Day: August 6, 2020

Dog meat ban in Nagaland; Author asks – How can an animal be a companion and meat?

By Udbhav Bhargava

On 3 July 2020, the government of Nagaland decided to outlaw the

1. Commercial import and dog trade

2. Market pertaining to dog meat and associated products      

3. Animal meat sale (both cooked and uncooked)

Animal activist campaign

Over the years, animal-rights groups have complained against the selling and consumption of dog meat. Maneka Gandhi had made an appeal on June 30 through ‘People For Animals’ (the animal welfare organization she founded) highlighting the “unabated” killing and eating of dogs in Nagaland. Appeals were received, in form of emails and tweets in thousands, by the Nagaland Govt. Humane Society International and People for Animals, two NGOs that have long campaigned to end dog meat trade, particularly in Nagaland, welcomed the decision as a significant seminal moment in ending India’s illegal dog meat trade.

The Rule

The firm cited Food Health & Quality Regulation 2.5 (Food Products Requirements and Food Additives) Regulation 2011, FSSAI, which lists meat and meat products that are appropriate for consumption. The cabinet concluded that dog meat is not on the register, and therefore, considered unfit for human consumption.

Possible consequences on mainstream culture 

  • Nagaland is a strong producer of meat products, and one of the delicacies of dog meat.
  • There are several hotels that serve dog meat, especially in the state capital Kohima and the commercial hub, Dimapur.
  • Only dogs are imported from outside the state as dog meat is perceived as having high medicinal value and high nutritional value.

A legal mind may question the constitutional validity of this practice, where just on the basis of species, a dog is considered an edible meat. Article 371A grants Nagaland a special right to allow Naga communities to follow and maintain their customary law and social practice. Arguments against meat ban Culture and social mores of every region are different. Beef is consumed in many parts of the country while cow slaughter is considered to be against the religious/cultural practice in most parts of India. Prevention of cow slaughter is a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy, i.e. Part-IV of the Indian Constitution, which means the state endeavors to eradicate cow slaughter. Pork (Pig meat) is an acceptable food item in some religions while taboo in some religions. At present different laws are applicable to matters relating to cow slaughter. Out of 29 Indian states, while 20 states prohibit cow slaughter, beef is legally and freely available in states like Bengal, Kerala, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Tripura.

Author’s opinion

In the conflict between the slaughter of animals and its prevention, where the former, the ‘right to eat anything’ is backed by ‘right to life and personal liberty’ under Article 21, the only question that remains unanswered is, why is one species of animal considered to be ‘meat’ and other as ‘companion’?

Gender pay gap – What it is and the factors resulting in the pay gap

For the most part of history, gender inequality is a heavily debated topic of discussion because from time immemorial it is always the men who have been the dominating force in the society which are reflected in the benefits they receive.
Gender pay gap is the difference between wages and salaries of men and women. It is the median yearly pay of women working full-time and throughout the year compared to the remuneration of men in the same category. Other estimates are based on hourly or weekly earnings or specific to a group of women.
The term ” equal pay ” came into spotlight in the year 1963 when Former President John F Kennedy amended the 1938 Fair Labor standard act which was a part of his New frontier program. But this did not put an end to the gender pay gap which has been existing from the time women came into the workforce during the industrial revolution. Even until the year 2017, women earned only about 81.8% of what men were earning.
The gender pay gap has become a major topic of research with women playing a big role in labour force facing alarming pay iniquities. A survey conducted on a company’s database with responses from around 2000 working women drew a conclusion that about 68.5% of the respondents said that the management does not want to take any necessary steps to bridge this gap even if gender parity is a priority resulting in zero change. The article further said ” it’s not just ‘glass ceilings’, but also ‘glass floors’, ‘glass doors’ and ‘glass walls’ at the workplace”.
Factors resulting in gender pay gap :
Gender pay gap is one of the gold mine area of research in labour market because it has an immense impact on wages. Wages is the primary motive of any labour force and this wage is distributed unequally to the labourers based on their gender due to a number of factors . Factors that result in the gender pay gap include occupations segregation, direct pay discrimination and bias against working mothers. In addition, factors like disability, racial bias, age and access to education also affect the gap in gender pay.
Occupational segregation :
Occupational segregation is most often based on gender where, women in female-dominated occupations face two different marginalisation based on wage. Firstly the average wage of their jobs is lower than that in comparable male-dominated jobs, and secondly they earn less relative to men in the same jobs .Occupational segregation is evident within occupation differences in earnings rather than differences in occupation itself. To put an end to all occupational segregation caused by gender more than half of the women in the labour force will have to go in search of a different occupation. It is said that it will almost take would take 150 – 320 years for occupational segregation to reach the point of integration. Occupational segregation occurs majorly because of preconceived notions and assumptions on which gender is best suited for best role rather than considering the efficiency of the person. This has an effect on the economy because it limits the participation of the labour group due to which they inevitably adopt to sectors which correspond to their gender and also lowers the aggregate demand in the economy causing a fall in female wages and leading to the gap in gender. It was also found that UK attributes to about 17% of pay gap with occupational segregation by gender. The female dominated jobs include about 22 occupations which is compressed into seven groups which are Office and administrative assistance,Health care and care support, Cashiers,Food preparation, Early childhood care and education, Beauty and personal services, Maids and housekeeping cleaners who earn less than 15 dollars per hour which is less than what men earn in the same occupation and contributes to only about 93.5% of what men earn.
Bias against working mothers :
Bias against working mothers is a kind of discrimination women who are pregnant or who just delivered a baby encounter in their working space due to which they don’t get the pay they deserve. Working Mothers particularly face more discrimination and in account for most gender gap in wages in comparison to the non mothers. This status of being a parent had a toll only on the female applicants because motherhood is seen as culturally incompatible with being an ideal worker whereas fatherhood or the paternal wall bias does not exist because the man is looked as the package deal of being a good

father and a great employee and are expected to work even if they have a new born at home. An economic study proved that the difference in pay gap between mothers aged less than 35 and non mothers is greater than the gap between men and women. The various factors for this wage gap for working mothers included reduced investment in human capital, lesser effort and efficiency compared with non mothers. The “work effort ” hypothesis by Becker in the year 1985 concludes that it might be possible that mothers are less competent, committed and are less productive at work because they have spent all their effort and energy caring for their children. This discrimination can be based on three factors, which is skill, trait and behaviour. A research also said that this wage gap is likely to be prevalent either because working mothers are assumed to be less productive or because employers stereotype working mothers and discriminate them or sometimes the reason maybe the combination of the two.
Direct pay segregation
Direct pay segregation is when women are paid comparatively lesser than men and women for the same job. A survey in India came up with the finding that male members on company boards earned about 1.22 crores annually and the women board members earned only about 60 lakh annually which is two times lesser than what men boars members earn die the same job. This is because the society has a great influence on what roles each gender should posses and therefore puts a level of pay for each gender. Women are often considered inferior and less competent than their male counterparts therefore they are often paid lesser for the same work. This was believed to be because women had lesser human capital than men in terms of knowledge, skills and experience. A major example for this direct pay segregation is the pay gap between the women’s and men’s soccer team of the US. According to reports, the U.S. women’s soccer team are paid only $2 million for winning the FIFA Women’s World Cup while the men’s soccer team players are paid $35 million. This discrimination extends even towards the salary where women receive between $6,842 and $37,800, while the men receive up-to $50,000.
Age:
Age is one of the primary factors that widens this gap. Women are paid only about 90% of what men are paid on weekly basis which stays the same until around the age of 35 and then through retirement, women are paid 74–82 percent of what men are paid, depending on age. By the time workers reach 55–64 years old women are paid only 74 percent of what their male counterparts are paid. The gender gap is narrower when the working women are younger in age which includes women below their 35’s. This gap widens the most when they reach their forties reaching its widest point for women in their forties. The various reasons include that older women are found to have a have a lower level of education than the younger women who are already undergoing this wage gap and also because of their shorter span of time in their job tenure when compared to their counterparts.
Disability
Dsabled people experience low employment opportunities and even if they get an employment ,they receive less pay. The causes of the disability pay gap are complex. The rate of employment for people with disabilities was only 35% ,with 63% men and 57% women in the year 2014. Another factor for this gender pay gap is disability. It is measured by answering questions related to these six disabilities: hearing, vision, ambulatory(related to walking) , cognitive(understanding), self care and independent living. The bias on women with disabilities is more than that of men with disabilities, because they tend to paid lesser than men with disabilities even though both are are prone to disability. This disability does not just cater to physical disability but also mental and progressive illness. In the 2015 ACS report, it was found that disabled people made only 68% compared to what people without disabilities made. And among people with disabilities also women made only 69% compared to men.
Racism :
Racism in today’s world is a longstanding phenomenan which constitutes to double marginalisation in women because they face oppression because firstly they are women and secondly because they belong to a particular race. Though men who belong to a certain race also face this oppression, women are doubly taken advantage of. Most companies generally pay lesser to the women who are so called “black” or “discriminated “. A research stated that non-white people earn lesser than the whites which is associated with discrimination because they are believed to have poor command of the particular language or because they exhibit qualities which do not match with the culture they are put in. Therefore they become overqualified and underpaid for the job which results in the pay gap.
The above factors give way to gender pay gap to exist.

The gender wage gap is real problem affecting women all over the world. This gap should not just be considered as an evidence of gender inequality and discrimination but rather as a statistical artifact of failing to adjust for factors that could drive earnings differences between men and women.

Laws that a layman should know about

 

Indian Constitution has provided several rights to the people to protect their fundamental rights, but unfortunately, most people are not aware of their rights. Below are some laws and the rights which not only protect people’s interests but also ease their daily life.

1. If your cylinder explodes you are entitled to Rs. 40 lakh cover!

Many of us are unaware that domestic LPG consumers are entitled to a cover of Rs. 40 lakh in case of loss of life or damage to property due to cylinder explosions.

2. Penalised for receiving gifts? Yes, they can be bribes.

It has become a tradition for companies to send gifts! As these gifts can be carefully veiled bribes, the law is a smart move by the government to avoid situations of bribery.

3. Only female officers can escort women to the police station

Not only do male officers have no right to escort a woman but she can refuse to go to the police station between 6 pm to 6 am. In case of a serious crime, a written permit from the magistrate is required for male officers to escort her.

4. The tax recovery officer can arrest and release you

In case of tax violations, the TRO has the right to arrest you, though a summon has to be sent. The tax commissioner only decides how long can you be in custody, but your release will be decided by the TRO. This has been mentioned in the Income-tax Act, 1961 .

5. No traffic violation laws for non-motorised vehicles

Though it has been clarified that a golf cart is not allowed on the road but there aren’t any penalties against non motor vehicles like a cycles or rickshaws, since they don’t fall under the Motor Vehicles Act.

6. Women can lodge complaints through emails

Guidelines issued by the Delhi Police entitle women to the privilege of registering a complaint via email or even through post if she can’t go to the police station.

7. Live-in relationships are not illegal

Though it is frowned upon in our country, but as long as both the adults are ready to stay together, live-in relationships are not illegal. Moreover, live-in relationships are considered to be ‘equal to marriage’ if certain conditions are met few of which are pooling of financial and domestic arrangements, entrusting the responsibility, sexual relationship, bearing children, socialization in public and intention, conduct of the parties, etc. This is done to protect women under the Domestic Violence Act. Also, children born out of live-in relationships have the right to inherit their parent’s property.

8. Political parties can solicit your vehicle during elections

During the time of elections, a political party can solicit your car or bike for campaigning purposes after deciding a settlement with you. Also, parties cannot offer free rides to and fro from poll booths.

9. If you have been fined once in the day you maybe excused after that

Riding around without a helmet can land you into trouble, but once you are fined for it, the chalaan slip can get you out of being fined for the same till midnight. Yes, but this is not an encouragement to do so. Be safe while driving.

10. You don’t have to pay the MRP, you can buy for less

MRP is the Maximum Retail Price. As consumers, you have the right to bargain for a price below that. However, a seller can not go beyond the MRP.

11. If you aren’t paid, file a complaint immediately

The Limitation Act states that if you aren’t paid by someone who is contracted to pay you, you need to file a complaint within 3 years. After that time period your suit most likely will be dismissed, so being lazy about this is not an option.

12. 3 months in jail for PDA! (Public Display of Affection)

PDA within its limits is allowed but any obscene activity is punishable by law for upto 3 months. Since the word obscene has not been defined, couples are often harassed by policemen.

13. Head constables have limited prosecution power

No head constable can fine you for any offence which has penalty more than 100.

14. A police officer is always on duty, literally

The 1861 Police Act clearly states that a police officers is always on duty. If he or she witnesses an act of crime or if an incident is brought to their knowledge they can’t say “I am not on duty” even if they aren’t in uniform. Of course, they are entitled to some rest because of the the hard work that they put in to their work.

15. The no sex divorce

As funny as it sounds, if a husband or a wife refuse sex post marriage, it can be deemed as ‘mental cruelty’ and is a viable reason for divorce.

Payment of Wages during Pandemic

‘If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich’, quoted John F. Kennedy years before an epidemic like Covid-19 could have even been forecasted.

Starting from the Plague, a bacteria led pandemic to the Spanish Flu caused by a virus in 1918, the world has seen an invisible enemy mongering fear among the people. Though the epidemics did not change the patterns in people’s reactions but it outbreaks have certainly taught us about social distancing and responsibility. The response to the current pandemic, Novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID 19) has been no different. The current situation where the Government has been repeatedly asking people to be selfish about their loved ones and stay indoors is undoubtedly a decision in the public welfare as it stands as the only way to fight the issue. This infection with symptoms is frightening and can kill people in large numbers as evident in the developed countries but the epidemic is more threatening when thought of people it might affect without symptoms.

Looking back, the plague epidemic was certainly a major turning point in India’s public health system. The principles introduced were new then and vaccines developed turned the history of hospitalization in the country. But when it first came in Mumbai, there were only Social Service leagues and other voluntary organizations which did the work of supplying food and medicine to the needy. Thus, there was impression of hope and being taken care of even when the situation turned helpless.

The society is divided into sections and it is not unknown to anyone of the country. Even though the upper class can claim money not being important more than happiness, the lower class does not even know the meaning of happiness if there is no penny in the pocket. The lockdown period has pushed the lower class people, working under ‘no work, no pay’ policy to the extreme points of their lives so much that the deaths due to hunger can compete with the numbers of deaths due to the virus after a couple of months. The situation is similar to the Plague in a lot of ways, maybe it is time to change the principles and policies of the wage workers and mark it in the history once again.

Coronavirus pandemic is not a depression yet but it is a recession already. The country can easily fall back into a temporary economic crisis and technical point of actions can prevent permanent scars of depression. Compelling the payment of wages to the daily wage workers can be a measure that can instantly transform the social safety of the nation as once these workers lay off; there might be irreparable damages to the entire nation’s productive capacity.

The government has issued directions to the employers to pay wages on mere humanitarian grounds and, it is not only for the permanent workmen but for the contract workers as well. The Disaster Management Act, 2005 or the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897 which specifically came into force after the epidemic in Mumbai does not guarantee any such direction to be in compliance with the statutory law. However, Central and State governments can take its measures accordingly and it is backed by the provisions. 

Though it has taken time but the Government has come up with ideas to deal with the situation. The government has strictly advised to support the country by paying wages without any consequential deduction in wages for this period. The direction is issued particularly for the casual or contractual workers. On non-payment, the employees can drive down morally to combat their fight. On such kind of a scene, India, as a country, would lose even if it manages to fight the virus.

But the circular is only an ‘advisory’ and has not been issued under any law, ultimately making it not binding on any person. As dealt in the judgment of Narendra Kumar Maheshwari v Union of India that any policy does not take the place of law. Even the legislation under the Disaster Management Act, 2005 does not prohibit any employer from terminating employees or to vary their terms of service. But it does mention securing employees as it requires them to be paid salaries in the course of business. There also lies a major difference between the terms, employees and workmen as pointed out in Dhrangadhra Chemical works Limited v State of Saurashtra. The matter stands important since a workman is entitled to retrenchment as well as other benefits unlike the employers irrespective of whether temporary or permanent. It is important to note that ‘natural calamity’ is not particularly defined in the Act and can be claimed to fall under the ambit of it.  

The migrants are stranded on roadways due to the current situation but hands of employers are tied as well and even though some might think but everyone cannot afford the same. Such a crisis is itself not compensated under loan forbearance.

In such a situation, the solution can be to adopt the idea of common law ‘lay off’ concept to pay 50% of wages so that their daily needs are at least met and also so that it can be done for a larger period to a bigger audience. The Government can also secure by adopting Canada’s plan to subsidize certain requirements and by giving them a privileged position by offering different schemes.

It is time that the country understands that we are all in this together. Without one section the other cannot sustain for long. Very evidently, when John F. Kennedy quoted, he might not have forecasted viruses or pandemics but he knew the world required to stand together for development.

Agro-Climatic Regions of India

 

Agro-climatic conditions mainly refer to soil types, rainfall, temperature and water availability which influence the type of vegetation. An agro ecological zone is the land unit carved out of agro-climatic zone superimposed on landform which acts as modifier to climate and length of growing period. The Planning Commission has categorized 15 agro-climatic zones in India, taking into account the physical attributes and socio-economic conditions prevailing in the regions.

1) Western Himalayan Region 

The Western Himalayan Region covers Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the hill region of Uttarakhand. Topography and temperatures show great variation. Average temperature in July ranges between 5°C and 30°C, while in January it ranges between 5°C and -5°C. Mean annual rainfall varies between 75 – 150 cm; in Ladakh, however, it is less than 30 cm. There is alluvial soil in the valleys of Kashmir, Kullu and Dun, and brown soil in the hills. 
The valley floors grow rice, while the hilly tracts grow maize in the kharif season. Winter crops are barley, oats, and wheat. The region supports horticulture, especially apple orchards and other temperate fruits such as peaches, apricot, pears, cherry, almond, litchis, walnut etc. Saffron is grown in this region. The main problems of this region are poor accessibility, soil erosion, landslides, inclement weather, inadequacy of marketing and storage facilities. The population is generally rural-based and poor.

2) Eastern Himalayan Region 

The Eastern Himalayan Region includes Arunachal Pradesh, the hills of Assam, Sikkim, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and the Darjeeling district of West Bengal. The topography is rugged. Temperature variation is between 25°C and 30°C in July and between 10°C and 20°C in January. Average rainfall is between 200 – 400 cm. The red-brown soil is not highly productive Jhuming (shifting cultivation) prevails in the hilly areas. 
The main crops are rice, maize, potato and tea. There are orchards of pineapple, litchi, oranges and lime. Infrastructural facilities in the region need to be improved and shifting cultivation controlled by developing terrace farming. 

3) Lower Gangetic Plain Region 

West Bengal (except the hilly areas), eastern Bihar and the Brahmaputra valley lie in this region. Average annual rainfall lies between 100 – 200 cm. Temperature in July varies from 26°C to 41°C and for January from 9°C to 24°C. 
The region has adequate storage of ground water with high water table. Rice is the main crop which at times yields three successive crops (Aman, Aus and Boro) in a year. Jute, maize, potato, and pulses are other important crops. Planning strategies include improvement in rice farming, horticulture (banana, mango and citrus fruits), pisciculture, poultry, livestock, forage production and seed supply. 

4) Middle Gangetic Plain Region 

The Middle Gangetic Plain region includes large parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The average temperature in July varies from 26°C to 41°C and that of January 9°C to 24°C average annual rainfall is between 100 – 200 cm. It is a fertile alluvial plain drained by the Ganga and its tributaries. Rice, maize, millets in kharif, wheat, gram, barley, peas, mustard and potato in rabi are important crops. 

5) Upper Gangetic Plains Region 

In the Upper Gangetic Plains region come the central and western parts of Uttar Pradesh and the Hardwar and Udham Nagar districts of Uttarakhand. The climate is sub-humid continental with temperature in July between 26°C to 41°C and temperature in January between 7°C to 23°C. 
Average annual rainfall is between 75 – 150 cm. The soil is sandy loam. Canal, tube-well and wells are the main source of irrigation. This is an intensive agricultural region wherein wheat, rice, sugarcane, millets, maize, gram, barley, oilseeds, pulses and cotton are the main crops. 

6) Trans-Ganga Plains Region 

This region (also called the Satluj-Yamuna Plains) extends over Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi and the Ganganagar district of Rajasthan. Semi-arid characteristics prevail over the region, with July’s mean monthly temperature between 25°C and 40°C and that of January between 10°C and 20°C. 
The average annual rainfall varies between 65 – 125 cm. The soil is alluvial which is highly productive. Canals and tube-wells and pumping sets have been installed by the cultivators and the governments. The intensity of agriculture is the highest in the country. Important crops include wheat, sugarcane, cotton, rice, gram, maize, millets, pulses and oilseeds etc. The region has the credit of introducing Green Revolution in the country and has adopted modern methods of farming with greater degree of mechanization. The region is also facing the menace of waterlogging, salinity, alkalinity, soil erosion and falling water table. 
Some steps that may be required to make agriculture in the region more sustainable and productive are: 
  •  Diversion of some rice-wheat area to other crops like maize, pulses, oilseeds and fodder 
  •  Development of genotypes of rice, maize and wheat with inbuilt resistance to pests and diseases 
  •  Promotion of horticulture besides pulses like tur and peas in upland conditions 
  •  Cultivation of vegetables in the vicinity of industrial clusters
  •  Supply of quality seeds of vegetables and planting material for horticulture crops 
  •  Development of infra-structure of transit go downs and processing to handle additional fruit and vegetable production 
  •  Implementation of policy and programmes to increase productivity of milk and wool 
  •  Development of high quality fodder crops and animal feed by stepping up area under fodder production

7) Eastern Plateau and Hills 

This region includes the Chhotanagpur Plateau, extending over Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Dandakaranya. The region enjoys 26°C to 34°C of temperature in July, 10°C to 27°C in January and 80 – 150 cm of annual rainfall. Soils are red and yellow with occasional patches of laterites and alluviums. The region is deficient in water resources due to plateau structure and non-perennial streams. Rain fed agriculture is practiced growing crops like rice, millets, maize, oilseeds, ragi, gram and potato. 

8) Central Plateau and Hills 

The region is spread over Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand, Bhander Plateau, Malwa Plateau, and Vindhyachal Hills. Semi-arid climatic conditions prevail over the region with temperature in July 26°C to 40°C, in January 7°C to 24°C and average annual rainfall from 50 – 100 cm. Soils are mixed red, yellow and black. 
There is scarcity of water. Crops grown are millets, wheat, gram, oilseeds, cotton and sunflower. In order to improve agricultural returns, measures to be adopted are water conservation through water saving devices like sprinklers and drip system; dairy development, crop diversification, ground water development, reclamation of ravine lands. 

9) Western Plateau and Hills 

Comprising southern part of Malwa plateau and Deccan plateau (Maharashtra), this is a region of the regur (black) soil with July temperature between 24°C and 41°C, January temperature between 6°C and 23°C and average annual rainfall of 25 – 75 cm. Wheat, gram, millets, cotton, pulses, groundnut and oilseeds are the main crops in the rain fed areas, while in the irrigated areas, sugarcane, rice and wheat, are cultivated. Also grown are oranges, grapes and bananas. 
Attention should be paid to increasing water efficiency by popularizing water saving devices like sprinklers and drip system. The lower value crops of jowar, bajra and rainfed wheat should give way to high value oilseeds. Improvement of milk production of cattle and buffalo through crossbreeding along with poultry development should be encouraged. 

10) Southern Plateau and Hills 

This region falls in interior Deccan and includes parts of southern Maharashtra, the greater parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu uplands from Adilabad District in the north to Madurai District in the south. The mean monthly temperature of July varies between 25°C to 40°C, and the mean January temperature is between 10°C to 20°C. Annual rainfall is between 50 – 100 cm.
It is an area of dry-zone agriculture where millets, oilseeds, and pulses are grown. Coffee, tea, cardamom and spices are grown along the hilly slopes of Karnataka plateau. Some of the area under coarse cereals may be diverted to pulses and oilseeds. Horticulture, dairy development and poultry farming should be encouraged. 

11) Eastern Coastal Plains and Hills 

In this region are the Coromandal and northern Circar coasts of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. The mean July temperature ranges between 25°C to 35°C and the mean January temperature varies between 20°C to 30°C. The mean annual rainfall varies between 75 – 150 cm. The soils are alluvial, loam and clay and are troubled by the problem of alkalinity. Main crops include rice, jute, tobacco, sugarcane, maize, millets, groundnut and oilseeds. Main agricultural strategies include improvement in the cultivation of spices (pepper and cardamom) and development of fisheries. 
These involve increasing cropping intensity using water efficient crops on residual moisture, discouraging growing of rice on marginal lands and bringing such lands under alternate crops like oilseeds and pulses; diversifying cropping and avoiding mono cropping; developing horticulture in upland areas, social forestry and dairy-farming. 

12) Western Coastal Plains and Ghats 

Extending over the Malabar and Konkan coastal plains and the Sahyadris, the region is humid with the mean July temperature varying between 25°C to 30°C and mean January temperatures between 18°C to 30°C. The mean annual rainfall is more than 200 cm. The soils are laterite and coastal alluvial. Rice, coconut, oilseeds, sugarcane, millets, pulses and cotton are the main crops. 
The region is also famous for plantation crops and spices which are raised along the hill slopes of the Western Ghats. The agricultural development must focus attention on raising of high value crops (pulses, spices and coconut). Development of infra structural facilities and promotion to prawn culture in brackish water should be encouraged. 

13) Gujarat Plains and Hills 

This region includes the hills and plains of Kathiawar and the fertile valleys of Mahi and Sabarmati rivers. It is an arid and semi-arid region with the mean July temperature reading 30°C and that of January about 25°C. The mean annual rainfall varies between 50 – 100 cm. 
Soils are regur in the plateau region, alluvium in the coastal plains, and red and yellow soils in Jamnagar area. Groundnut, cotton, rice, millets, oilseeds, wheat and tobacco are the main crops. It is an important oilseed producing region. The main strategy of development in this region should be canal and groundwater management, rain water harvesting and management, dry land farming, agro-forestry development, wasteland development and developing marine fishing and brackish/back water aquaculture development in coastal zones and river deltas. 

14) Western Dry Region 

Extending over Rajasthan, West of the Aravallis, this region has an erratic rainfall of an annual average of less than 25 cm. The desert climate further causes high evaporation and contrasting temperatures 28°C to 45°C in June and 5°C to 22°C in January. Bajra, jowar, and moth are main crops of kharif and wheat and gram in rabi. Livestock contributes greatly in desert ecology. 
The main areas needing a thrust for development are rainwater harvesting, increasing yield level of horticultural crops like water melon, guava and date palm, adopting high quality germ plasm in cattle to improve their breed; and adopting silvi-pastoral system over wastelands.

15) Island Region 

The island region includes Andaman-Nicobar and Lakshadweep which have typically equatorial climate (annual rainfall less than 300 cm; the mean July and January temperature of Port Blair being 30°C to 25°C respectively). The soils vary from sandy along the coast to clayey loam in valleys and lower slopes. 
The main crops are rice, maize, millets, pulses, arecanut, turmeric and cassava. Nearly half of the cropped area is under coconut. The area is covered with thick forests and agriculture is in backward stage. The main thrust in development should be on crop improvement, water management and fisheries. Improved variety of rice seeds should be popularized so as to enable farmers to take two crops of rice in place of one. For fisheries development multi-purpose fishing vessels for deep sea fishing should be introduced, suitable infrastructure for storage and processing of fish should be built up, and brackish water prawn culture should be promoted in the coastal areas. 

Cyber Security and Digitalization.

In this digital age of living, usage of technology to communicate, to research, to learn and discover, to keep record of items, et cetera is almost inevitable. With the frequent usage of technology today, there is an increasing risk of attacks, damages, and so on, which could potentially disrupt the programmes and platforms of these various forms of technology. Cyber security is essentially a technology that protects technological devices such as computers from the aforementioned attacks, unauthorised access, change and various damages. Cyber security becomes important when a device is stored with sensitive information, or when sensitive information is being shared from one device to another. Therefore, cyber security plays a vital role in governments, financial, corporate, military, and other – like organisations. Cyber security becomes necessary to protect the business operations of various organizations, as well as their personal information.

With the world becoming increasingly digital, there exists an increasing threat to the peace building and social cohesiveness which further spreads as a result of disinformation unfurled online. These are some of the inadvertent consequences of digitalisation. Although digitalisation has opened up various opportunities for socio-economic growth all over the world, especially in Asia, via increasing usage of mobile devices, rising growth of technologies and the magnified usage of the internet, and with it the interconnectedness, the risk unintentionally associated with it is multi – fold. Digitalisation has helped creating smart cities, however, has also involuntarily expanded security risks, and further created new risks, transcending the national borders. Digitalisation has therefore created a space for criminals and even terrorists, without intending to do so. Further, it allows criminals to connect their illegal operations, such as human trafficking, et cetera, via platforms available online due to digitalisation.

Furthermore, these threats cannot be controlled by one particular State alone. The threat against cyber terrorism and the spreading of fake news and such must be controlled at a wider level. This is due to the importance of building a collective digital environment that does not pose a threat to the various opportunities and platforms brought in by digitalisation, and therefore, to prevent losses of billions of dollars. Therefore, creating a cyber-security strategy becomes vital, especially in a world that is increasingly becoming digital. I believe that this also serves as a way to educate the general public on the risks associated with technologies and take protective and preventive measures with respect to their personal and / or sensitive information.

It is common for any existing system such as the biological system, the ecological system, et cetera to experience some predator – prey activity. The internet being the entire world’s digital nervous system in the present world viewed in light of globalisation and digitalisation, experiencing cyber threat is inevitable. Mr Robert Ghanea Hercock, in an article titled “Why Cyber Security is Hard”, writes about something called the ‘Game Theory’ to be studied as a model for Cyber security, in order to understand better what cyber security constitutes in its actuality. Game theory initially was founded to be used as a strategically tool in the Nuclear War which enabled the study of an individual choice to maintain optimal behaviour when the benefits and costs of it have been handed over to the choice of other individuals. Robert Ghanea Hercock by a way of the approach of Game Theory, studies the internet as a place of players with ill intentions, where there exist many more opportunities to attack, rather than defend oneself. He further studies it as a place where in order to defend; it becomes essential to further attack. Mr. Ghanea – Hercock further writes that Game Theory will prove essential, particularly in the future, in order to develop the cyber defence processes.

The cyber space, viewed in the light of a legal perspective, is essentially a space where the rights of an individual are to be maintained at par with the interest of the wider society. However, the internet and the cyber space in general, are constantly developing and evolving, at a rate much higher than that of the judicial proceedings. The sharing of pictures at a single click and what not is evidence to the instantaneous nature of the cyber space. Therefore, in order to balance the interests of individuals, while keeping in view the interest of the wider cyber domain, it becomes pertinent for content creators on cyber space to raise awareness and therefore address the issues revolving around cyber bullying, cyber threats and so on, instead of solely relying on the law with respect to punitive measures. However, having weaker laws pertaining to cyber threats also constitutes as untoward and indeed does not pose as a solution to build a safer digital sphere. Therefore, it becomes important as to create stronger and efficient laws with regard to cyber – crime, so as to keep intact the purpose and safety that cyber security has to offer.

With respect to cyber laws in India, the case of Sanjay Kumar v State of Haryana can be recalled. In this case, where the alleged petitioner had engaged in forging and fabrication information pertaining to certain bank entries via computer system software from one account to another, the petitioner was punished under sections 420, 467, 468 and 471 of the Indian Penal Code of 1860, as well as sections 65 and 66 of the Information & Technology Act, 2000. Section 65 of the Information and Technology Act that essentially protects the misuse of the cyber space and thus ensure a level of safety of the digital domain reads as follows: “Tampering with computer source documents. – Whoever knowingly or intentionally conceals, destroys or alters or intentionally or knowingly causes another to conceal, destroy, or alter any computer source code used for a computer, computer programme, computer system or computer network, when the computer source code is required to be kept or maintained by law for the time being in force, shall be punishable with imprisonment up to three years, or with fine which may extend up to two lakh rupees, or with both.”

In conclusion, even though the world today is increasingly becoming more digital by the day and the use of technology has been fast growing and ample, the threats that arrive with it can be curbed. Cyber security in the present world is inevitable due to the threats with respect to the cyber space being inevitable. Cyber security in this growing digital world primarily exists in order to maintain a balance between the rights of an individual and the interest of the society as a whole. Therefore, with more awareness of the harms co – existing with the cyber space and with implementation of stricter laws with respect to the cyber domain, cyber security possesses the potential to curb some security threat.