Tag: Historical figures

James Baldwin: Empowerment Through Words

James Baldwin was an American essayist, novelist, and playwright whose eloquence and passion on the subject of race in America made him an important voice, particularly in the late 1950s and early 1960s, in the USA and throughout much of western Europe. One of the 20th century’s greatest writers, Baldwin broke new literary ground with the exploration of racial and social issues in his many works. He was especially known for his essays on the Black experience in America. In light of recent incidents in America, with the killing of George Floyd and all the violence against black people, James Baldwin’s literary works have resurfaced and remain relevant even today. Unfortunately, the violence seen in America decades ago is still in existence, and Baldwins works brings these matters to light.

Early Years

James Baldwin was born the illegitimate son of Emma Jones on August 2, 1924, in Harlem, New York. When he was three, his mother married the Reverend David Baldwin, a fire and brimstone lay preacher who legally adopted James. Despite their strained relationship, Baldwin followed in his stepfather’s footsteps and served as a youth minister in a Harlem Pentecostal church from the ages of 14 to 16. He developed a passion for reading at an early age and demonstrated a gift for writing during his school years. Baldwin published numerous poems, short stories and plays in the magazine, and his early work showed an understanding for sophisticated literary devices in a writer of such a young age. After graduating from high school in 1942, he had to put his plans for college on hold to help support his family, which included seven younger siblings. He took whatever work he could find, including laying railroad tracks for the U.S. Army in New Jersey.

During this time, Baldwin frequently encountered discrimination, being turned away from restaurants, bars and other establishments because he was an African-American. After being fired from the New Jersey job, Baldwin sought other work and struggled to make ends meet.

Aspiring Writer

James Baldwin started devoting his time to write a novel, trying to fulfil his dream of becoming a writer. Eventually he befriended writer Richard Wright, through whom he was able to land a fellowship in 1945 to cover his expenses. Baldwin started getting essays and short stories published in such national periodicals as The Nation, Partisan Review and Commentary.

Three years later, Baldwin made a dramatic change in his life and moved to Paris on another fellowship. The shift in location freed Baldwin to write more about his personal and racial background. He once told the New York Times; “Once I found myself on the other side of the ocean, I see where I came from very clearly…I am the grandson of a slave, and I am a writer. I must deal with both,” The move marked the beginning of his life as a “transatlantic commuter,” dividing his time between France and the United States.

Major Works

Baldwin had his first novel, Go Tell It on the Mountain, published in 1953. The loosely autobiographical tale focused on the life of a young man growing up in Harlem grappling with family issues and religion.

In 1954, Baldwin published his next novel, Giovanni’s Room. It told the story of an American living in Paris and broke new ground for its complex depiction of homosexuality, a then-taboo subject. Baldwin was open about his homosexuality and relationships with both men and women, and believed that human sexuality cannot be limited by rigid categories.

In 1957 he returned to the United States and became an active participant in the civil rights struggle that swept the nation. Delving into his own life, he provided an unflinching look at the Black experience in America through such works as Notes of a Native Son (1955) and Nobody Knows My Name: More Notes of a Native Son (1961), which explored Black-white relations in the United States. This theme was also central to his novel Another Country (1962), which examines sexual as well as racial issues.

Nobody Knows My Name hit the bestsellers list, selling more than a million copies. While not a marching or sit-in style activist, Baldwin emerged as one of the leading voices in the Civil Rights Movement for his compelling work on race.

Final Years

By the early 1970s, Baldwin seemed to despair over the racial situation. He had witnessed so much violence in the previous decade, especially the assassinations of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr., caused by racial hatred. While his literary fame faded somewhat in his later years, Baldwin continued to produce new works in a variety of forms. He published a collection of poems, Jimmy’s Blues: Selected Poems, in 1983 as well as the 1987 novel Harlem Quartet. Baldwin died on December 1, 1987, at his home in St. Paul de Vence, France. Never wanting to be a spokesperson or a leader, Baldwin saw his personal mission as “bearing witness to the truth.” He accomplished this mission through his extensive and timeless literary legacy

Genghis Khan: The Universal Ruler

Genghis Khan, originally known as Temujin, is known today as the man who established the largest land empire known in history. He had united the various nomadic tribes in Mongolia, and then went on to conquer huge parts of central Asia and China. Even after his death, his descendants expanded the empire to much greater lengths up to places like Poland, Vietnam, Syria and Korea. At their peak, the Mongols controlled around 12 million square miles of land. This is an area around the size of Africa, all controlled by a single empire. In contrast, the Roman empire was only about half the size of the USA. Hence, it is evident that Genghis Khan was a legendary ruler and is remembered well by history, but he is also regarded as the very avatar of savagery and barbarism. 

The Rise of Genghis Khan

Temujin, later Genghis Khan, was born around 1162 near the border of Mongolia and Siberia. At that time, many nomadic tribes in the central Asian steppes were constantly fighting and killing each other, and life for Temujin was violent and unpredictable. Before turning even 10 years of age, his father was poisoned to death by an enemy clan and his own clan had deserted him and his family. Following this, Temujin killed his older half-brother and took over the reins as the head of his abandoned and poverty-stricken family. He soon began making alliances, building a reputation as a warrior and attracting a growing number of followers. Most of what we know about Genghis Khan’s childhood comes from “The Secret History of the Mongols,” the oldest known work of Mongolian history and literature. Going against custom, Temujin preferred to put competent allies rather than relatives in important positions in his tribe. He also executed the leaders of enemy tribes, and incorporated the remaining members into his clan. By 1205, Temujin had vanquished all his rivals.

The Establishment of an Empire

Temujin thereby became the leader of a Mongol confederation consisting of all the tribes and territories that he had united. He established a nation similar in size to modern Mongolia, and was also proclaimed Chinggis Khan, which roughly translates to ‘Universal Ruler,’ a name that has now become bastardized to be known as Genghis Khan. After this, he started his conquests outside of Mongolia and garnered his brutal reputation through continuous invasions. Genghis Khan’s first campaign outside of Mongolia took place against the Xi Xia kingdom of north-western China, after which went to war against the Khwarazm Empire in present-day Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and Iran. He gradually expanded the borders of the Mongol Empire over the years of his reign, and many surrounding empires had started becoming wary of the Mongol threat. Genghis Khan also had an extensive network of spies which used to detect his enemy’s weaknesses, and made use of advanced military equipment like catapults and mangonels while attacking large cities. By 1227, the Khan had conquered much of Central Asia and made incursions into Eastern Europe, Persia, and India.

It is important to highlight here that it was not only because of his aggressive invasions and warfare that he was successful, but also because of his administrative capabilities. For example, he forbade the selling and kidnapping of women, banned enslavement and torture, and made livestock theft punishable by death. Moreover, he ordered the adoption of a writing system, conducted a regular census, granted diplomatic immunity to foreign ambassadors and allowed freedom of religion and protection within his empire.

The Fall of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan eventually died in 1227, at the age of 65. But there is a lot of mystery and uncertainty surrounding his death. Some stories suggest that he died from injuries sustained after falling from his horse, while others suggest it was while he was trying to put down a rebellion in China. Furthermore, the final resting place of the Khan is unknown, as he wanted his death to be a secret.

Regardless, Genghis Khan conquered more than twice as much land as any other person in history, bringing Eastern and Western civilizations into contact in the process. Though he has a unfavourable reputation because of all the killing, plunder and rape he had caused, one cannot deny that he is among the greatest, if not the greatest conqueror in history.