

and strengthen curriculum renewal. Each block could

specialise in a subject area so that together there are

adequate resources in the district.

Libraries

One period a week to be devoted to librar y reading.

During this time, children sit and read silently in the

librar y. They r eturn the books borrowed the previous

week and bor row new ones.

If ther e is no library room, the teacher can bring out

books appropriate to the age group and allow children

to choose from the set. It is important to let the child

choose rather than having the teacher distribute the

books.

Library books can be brought into the language class .

For class projects, children can be asked to look up a

reference in the library.

Children can be asked to write about the book they

have read that week during the language class.

Children can be asked to share a stor y they have read

with the other children in class.

INSERVICE COURCES(EDUCATION) AND TRAINING OF TEACHERS

In-service education can play a significant role in the

professional growth of teachers and function as an

agent for change in school-related practices. It helps

teachers gain confidence by engaging with their

practices and reaffirming their experiences. It provides

opportunities to engage with other teachers

professionally and to update knowledge. The Education

Commission (1964–66) recommended that in-service

education for teachers should be organised by

universities and teacher organisations to enable every

teacher to receive two or three months of in-service

education once in five years; that such programmes

should be based on research inputs; that training

institutions should work on a 12-month basis and

organise programmes like refresher courses, seminars,

workshops and summer institutes. The Report of the

National Commission on Teachers (1983–85) mooted

the idea of Teachers\’ Centres that could serve as meeting

places, where talent could be pooled and teaching

experiences shared. It suggested that teachers could go

to centres of learning on study leave. The NPE (1986)

linked in-service and pre-service teacher education on

a continuum;
it visualised the establishment of District

Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) in each

district, upgradation of 250 colleges of education as

Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs), and

establishment of 50 Institutes of Advanced Studies in

Education (IASEs), and strengthening of the State

Councils of Educational Research and Training

(SCERTs). The Acharya Ramamurthi Review

Committee (1990) recommended that in-service and

refresher courses should be related to the specific needs

of teachers, and that evaluation and follow-up should

be part of the scheme.

In places where multigrade schools have been

established in order to facilitate access to primary

schooling, teachers need special training in managing

such classrooms, which must be conducted by those

who have experience in classroom management and

organisation for these classes. Prescriptions on how to

manage, without the support of appropriate materials,

or guidance in planning units and topics, does little to

assist teachers whose experience and imagination is

completely oriented to the monograde setting. Instead

of being merely told what to do, detailed unit planning

exercises, along with direct practical experiences in

places where multigrade class teaching practices have

become established, and films depicting such situations,

need to be used in training and for helping teachers

overcome their lack of confidence.

Initiatives and Strategies for In-Service

Education

Following NPE 1986, efforts have been made to

develop institutions like DIETs, IASEs and CTEs for

providing in-service education to primary and

secondary schoolteachers; 500 DIETs, 87 CTEs, 38

IASEs, and 30 SCERTs, have been set up, although

many of them have yet to function as resource centres.

DPEP also brought in the block and cluster resource

centres and made in-service teacher education and

cluster-level schools as the follow-up for the main

strategies for pedagogic renewal. In spite of the

widespread efforts and specific geographical areas

which have shown improvements, by and large the

in-service inputs have not had any noticeable impact

on teacher practice.

A major indicator of quality of training is its

relevance to teachers\’ needs. But most such programmes

are not organised according to actual needs. The

approach adopted has remained lecture based, with

little opportunity for trainees to actively participate.

Ironically, concepts such as activity-based teaching,

classroom management of large classes, multigrade

teaching, team teaching, and cooperative and

collaborative learning, which require active

demonstration, are often taught through lectures.

School follow-up has also failed to take off, and

cluster-level meetings have not been able to develop

into professional fora for teachers to reflect and plan

together.

Any curriculum renewal effort needs to be

supported with a well thought-out and systematic

programme of in-service education and school-based

teacher support. In-service education cannot be an

event but rather is a process, which includes knowledge,

development and changes in attitudes, skills, disposition

and practice — through interactions both in workshop

settings and in the school. It does not consist only of

receiving knowledge from experts; promotion of

experiential learning, incorporating teachers as active

learners, and peer group-based review of practice can

also become a part of the overall strategy. Self-reflection

needs to be acknowledged as a vital component of

such programmes. A training policy needs to be worked

out, defining parameters such as the periodicity, context

and methodology of programmes. But efforts to

strengthen quality and ensure vibrant rather than

routinised interactions would require far more

decentralised planning with clarity on goals and methods

for training and transfer. \’Mass training using’ new

technologies may be of use in some aspects of training,

but much greater honesty and bold creativity are required

for addressing the concerns of practising teachers

directly, including the deprofessionalised environments

in which they work, their lack of agency, and their

alienation.

Dissemination technologies can serve to build a

positive ethos for curricular reforms if they are used

as sites of discussion and debates in which teachers,

training personnel and community members can

participate. Teachers require first-hand experience of

making programmes themselves in order to develop

an interest in the new technology. The availability of

computers and linkage facilities remains quite inadequate

in training institutes. This is one reason why the potential

of the new communication technology for changing

the ethos of schools and training institutions has

remained inadequately tapped.

Pre-service teacher educationas well as in-service training must

build the necessary orientation andcapacities in teachers so that they

can appreciate, understand and meet the challenges of the

curriculum framework. In-servicetraining, in particular, must be

situated within the context of theclassroom experiences of teachers.

DIETs, which have theresponsibility of organising such

training, should do so in a mannerin which both teachers and their

schools benefit from such training.For instance, instead of the ad hoc

manner in which teacher traineesare sent for in-service training by

the educational administration, itwould be better for a cluster of

schools to be identified and aminimum number of trainees (at

least two, to enable some peersharing and reflection) invited

from each school to participate inan in-service training programme.

DIETs, in coordination withBRCs, could identify the schools

for this purpose. In order that teaching time is not unduly

affected, and teacher trainees are able to make the link between

theory and practice, the mandatory days for training could be split up

over the course of the year to include on-site work in their own

classrooms as well.

Training could comprise a variety of activities in

addition to contact lectures and discussions in the teacher

training institutions and include workshops in schools

in the cluster, projects and other assignments for teachers

in their classrooms. To link pre-service and in-service

training, the same schools can become sites for preser

vice internship, and student teachers can be asked to

observe classroom transaction in these schools. This

could serve not only as feedback to teacher educators

for strengthening the training programme but can also

become the basis of critical reflection by teacher trainees

during the latter part of the training programme. To

take the process forward, there could be interactive

sessions with headmasters from the concerned schools

so that they can play the role of a facilitator in the

changes in classroom practices that the teacher trainees

may like to make. Systems for monitoring and feedback

must include SCERTs/DIETs /BRCs and CRCs so

that academic support can be envisaged in follow ups\’,

documentation and research.

Two and three quarters cheers for Dan Price

It would be really churlish to sing anything but the loudest praise for Dan Price. And yet this blogger is falling short of raising three cheers for him.

Dan Price is the CEO of a privately held small company called Gravity Payments with about 120 employees. About two weeks ago, he called all his employees for a huddle and told them that he was raising everybody\’s salary to $ 70,000 a year, because that will make a big difference to their lives and help them be happy. Simultaneously he also announced that he would cut his own salary from $1m to $ 70,000. Considering that the average salary in Gravity was $48,000, he certainly made 120 people very happy. To read more about this heartwarming story click here.

In a world of cynical CEOs, astronomical pay differences , of treating employees like (pallets, or worse, shit, ) this is a refreshingly good story. Mr Price must be commended for what is undoubtedly a noble act. He is a CEO with a difference, unlike the many who sometimes don\’t seem to belong to the species we normally understand as Homo Sapiens.

And yet …………… , this blogger, while praising Price\’s actions to the sky, thinks he is wrong to do this.

People who are employed, even in Walmart, actually have a good deal in today\’s world. They have a job. They earn a salary, which while seeming to be inadequate, is at least something. They have the government looking out for them in terms of labour legislation designed to ensure that they are treated fairly. They have the unions watching their back. Although they may not believe it, they actually are in a great position.

Consider the larger number of people who are unemployed. They have nothing. Nobody looks out for them. They are called scroungers and worse. Its damned difficult to get a job. Nobody who is not unemployed can understand the feelings of worthlessness, desperation and worse.

Mr Price – you have a heart and are a good man. If you had not raised anybody\’s salary, but instead employed 120 more people, you will deserve to be a saint in my books. Those who have a job should be paid fairly – I know that there will be a big dispute as to what constitutes fair pay, but pay them fairly by whatever standards you consider appropriate. But even more important, hire lots of people.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

At present, Vocational Education is provided only at

the +2 stage and, even here, it is restricted to a distinct

stream that is parallel to the academic stream. In

contrast to the NPE 1986 goal of covering 25 per cent

of the +2 enrolment in the vocational stream by the

year 2000, less than 5 per cent of students choose this

option at present. The programme has been debilitated

by a range of conceptual, managerial and resource

constraints for more than 25 years. Apart from being

viewed as an inferior stream, it suffers from poor

infrastructure, obsolete equipment, untrained or underqualified

teachers (often on a part-time basis), outdated

and inflexible courses, lac k of vertical or later al mobility,

absence of linkage with the ‘world of work’, lack of a

credible evaluation, accreditation and apprenticeship

system, and, finally, low employability (Report of the

Working Group for the Revision of the Centrally

Sponsored Scheme of Vocationalisation of Secondary

Education, NCERT, 1998)

. Clearly, the gigantic and

urgent task of building an effective and dynamic

programme of vocational education is long overdue.

Institutionalisation of work-centred education as an

integral part of the school curriculum from the preprimary

to the +2 stage is expected to lay the necessary

foundation for reconceptualising and restructuring

vocational education to meet the challenges of a

globalised economy.

It is proposed, therefore, that we move in a

phased manner towards a new programme of

Vocational Education and Training (VET), which is

conceived and implemented in a mission mode,

involving the establishment of separate VET centres

and institutions from the level of village clusters and

blocks to sub-divisional/ district towns and

metropolitan areas. Wherever possible, it would be in

the national interest to utilise the school infrastructure

(often utilised for only a part of the day) for setting up

this new institutional structure for VET. Such VET

centres/ institutions also need to be evolved in

collaboration with the nationwide spectrum of facilities

already existing in this sector. This will imply the

expansion of the scope of institutions like ITIs,

polytechnics, technical schools, Krishi Vigyan Kendras,

rural development agencies, primary health centres (and

their auxilliary services), engineering, agricultural and

medical colleges, S & T laboratories, cooperatives and

specialised industrial training in both the private and

public sectors. These measures would natur ally call for

shifting and adjusting the resources of the present

6,000 – odd senior secondary schools with vocational

streams by dovetailing them with the new VET

programme. The vocational education teachers engaged

in these schools at present should have the option of

either being absorbed in to the work-centred education

programme in the same school or being able join a

new VET centre or institution in the region.

VET would be designed for all those children

who wish to acquire additional skills and/or seek

livelihoods through vocational education after either

discontinuing or completing their school education.

Unlike the present vocational education stream, VET

should provide a ‘preferred and dignified’ choice rather

than a terminal or ‘last-resort’ option. As with the

school, these VET institutions would also be designed

to be inclusive, providing for skill development of not

just those children who have historically suffered due

to their economic, social or cultural backgrounds, but

also of the physically and mentally disabled. A

well-designed provision of career psychology and

counselling as a critical development tool would enable

children to systematically plan their movement towards

their future vocations or livelihoods, and also guide

the institutional leadership in curricular planning and

evaluation. The proposed VET shall offer flexible and

modular certificate or diploma courses of varying

durations (including short durations) emerging from

the contextual socio-economic scenario. Decentralised

planning of these courses at the level of individual VET

centres/ institutions and/or clusters thereof would have

to keep in mind the ongoing rapid changes in

technology and patterns of production and services in

a given area, along with the diminishing access to natural

resources and livelihoods for the vast majority of the

people. The courses would provide multiple entry and

exit points with in-built credit accumulation facility. Each

course will also have an adequate academic component

(or a provision for a bridge course or both) in order

to ensure lateral and vertical linkages with the academic

and professional programmes. The strength of a VET

centre would lie in its capacity to offer a variety of

options depending upon the felt need of the aspirants.

The VET curriculum should be reviewed and

updated from time to time if the programme is not to

become moribund and irrelevant to the vocations and

livelihoods in a given area or region. The centre

in-charges or institutional leadership would need to have

access to adequate infrastructure and resources as well

as be vested with the necessary authority and academic

freedom to establish ‘work benches’ (or ‘work places’

or ‘work spots’) in the neighbourhood or regional rural

crafts, agricultural or forest-based production systems

and industries and services, thereby utilising the available

human and material resources optimally. This

collaborative arrangement has three advantages. First,

the VET programme can be set up with minimum

capital investment. Second, the students would have

access to the latest techniques and technology that

become available in the area. Third, the students would

get on-the-job experience and exposure to real-life

problems of designing, production and marketing. For

this purpose, it should be made obligatory for all kinds

of facilities engaged in production and services such

as agriculture, forestry, private and public sector

industries (including cottage and small-scale

manufacturers) to collaborate with the schools in the

area by providing the required ‘work benches’ (or

‘work places’ or ‘work spots’), in the addition to

offering training and monitoring support.

The success of the VET programme is also

critically dependent upon building up a credible system

of evaluation, equivalence, institutional accreditation

(extending to ‘work benches’ and individual expertise)

and apprenticeship. Care has to be taken to ensure that

such standardisation does not become a negative tool

for rejecting/ disqualifying the diverse knowledge and

skills that characterise the different regions of India,

especially the economically underdeveloped regions like

the North-east, hilly tracts, the coastal belt and the central

Indian tribal region. An appropriate structural space

and a welcoming environment will have to be created

in the VET centres and institutions for engaging

farmers, animal husbandry, fishery and horticulture

specialists, artisans, mechanics, technicians, artists, and

other local service providers (inc luding IT) as resource

persons or guest faculty.

The eligibility for VET courses could be relaxed

to include a Class V certificate until the year 2010, when

the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is expected to achieve UEE,

but subsequently it must be raised to Class VIII

certificate and eventually to Class X certificate when

the target year of universal secondary education is

reached. In no case, however, would children below

the age of 16 years be eligible for admission to a VET

programme. VET centres could also act as skill and

hobby centres for all children from the primary stage

onwards, and could be accessed before or after school

hours. Such centres should also be available for schools

to negotiate a collaborative arrangement for the

work-centred curriculum even during school hours.

In order to translate this vision of VET into

practice, several new support structures and resource

institutions will have to be created at various levels,

including districts, states/ UTs and the centre, besides

strengthening and reviving the existing national resource

PRE-SERVICE AND IN SERVICE TRAINING FOR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

According to Kothari commission, a teacher who unlike an ordinary worker, acts as a master, crafts man, an artist, a strategist and a powerful motivator. The environs of a classroom are enlivened by the inspiring, dynamic, enthusiastic, encouraging, skillful and dedicated teacher. It is he who shapes the destiny of students and that of the future citizens who eventually shape the destiny of the country. Such a teacher only can successfully in culture among children values that strengthen the ideals of social justice, equity, secularism and pluralism.

By its very definition, a professional, including a teacher is a lifelong learner because of his association with scientific knowledge which keeps growing and so opportunities have to be afforded to ensure that he keeps learning and developing throughout his professional life. This is precisely the responsibility of teacher education system which is more than a mere combination of two of its major components i.e. pre-service teacher preparation and in-service education.

Professional preparation and professional development of teachers is a continuous process. It begins with the selection of an aspirant teacher and includes his initial preparation induction into the profession and his continuous development throughout his teaching carrier. The formulation of policy and design of teacher preparation and continuing professional development should optimally take into account the whole spectrum of teacher learning.

PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION, MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE

Pre-service education of teacher means, education of teachers before they enter into service as teacher. During this period of teacher education programmes, teaching practice goes side by side, while they are getting knowledge about theory papers.
A good deal of improvement in the teacher education programme is needed. Pre-service education is carried on for preparing different types of teachers. Pre-service teacher preparation is a collection of unrelated courses and field experience. Research based curriculum development of pre-service teacher education is yet to take roots. These programmes are intended to support and enhance teacher learning instill in them a greater degree of self confidence. The beginning teachers in this case learn from their practice and from the culture and norms of the unique school settings where in they have been placed and interact with these cultures.

It is important for teacher educators to learn the methodology of how to get in touch with the core qualities of a good teacher and how they can stimulate these qualities in student teachers. This will lead to a deeper involvement in the learning process of teacher educators as well as student teachers. The inclusion of appropriate content knowledge about essential qualities of a good teacher in relevant theory papers and practice of effective domain related traits in school situation for a longer duration could help promote these traits in student teachers. The teacher education programme needs to allow the space where in a teacher’s personality could be developed as someone who is reflective, introspective and capable of analyzing his or her own life and the process of education at school so that after becoming a teacher, he becomes an agent of change.

A. PRE-PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME.

Here teachers are trained for teaching children of pre-primary classes. This type of teacher training is generally called nursery teacher training (N.T.T). Teacher training institute of this type are existing in different states. At Mussorie, there is Montessori teacher training programme in one institution. That type of training institutes are affiliated to association Montessori international. There are pre-basic teacher training schools which prepare teachers for pre-primary schools. These institutes are recognized by Hindustani Falimi sangh, Wardha. Some state governments also conduct this type of teacher training programmes. The universities of Jabalpur and Baroda run pre-primary teacher training course leading to certificate. At Chandigarh education department U.T. Administration is running such a course which is duly recognized by U.T Administration. In the state of Haryana about two decades back Haryana government had given affiliation for running this course of teacher training to Sohan Lal D.A.V college of education, Ambala city. But then it was closed down by the government after the lapse of two-three years. At present a few schools and colleges of education in the state of Haryana are running one year N.T.T course meant for girls only who have qualified +2 examination. The said course is recognized by D.A.V college managing committee, New Delhi.

B. PRIMARY TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTES

Primary teacher training institutes prepare teachers for teaching to the children of primary courses. These institutes prepare the students for junior basic training certificate (J.B.T). This training has been very popular almost in all the states earlier this training was meant for male and female teachers who were matriculates. Recently some modifications have been made for giving training of J.B.T. After passing J.B.T the teacher is able to earn a teaching diploma. How the minimum qualification for training has been raised to 10+2 examination. In the states of Punjab and Haryana, this type of teacher training is sanctioned to government teacher training schools (or) district institute of education and training (D.I.E.T) with the revision of grades of all type of teachers, J.B.T training centers attract students of higher calibers and they possess higher qualifications

The National Commission of Teachers has recommended the introduction of integrated four year course for matriculates which will enable the teachers to earn teaching diploma for teaching primary classes

C. LANGUAGES PROFICIENCY TEACHERS

This type of teacher training programme prepares teachers for teaching Hindi, Punjabi and Sanskrit. This training is meant for those who are 10+2. It helps them to earn a teaching certificate called O.T (Hindi), O.T (Punjabi), O.T (Sanskrit)etc. This type of teacher training programme has been popular in government as well as non government institutes. At present, his course is being run in a very few institutes. The government has almost withdrawn its sanction to private recognized institutions.

D. COLLEGE OF EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY TEACHERS

Teacher training for secondary schools is given in the government as well as non-government colleges of education. These colleges prepare teachers for middle, high (or) secondary classes. Generally in these colleges it is one year course after B.A/B.Sc or M.A/M.Sc.

With the revision of grades of teachers, the college of education has started attracting students with good qualifications. In some states like Punjab , Rajasthan, entrance test have been introduced. In the state of Haryana, The minimum qualification for competing in the admission to B.Ed is 50% marks in B.A/B.Sc or M.A/M.Sc. Besides, entrance test is also held. Marks in both are added up and then merit list is prepared.

E. REGIONAL COLLEGES OF EDUCATION

N.C.E.R.T started its own regional colleges of education in four regions of the country to meet the shortage of teachers for technical subjects such as agriculture, commerce, fine arts, home science, etc. The different regional colleges of education are as under:-

(i) REGIONAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, AJMER:-

It is meant for U.P, Haryana, Delhi, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu Kashmir. (Northern region)

(ii) REGIONAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION. MYSORE:-

It is meant for south region which includes Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala.

(iii) REGIONAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, BHOPAL:-

It is meant for western states such as Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat

(iv) REGIONAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, BHUBNESWAR:-

It is meant for eastern states such as Assam, Manipur, Bihar, West Bengal and Tripura.

F. TRAINING INSTITUTIONS FOR SPECIAL SUBJECT TEACHERS:-

The following training institutions prepare special subject teachers such as music, drawing, painting, fine arts, home science, etc.

(a) Viswa Bharathi University, Santhinikethan (W.Bengal)

(b) Institute of Art education, Jumia mitia, Delhi.

(d) Kala kshetra, Adayar, Madras

(e) One year diploma in physical education for graduates at Govt: physical college of education, Patiala

G. INSTITUTE FOR POST GRADUATE TEACHER EDUCATION

A) ONE YEAR M.ED COURSE: – this course is meant for those who have already passed B.Ed. It is carried in the universities in some selected colleges of education.

B) M.A IN EDUCATION: – Like other M.A it is a two year course for graduates. It is generally run by different universities. M.A in education is considered equal to M.Ed.

Post graduate diploma in education, N.C.E.R.T, and some universities are running post graduate diploma courses for greater efficiency of teachers. A few such courses are in the field of research methodology, educational and vocational guidance evaluation, audio-visual aids, social education, distances education etc. These courses are mostly for teachers who have passed B.Ed.

Special courses for teaching English are conducted by control institute of English and foreign languages, Hyderabad and regional institute of English.

H. CORRESPONDENCE COURSE:-

Correspondence courses for teacher education have been started by some universities and colleges. The four regional colleges of education under N.C.E.R.T were the first to start this course. It is 14 month courses including four months training during two summer vacation.

H.P University, Simla started B.Ed and M.Ed courses in 1972. After one year, B.Ed courses through correspondence were stopped. Jammu University, the B.Ed correspondence course by Jammu University was meant only for in-service teachers. In south, Annamalai University is running B.Ed and M.Ed correspondence course. Punjab University, Patiala also started B.Ed and M.Ed correspondence courses. But new B.Ed by correspondence ion large scale is banned by N.C.T.E

IN-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION – MEANING

The moment a teacher has completed his training in a college of education, it does not mean that he is now trained for all times to come. A teaching degree, like B.Ed makes him enter into service as a teacher. Thereafter his job continues well only if he continues his studies everyday in the classroom situations and outside the classroom, he comes across problems and side by side he is a expected to sort them out. There is need of more and more knowledge, more and more education for making him a better teacher.

There are formal an informal programmes of in-service education organized from time to time. The higher authorities concerned with education want to ensure that the standards of education are properly maintained. That is possible only if the teachers refresh their knowledge and keep it up to the mark. The different agencies, therefore keep on organizing teacher education programmes for enriching the knowledge of teachers and also for over all proficiency and betterment.

According to Lawrence, “In-service education is the education a teacher receives after he has entered to teaching profession and after he has had his education in a teacher’s college. It includes all the programmes – educational, social and others in which the teacher takes a virtual part, all the extra education which he receives at different institutions by way of refresher and other professional courses and travels and visits which he undertakes.

HISTORY OF IN-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

In-service education and training of teachers has its own historical roots. Its journey from pre-independence to post independence period is characterized by numerous policy statements recommendations of different commissions regarding its content and strategies for implementation it has grown from a concept to a process and gained its importance for preparing teachers towards professional growth and development. The root of in-service education can be traced back to pre-independent period of 1904 in Lord Curzon’s resolution of educational policy which stated, “The trained students whom the college was sent out should be occasionally brought together again in seeing that the influence of the college makes itself felt in the school.” Hartorg committee and sergeant committee referred to in-service education as refresher courses and recommended for their organization on a continuing basis. The secondary education commission was more specific in recommending the programme of extension services for secondary teachers.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF IN-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

In our country, the trend is that once a teacher has joined service as a teacher, he continues to be so, through he may or may not study. It is not like that in countries like U.S.A. There the teacher has to face the screening committee to his re-appointment as a teacher after two or three years. In-service education is badly needed for all types of teachers in India. The following points indicate its need and importance.

1. EDUCATION- A LIFELONG PROCESS:-

The teacher who does not study side by side can’t remain a good teacher. Training of a teacher is a lifelong process. He should continue making efforts in this direction for the whole life. Rabindra Nath Tagore has rightly stated, “A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its flame. “ According to secondary education commission “However, excellent the programme of teacher training may be, it does not by itself produce an excellent teacher. Increased efficiency will come through experience critically analyzed and through individual and group effort and improvement.

2. PROFESSIONAL GROWTH:-

Every teacher is a expected to be professionally bound, for the professional growth, he always needs the guidance and help of others. The efficiency of the teachers must be covered up. So the teacher need be up to the mark in every way.

3. EDUCATION IS DYNAMIC:-

Education is very dynamic. It depends upon the society which is fast changing. Due to the advancement in the field of science and technology, there is explosion of knowledge. Accordingly the curriculum and syllabus are also being changed with a good speed. Continuous in-service education of the teacher can save the teacher from facing dire consequences.

4. MAKES DEMOCRATIC

In-service education helps the teacher in becoming fully democratic. By in-service education programmes, the teacher is able to meet people of all types and he is also able to share his experience with others.

PROGRAMMES OF IN-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

SEMINAR– In a seminar some problems of education are taken up and there is collective thinking. Discussions are held and conclusions are arrived at all under the guidance of some experts.

REFRESHER COURSES: – A refresher course means an educational programme organized for refreshing the knowledge of in-service teacher. Generally they acquire the teachers with the new development in the field of education. With the coming up of new education policy, refresher courses were arranged all around for teachers of different categories.

WORKSHOPS: – Workshops are organized for giving in-service education to teachers. They involve more of practical work and less theoretical discussion. These types of programmes are more useful for the teachers. The teachers have to work practically and come out with final materials to be seen by others. Organization of workshops consumes more time than a seminar or conference.

CONFERENCE: – In a conference, there is a broad discussion of subjects of practical interest. Generally there is a central theme around which several sub topics are given. Teachers as per their interest, present paper at the time of conference. The session ends with the concluding remarks of the president

STUDY GROUPS: – Forming study groups and using them as a technique for in-service education for teachers can work wonders. A group of teachers of the same subject and a subject expert in the college of education are combined and start working. They choose some topics of common interest (or) it may be a problem related to their teaching subject. Discussion is started under guidance and they continue thinking, studying and discussing that subject. If need arises, someone may be invited for extension lecture. The study groups may be meeting once in a week or even once in a month.

A STUDY CENTRE OF PROFESSIONAL WRITINGS: – Generally the materials are not under the reach of teachers. The college of education, the extension service departments can help in this direction. Various publications of N.C.E.R.T, some good books, materials produced by different centers of education may be produced in the college library. The study of reading materials will help the teacher to acquire sufficient knowledge in their subjects.

EXPERIMENTAL SCHOOLS: – The College of education should have their demonstration school and experimental school. These are actually practicing schools where some experiences can be performed. Whatever is taught in theory, which is put into practice by carrying out experiments?

The experimental schools become centers of learning for in-service teachers. Innovations done in these schools may be advocated among the teaching staffs of other schools.

Regional colleges of education affiliated to N.C.E.R.T have their experimental schools where those colleges are showing leadership to the working teachers of other schools in their areas. Other colleges have their practicing schools but they don’t have any experimental schools or demonstration schools.

CORRESPONDENCECOURSES:

Correspondence courses can be designed for giving in-service education to teachers. A few universities have already started working in the area of in-service teacher education programmes. Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages at Hyderabad provides post graduate certificate course and diploma course through correspondence.

OTHER PROGRAMMES: – A few programmes for in-service education of teachers are suggested below:-

· Educational tours

· Radio broadcast

· Film shows

· T.V programmes

· Extension lecture for teachers

· Exhibitions

· Exchange of teachers

PROVISION OF IN-SERVICE EDUCATION: – Different institutions are functioning where there is a provision of in-service education of teachers. Some of them are doing commendable work in this field.

STATE INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION (SIE):- In different states, SIE have been set up which cater to the need of in-service education only. They organize seminars, workshops, etc.

STATE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE: – In some states, they have set up institutes for in-service education of science teachers. They make efforts for developing scientific attitudes among the teachers. Science exhibitions are also conducted there which attract large number of children from the state. Thus it’s a great source of inspiration for teachers and their students.

REGIONAL INSTITUTE OF ENGLISH: –

Regional institute of English has been set up in different regions of the country. They have their affiliation with Central Institute of English and Foreign languages; Hyderabad. These institutes impact four month certificate course in teaching English to in-service teachers. The institutes gives scholarship to the trainees and the teachers are paid full salary by the schools were they are employed. These institutes are working for efficiency and improvement of English teachers

CONCLUSION

“Good education requires good teachers” that it becomes essential that the most capable and appropriate be recruited into the teaching profession, provided with high quality pre-service programme of teacher education, and them offered opportunities to upgrade their knowledge and skills over the full length of their career. It is, therefore, essential that there is major reorientation of teacher education to ensure that teachers are furnished with the necessary knowledge and skills to cope with the new demands placed on them. It is strange to note that too often teachers are helpless in front of machines which refuse to work. How undignified it is for the teacher to be thwarted by machines

With the increased capacity of communication technology, language will become a very powerful instrument. The teacher-education programme should be strengthened to develop language competency among our teacher-taught. The modern time demands multi lingual competence including the new computer languages that are bound to emerge with expansion of computer-technology.

Continuing teachers and other educators which commences after initial professional education is over and which leads to the improvement of professional competence of educators all throughout their careers.

VEDIC EDUCATION -GURUKULA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

The education system which was evolved first in ancient India is known

as the Vedic system of education. In other words, the ancient systems of

education were based on the Vedas and therefore it was given the name

of Vedic Educational System. Ancient education emerged from the Vedas.

They are supposed to be the source of Indian philosophy of life. Vedas

means ‘to know’.

Vedas occupy a very important place in the Indian life. The basis of Indian

culture lies in the Vedas which are four in number – Rigveda, Samveda,

Yajurveda, and Atharavaveda.

Some scholars have sub divided Vedic Educational period into

Rig Veda period, Brahmani period, Upanishada period, Sutra (Hymn)

period, Smriti period etc but all these period, due to predominance of the

Vedas, there was no change in the aims and ideals of educations. That is

why, the education of these periods, is studied under Vedic period. The

education system that prevailed during the Vedic times had some unique

characteristics. Education was confined to the upper castes, and to those

who were Brahmacharis. In Indian tradition, a person’s life cycle is divided

into four stages of which ‘Brahmacharis’ is the second phase. This is the

time set aside for learning and acquiring skills. During Vedic period, most

of the upper castes, which were either Brahmins or Kshatriyas, had their

education in a unique system called ‘Gurukulas’.

The most important contribution of ancient India not only for

India but also for the world is in the field of education. It may also be

remembered that education is not an abstract term. It is manifested in the

cultural economic, individual, philosophical, scientific, social and spiritual

advancement. In other words, education is the means for developing the

mind for the betterment of the individual and society.

In the words of Albert Einstein, “We owe a lot to the Indians who taught us

how to count without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have

made.” This word shows the importance of Vedic period and ancient Indian

education.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE VEDIC EDUCATION

In ancient India teaching was considered to be holy duty which

a Brahman was bound to discharge irrespective of consideration of the

fee teacher were expected to devote their lives to the cause of teaching

in the missionary spirit of self-sacrifice, and the society laid down the

principal that both the public and state should help the learned teachers &

educational institutions very liberally. Society realized that “Vidyadana” or

the gift in the cause of education was to be the best of gifts, possessing

a higher religious merit than even the gift of land. On the occasion of

religious feats, students and teachers were invited and donations were

given liberally.

1. Immediate aim:

The important aims of education in Vedic period are:

∗ Education for other world lines.

∗ Character formation.

∗ All round development for Personality.

∗ Intellectual Development

∗ Spiritual Development

∗ Preparation for living

∗ Preserving and Transmitting Culture

∗ Education only a means and not an end in itself.

2. Curriculum

1. Vedic Literature:

• The Rig-Veda.

• The Yajurveda.

• The Sam Veda

• The Atharavaveda

2. Vedangas.

3. Hetuvidya.

4. Silpa- vidya.

5. Physical Education.

6. Stress on other worldliness.

3. Methods of Instruction:

The important methods of learning are:

• Listening (Sravana is listening to words texts as they uttered by

the teacher.

• Deliberation (Manana or Chintan is the process of deliberation or

reflection of the topic taught.)

• Meditation (Nidhidhyarama represents the highest stage.).

• Illustration

• Project Method

4. Duration of Education

In the house of the teacher, the student was required to obtain education

upto the age of 24, after which he was expected to enter domestic life.

Students were divided into three categories:

(a) Those obtaining education upto the age of 24-Vasu.

(b) Those obtaining education upto the age of 36-Rudra.

(c) Those obtaining education upto the age of 48-Aaditya.

5. Role of Teacher

The teacher or acarya in the Vedic age was responsible not only in

imparting knowledge – religious as well as secular, but also in molding the

character and personality of the pupils of his asrama. The acarya of the

gurukula system was an affectionate father, an effective teacher, and a

person of high moral and spiritual qualities. He maintained discipline by

the influence of his personality. He was sincere and honest to his work.

He taught with his heart and soul. He also performed the functions of a

householder performing the five daily yajnas and observing vows. He led a

disciplined life.

6. Role of Mother in Education

A mother should impart education to her children so as to broaden their

horizon. At this stage good manners are to be taught so that the children

behave properly with the elders and in assemblies.

7. The Student

The student in the Vedic school was called brahmacarin. He had to

dedicate his life for the sake of gaining knowledge, leading an enlightened

life. In his formative life he must lead an austere and disciplined life. The

Upanishads clearly describe the qualities required for a brahmacarin. A

student had to be calm, patient, self-restrained and self-denying. The

student’s prayer included his longing for the realization of a full life. Thus

the main aim of the Vedic educational system was to produce a rational

individual, free from passions, full of universal affection, continuously selfeducating and striving to reach the highest goal.

7. Female Education

During the Vedic age women were given full status with men. For girls

also the Upanayan (initiation ceremony) was performed and after that

their education began. They were also required to lead a life of celibacy

during education. They used to study the Vedas and other religious

and philosophy books; they were free to participate in religious and

philosophical discourses. Many ‘Sanhitas’ of Rigveda were composed by

women. In Gurukulas the gurus treated male and female pupils alike and

made no distinction what-so-ever.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VEDIC EDUCATION

The important characteristics of Vedic education are:

• Vedas are the eldest World Literature.

• Suitable age of education.

• Rig-Veda is the mirror of Ancient Indian culture and

civilization.

• Perfection in Education.

• The main aim of Vedic education was to liberate the soul from

worldly bondages.

• Equal rights to education for all.

• Ideal of teacher.

• Education standard in the family.

• Equal opportunity to gain education.

• Sanskrit as the Medium of Instruction.

• Education is through travel.

AGENCIES OF VEDIC EDUCATION

There are three agencies of education:-

v Guru Kula

v Parishad

v Sammelan.

1. Gurukulas

Gurukulas were the dwelling houses of gurus situated in natural

surroundings away from noise and bustle of cities. Parents sent their

wards at the age of five years to nine years according to their castes after

celebrating their Upanayan Sanskar. Pupils lived under the roof of their

guru called ‘antevasin’ under the direct supervision of their Guru.

Gurukula as the name indicates was the family of the teacher and

his residence where the students used to stay during the period of study.

Gradually, the Gurukula were extended to include a number of buildings.

However the institution was built up around the family of teacher. The

primary duty of the student was to serve the teacher and his family. The

students were like sons of the teacher and the whole institution lived like

family.

2. Parishads

Parishads were bigger educational institutions where several teachers

used to teach different subjects. This may be compared to a college

Parishad in Upanishads, has been used for a conference of learned

men, assembled for deliberations upon philosophical problems. Later
on the ‘Parishads’ were set up at the places where learned men lived in

good number and gradually these institutions became permanent centres

of imparting knowledge. In the words of Dr. R. K. Mukherjee Parishad

correspondences to University of students belonging to different colleges.

3. Sammelan

Sammelan literally means getting together for a particular purpose. In this

type of educational institutions scholars gathered at one place for learned

discussions and competitions generally on the invitation of the king.

Scholars were appropriately rewarded.

CONCLUSION

In Vedic era education had the prominent place in society. It was

considered as pious and important for society. Vedic age had, thus, a

system of education in which “hearing, chanting and memorizing, played

a great part, assimilation of idea took place through a well- planned life of

service to teacher, contemplation, all under his guidance. Education was

must for everybody for becoming cultured. Education was the fully capable

of development of physical and intellectual and character development,

development of civis, social, moral, and spiritual values, social efficiency

and happiness, preservation and spread of culture, infusion of piety, and

religiousness and development of best type of personality. Relationship

between Guru and pupils were very cordial during Vedic and Post-

Vedic period. By means of education efforts were being made to infuse

―Satyam Shivam and Sundaram inside the students. A great importance

was attached to Veda in education system, self study Swadhyaya was

considered more important during that period. The Vedic period favoured

women education.

IMPLICATIONS OF PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

One of the most important schools of philosophy of education is pragmatism. Pragmatism stands between idealism and materialism a sort of compromise. Its origin can be traced from the Sophists philosophers of ancient Greece who held that man is the measure of all things.

The term pragmatism derives its origin from a Greek word meaning to do, to make, to accomplish. So the use of words likes ‘action’ or ‘practice’ or ‘activity’. Action gets priority over thought. Experience is at the centre of the universe. Everyone is tested on the touch-stone of experience. Beliefs and ideas are true if they are workable and profitable otherwise false. Will Durant sums up pragmatism as the doctrine that truth is the practical efficiency of an idea. It follows there from that pragmatism is not a philosophy but a method–the method of experimentation. As a basis for school practice pragmatism opposes pre-determined and pre-ordained objectives and curriculums. The past of the pragmatist is dead.

Values are instrumental only. There are no final or fixed values. They are evolved and are not true for all times and for all situations. According to an undeviating standard of worth, pragmatism tends to be individualistic, selfish; has no values; has no ethics and is thus superficial.

FORMS OF PRAGMATISM

1. HUMANISTIC PRAGMATISM–

This type of pragmatism is particularly found in social sciences. According to it the satisfaction of human nature is the criterion of utility. In philosophy, in religion and even in science man is the aim of all thinking and everything else is a means to achieve human satisfaction.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PRAGMATISM–

Modern science is based upon experimental method. The fact that can be ascertained by experiment is true. No truth is final, truth is known only to the extent it is useful in practice. The pragmatists use this criterion of truth in every field of life. The human problems can be solved only through experiment.

3. NOMINALISTIC PRAGMATISM-

When we make any experiment we attend to the result. Our aim is examination of the material. Some hypothesis about the results invariably precedes every experiment. According to nominalistic pragmatism, the results of an experiment are always particular and concrete, never general and abstract.

4. BIOLOGICAL PRAGMATISM-

Experimentalism of John Dewey is based upon this biological pragmatism according to which the ultimate aim of all knowledge is harmony of the man with the environment. Education develops social skill which facilitates one’s life. The school is a miniature society which prepares the child for future life.

PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATISM

1. PLURALISM-

Philosophically, the pragmatists are pluralists. According to them there are as many words as human beings. The ultimate reality is not one but many. Everyone searches truth and aim of life according to his experiences.

2. EMPHASIS ON CHANGE-

The pragmatists emphasize change. The world is a process, a constant flux. Truth is always in the making. The world is ever progressing and evolving. Therefore, everything here is changing.

3. UTILITARIANISM–

Pragmatists are utility is the test of all truth and reality. A useful principle is true. Utility means fulfillment of human purposes. The results decide the good and evil of anything, idea, beliefs and acts. Utility means satisfaction of human needs.

4. CHANGING AIM AND VALUES–

The aim and values of life change in different times and climes. The old aims and values, therefore, cannot be accepted as they are. Human life and the world is a laboratory in which the aims and values are developed.

5. INDIVIDUALISM–

Pragmatists are individualists. They put maximum premium upon freedom in human life. Liberty goes with equality and fraternity. Everyone should adjust to his environment.

6. EMPHASIS ON SOCIAL ASPECTS–

Since man is a social animal therefore, he develops in social circumstances. His success is success in society. The aim of education is to make him successful by developing his social personality.

7. EXPERIMENTALISM–

Pragmatists are experimentalists. They give more importance to action than ideas. Activity is the means to attain the end of knowledge. Therefore, one should learn by doing constant experimentation which is required in every field of life.

PRAGMATISM AND EDUCATIVE PROCESS

Activity lies at the centre of all educative process. The basis of all teaching is the activity of the child, says Foster. Every continuous- experience or activity is educative and all education, is fact, resides in having such experience. But continuous growth in experience is not the whole education. Education is something more. It is a constant reorganizing or reconstructing of experience. Pragmatism approaches the problems of education from the ‘progressivits’ view point “progress implies change. Change further implies novelty”, so education cannot be conceived of as acquired once for all. Problem solving is at the core of all education. The educative process thus becomes empirical, experimental, and piecemeal: in a word pragmatic.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

1. EDUCATION AS LIFE-

Pragmatists firmly believe that old and traditional education is dead and lifeless. Education is a continuous re-organizing, reconstructing and integrating the experience and activities of race. They want to conserve the worthwhile culture of the past, think out the solutions to meet the new situations and then integrate the two. Real knowledge can be gained only be activity, experiments and real life experiences.

2. EDUCATION AS GROWTH-

Thus education will be useful if it brings about the growth and development of the individual as well as the society in which he lives. Education is meant for the child and child is not meant for education and child is not empty bottle to be filled up by outside knowledge. Each child is born with inherent capacities, tendencies and aptitudes which are drawn out and developed by education. One of the aims of education is to develop all the inherent capacities of the child to the fullest extent.

3. EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL PROCESS-

To pragmatism, man is a social being. He gains more and more knowledge through personal experiences than he gets from books. According to pragmatism, the education of the child should be through the medium of society so that develops in him socially desirable qualities which promote his welfare and happiness. John Dewey rightly speaks out – Education is the social continuity of life.

4. EDUCATION A CONTINUOUS RESTRUCTURING OF EXPERIENCE-

Education is a process of development. Knowledge is gained by experiences and experiments, conducted by the learner himself. One exercise leads to another and so on and the area of knowledge is widened by the child. The process of reconstruction of experience goes on and leads to adjustment and development of personality. For pragmatists educational process has no end beyond itself. In addition to the individual it is continuous reorganizing restructuring and integrating the experience and activities of the race.

5. EDUCATION THE RESPONSIBILITY OF STATE-

Education is the birth right of each individual and may not be within the right of the individual, so the state should shoulder the responsibility. The refusal of the state to do so may not lead the nation to suffering. It is for the state to make the child capable and confident to meet the problems and challenges of life successfully.

AIMS AND PRAGMATISM

Pragmatists do not believe in any pre-conceived aims of education. Aims cannot be conceived of as final, fixed and immutable. Aims arise out of the ongoing experience and should lie wholly within the child’s experience. Living as we do, in a changing world with an uncertain and shifting future, human experience is prone to change. And so the need to reshape our aims to meet the needs of such a dynamic environment as ours has become where the invention of every machine means a new social revolution. So it has been said that education has no aims. “Continuing education “, says a UNESCO booklet, “has become a necessity in almost every field of life from housekeeping to atomics”. Education is a lifelong process and not as something to discipline the recalcitrant person in to conformity with the pre-existing truth. The pupil should be able to, as they say, ’thing through’ the problems. Education for Dewey is a process of individual growth and development. But “growth itself“, says Brubacher “has no end beyond further growth”. In other words, he goes on to say “education is its own end”. Education means more education.

PRAGMATISM AND CURRICULUM

In the field of curriculum development, the following principles have been prescribed by pragmatists.

1. PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY-

According to this principle, only those subjects, activities and experiences should be included in the curriculum which are useful to the present needs of the child and also meet the future expectations of adult life as well. As such Language, physical well-being, physical training, Geography, History, Science, Agriculture and Home science for girls should be included in the curriculum.

2. PRINCIPLE OF INTEREST-

According to this principle, only those activities and experiences where in the child takes interest should be included in the curriculum. According to John Dewey these interests are of four varieties namely- (1) interest in conversation, (2) interest in investigation, (3) interest in construction and (4) interest in creative expression. Keeping these varieties of interests in view, at the primary stage, the curriculum should included Reading, Writing, Counting, Art, Craft-work, Natural science and other practical work of simple nature.

3. PRINCIPLE OF EXPERIENCE-

The third principle of pragmatic curriculum is the child’s activity, vocation and experience. All these three should be closely integrated. The curriculum should consist of such varieties of learning experiences which promote original thinking and freedom to develop social and purposeful attitudes.

4. PRINCIPLE OF INTEGRATION-

Pragmatic curriculum deals with the integration of subjects and activities. According to pragmatism knowledge is one unit. Pragmatists want to construct flexible, dynamic and integrated curriculum which aids the developing child and the changing society more and more as the needs, demands and situation require.

PRAGMATISM AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The whole emphasis of method of teaching in pragmatism is on child, not the book, or the teacher or the subject. The dominant interest of the child is “to do and to make”. The method should be flexible and dynamic. It must be adaptable and modifiable to suit the nature of the subject matter and potentiality of the students. The pragmatist’s curriculum provides for creative and purposeful activities in the teaching- learning process. Pragmatists regard school is a’ miniature of society’ where child gets real experiences to act and behave according to his interests, aptitudes and capacities.

Project method is a contribution of pragmatist philosophy in education. According to Kilpatrick “a project is a whole hearted purposeful activity carried out in a social environment”. The child learns by doing says John Dewey. All learning must come as a product of action. Learning by doing makes a person creative, confident and co-operative. They also emphasize the discovery and enquiry methods. The method like problem solving, play-way, experimental and laboratory techniques which follow the principle of learning by doing can be used according to pragmatic view.

TEACHER

Pragmatism regards teacher as a helper, guide and philosopher. The chief function of pragmatic teacher is to suggest problems to his pupils and to stimulate them to find by themselves, the solutions, which will work. The teacher must provide opportunities for the natural development of innate qualities of children. His main task is to suggest problems to his pupils and to guide them to find out solutions.

DISCIPLINE

To utilize the interest of the pupil is the basis of discipline here. The teacher and pupils attack a problem jointly. Teacher’s role is that of a guide and a director; it is the pupil who acts, learning this becomes a cooperative venture- a joint enterprise. Pursuit of common purposes enforces it own order. Education becomes a social process of sharing between the members of the various groups and all are equal partners in the process. That is no rewards also there are no placing for the martinet so any punishments. The discipline proceeds from the life of the school as a whole.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF PRAGMATISM TO EDUCATION

· Pragmatism provides definite aims of education. The student is prepared to live in society and learn skills and attitudes. Which are required of him to live as a useful member of society?

· The teaching methods are based on learning by doing. The project method is the contribution of pragmatism to modern education.

· Pragmatism encourages a democratic way of learning through purposeful and cooperative projects and activities.

· Utility in the educative process is the first criterion. The school is expected to provide learning and experiences that are useful.

· Education is not bound to tradition. Pragmatic philosophers advise us to test everything through our own experience.

· The teacher has to play a very challenging role in the educative process under pragmatism and he has to be very alert and watchful.

DEMERITS OF PRAGMATISM

1. OPPOSITION TO ETERNAL TRUTHS

Pragmatism is opposed to pre-determined truth. According to it, truth changes according to a change in circumstances, times and places and is created by the consequences of our actions and experiences. Pragmatists hold that if the results of an activity are satisfying, then it is true otherwise not.

2. OPPOSITION OF PRE-DETERMINED IDEAS AND VALUES-

This emphasizes that ideals and values are man-made and change according to changes in circumstances, times and places. But all noble things have entered into this human world by the efforts of those great persons who were inspired by the great ideals namely- truth, beauty and goodness.

3. NO PRE-DETERMINED AIMS OF EDUCATION

There are no set and pre determined aims of education as well. In the absence of definite aims of education, all educational plans and efforts may go astray and achieve nothing.

4. NEGATIONS OF SPIRITUAL VALUES-

Pragmatists deny the existence of spiritual values. Negligence of spiritual value is a great blunder. Without developing spiritual values achieving human welfare, peace and satisfaction is simply to cry for the moon.

5. OPPOSITION OF INTELLECTUALITY-

Pragmatists believe that a man’s intelligence is subservient to his innate tendencies. This makes him only an animal.

6. NEGATION OF POST

Agmatists, emphasizing only the present and future, and neglects the past. Without the knowledge of past one cannot understand the present and without knowing the present thoroughly nothing can be predicted for the future.

7. DIFFICULTY IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF CURRICULUM

Pragmatism emphasize that all knowledge is to be gained from experiences of life. Selecting a project and construction of curriculum to gain all knowledge from life experiences is very difficult.

8. PRAGMATISM IS A METHOD ONLY

Unlike other philosophical doctrines, pragmatism does not lay down any aims, ideals and values of life to be pursued by human beings. Hence, pragmatism cannot be termed as a philosophy of life.

MERITS OF PRAGMATISM

1. CONSTRUCTION OF PROJECT METHOD

In the field of methods of teaching, pragmatism has given birth to project method. This method, a child indulging in various creative activities, is able to solve many problems which cater to his natural progress and development.

2. IMPORTANCE OF CHILD-

Opposing bookish knowledge and formal education, pragmatism lays great stress upon the development of child’s individuality by his own efforts.

3. EMPHASIS ON ACTIVITY

Pragmatism emphasizes upon activity. The principle of learning by doing is the main contribution of pragmatism

4. FAITH IN APPLIED LIFE-

Pragmatism emphasizes the practical life of child. Pragmatic education prepares the child for future life in a very effective manner.

5. SOCIAL AND DEMOCRATIC EDUCATION-

Pragmatism develops in the child love for democratic values and social efficiency which bring harmonious adjustment and development of personality.

6. INFUSION OF NEW LIFE IN EDUCATION-

Pragmatism has revolutionized the process of education to a very great extent. This has infused a new life and zest in education.

CONCLUSION

The foregoing discussion shows that pupil’s immediate experiences, felt needs and purposes play a prominent part in the determination of educational programmes and policies. This confirms the faith in the worth and improvability of individuals. Pragmatism puts emphasis on free flow of ideas, spirit of inquiry of investigation and discussion. Pragmatism upholds the supreme value of man and prescribes freedom of thinking, experimenting and experiencing for him. Not only this, it lays emphasis upon flexibility, utility and adjustment in all fields of human activity promoting the continuous development of individual and society to the fullest extent.

Pragmatic philosophy is a practical philosophy, having no fixed or absolute standards. Man always creates new values and education should help him in doing so. Being practical and utilitarian school of philosophy, pragmatism has influenced education to the maximum extent. It has tried overcoming the limitations of other schools like idealism and naturalism and has influenced world in a great deal

This blog turns to politics

On October 18th, or immediately thereafter, a small line of people will walk in into the Great Hall of the People in Tiananmen Square. That will be the new Standing Committee headed by Xi Jinping. And at that time the world shall know what has happened to the \”elections\” in China. The stunning fact is that very few people in the world seem to even know about one of the most momentous events in world politics. Very little has been written about it in the world press and almost nothing has made it to TV. Not even the significant Beidaihe retreat that happened in August.

All this at a time when many people in the world seem addicted to the nonsense that a certain person spews sitting on his toilet seat. The lack of interest in what is happening in China is, to this blogger, unbelievable. Perhaps unfamiliarity is the reason. And hence this blogger is breaking his vow to keep this blog completely apolitical and is launching into a series of posts on what is happening in China.

I begin with a small primer on the current Chinese political system. The Communist Party of China (CPC) is the apex body in China. The government is subservient to the Party. Even the People\’s Liberation Army is not the army of China; its the army of the Party. Therefore what happens in the Party is of prime (only) importance in the politics of China.

The apex decision making body in the CPC is the Politburo, currently consisting of 25 members. Consider it as the Cabinet. From amongst these, an elite group forms the Standing Committee of the Politburo. Currently it has 7 members. This is the all powerful body.

When Mao Zedong established the Party, and for as long as he ruled China, all these institutions were irrelevant. Mao was the sole power centre. But when he died and the dangers of concentrating so much power in one man became apparent, the party elders led by Deng Xiaoping, established some rules and norms for the politics of the future. Thus far they have been adhered to. They are

The principle of retirement . The unofficial term is \”qishang baxia\” or \”Seven up; Eight down\”. The unwritten rule is that if you reach 68 at the CPC Congress meeting which is held once every five years (think of it as election year), you step down and retire. 5 of the 7 members of the Standing Committee and 11 of the 25 members of the Politburo have crossed 68.

The General Secretary and the Premier usually serve for two terms – 10 years – and then stand down. The current incumbents are finishing their first term and can therefore continue for one more term.

An all powerful single power centre , a la Mao, was never allowed to happen post his death. Even Deng was not all powerful – he had an equivalent power centre in Chen Yun. Factions abound ; the Shanghai faction, the Youth League, etc. These factions and their powerful overlords jockey for power behind closed doors. Retired leaders don\’t keep quiet – they exercise power by placing their underlings on these bodies.
The norm in China is for leadership changes to happen with great turmoil, purges and the like. Only two peaceful transitions have ever happened – the handover from Jiang Zemin to Hu Jintao and from Hu Jintao to Xi Jinping. Even the transition from Hu Jintao saw the dramatic fall and subsequent imprisonment of Bo Xilai.
There are three powerful positions in China – The President of China (a mere titular position), the Secretary of the Communist Party (the real powerful position) and the chairmanship of the Central Military Commission that governs the armed forces. Currently all these three positions are held by Xi Jinping. That was the case with Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao as well, but in the Deng era, he was simply the Chairman of the CMC and the other positions were held by his chosen people. A fourth, and less powerful position is that of the Premier – currently held by Li Keqiang and is the No 2 position in China.
Every year in the summer, the power brokers in China retire to a coastal town called Beidaihe , where all the skullduggery, bargaining and negotiations happen. Each faction tries to get its people on to the Politburo and the Standing Committee. Usually most of the big decisions are made here on the beach behind thick closed doors. This is the real \”election\” in China. The Beidaihe meeting happened last month and this blogger is mystified that not only have there been very little leaks, there has been scant reporting in the press as well. Next to the US elections, this is the most important political activity in the world. And we don\’t hear even a squeak.
In the last two peaceful transitions, at the end of the first of the two terms of the incumbent leaders, the top of the subsequent generation is usually nominated to the Standing Committee. This gives the clue as to who would subsequently take over as leaders. If the past 20 years is a guide, then this should happen in the current change and the successor to Xi Jinping who would take over 5 years from now, would at least be indicated. But as we would see in subsequent posts, there is a good chance that this won\’t happen.

In the next post, we will assess the current political landscape and who are the power brokers in China.

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