Deanysa Buggy Asih¹, Yudit Oktaria Kristiani Pardede²

Gunadarma University, Faculty of Psychology, Jl. TB Simatupang Pasar Minggu, Jakarta Selatan, Indonesia

ABSTRACT

Employees who work in a company are expected to know well the core values, culture and goals of the organization, so that employees can get to know the company where they work well. However, outsourcing employees who basically come from service providers outside the company do not know about this. Therefore it is difficult for outsourcing employees to grow their work loyalty to the company where they work. Meanwhile, loyal employees are related to the goals, objectives, culture and values ​​of the organization. Employee loyalty can go up and down, one of which is due to job satisfaction factors. Job satisfaction felt by employees can increase employee work loyalty. Therefore, we need a motivator in the form of meeting physical and non-physical needs. This need is an encouragement or motivation for employees to work in a company. This study aims to determine the effect of job satisfaction and work motivation on work loyalty of outsourcing employees. This study uses a quantitative approach with research participants totaling 100 outsourcing employees obtained through sampling techniques. The analysis method used is simple and multiple regression. Based on the data analysis that has been done, it is known that there is an effect of job satisfaction on work loyalty of outsourcing employees by 54.3%, there is an effect of work motivation on work loyalty of outsourcing employees by 47.1% and there is an effect of job satisfaction and work motivation which together affect work loyalty of outsourcing employees by 25.7%, the remaining is influenced by other factors outside the research.

Keywords: Job Satisfaction, Work Motivation, Work Loyalty, Outsourcing

INTRODUCTION

Every individual wants to do a good job and make an important contribution to the organization or company where they work. According to Elmuti., Grunewald., & Abebe (2010) most companies believe that to compete globally, they must look at the efficiency of Human Resources (HR) and control costs rather than just relying on increasing revenue. According to Wahyuningtyas & Utami (2018) in order for HR and cost control to be efficient, of course the company must concentrate on a series of processes or activities to create products and services related to its core competencies. With the concentration on the company’s core competencies, a number of products and services will be produced that have quality and competitiveness in the market in order to compete in the business world.

Products and services that have quality will certainly be able to compete globally to improve their competitive position in the increasingly global market. Companies can save costs and maintain quality by relying more on external service providers for activities that are seen as complementary to their core business. This is related to outsourcing which functions as a partnership to improve the company’s business (Elmuti., Grunewald., & Abebe, 2010).

One of the complementary activities to improve the company’s business is recruitment. Every prospective employee who is accepted feels unclear about their employment status, namely outsourcing employees or permanent employees. Employee status is a condition that distinguishes one employee from another in the company. Employment status is a person’s position in doing work, namely whether the person’s position is as a laborer or employee. The status of outsourcing employees is included in non-permanent employees and their employment status is included in outsourcing employees (Barthos, 2001).

Outsourcing is the delegation of daily operations and management of a business process to an external party (an outsourcing service provider). Through delegation, management is no longer carried out by the company, but is delegated to the outsourcing service company (Soewondo, 2004). In addition, according to Wahyuningtyas & Utami (2018) Outsourcing is an effort to obtain skilled workers and reduce the burden and costs of the company in improving the company’s performance so that it can continue to be competitive in facing global economic and technological developments by handing over the company’s activities to other parties.

The handover of HR activities to outsourcing services is widely used by organizations around the world, because it is considered profitable. As is the case in the telecommunications industry of Pakistan. In the telecommunications sector of Pakistan, external recruitment companies or so-called outsourcing are known to have high work loyalty. Although they do not know the core values, culture, and goals of the organization well, employees are still able to grow their work loyalty. Employees can quickly adapt to their work environment because a comfortable work environment is created so that employees feel at home and are willing to stay in the company as long as they are still needed by the company. Work loyalty is related to the goals, objectives, culture, and values ​​of the organization. Employees are able to know and adapt to this after they have been in an organization for a long time (Jamil & Naeem, 2013).

According to Flippo (2013) Work loyalty itself is the determination and ability to obey, carry out and practice something that is obeyed with full awareness and responsibility. Robbins (2006) defines loyalty as the willingness to protect and save oneself. While Hasibuan (2002) describes loyalty as loyalty reflected by the willingness of employees to maintain and defend the organization inside and outside of work.

Work loyalty is fundamental to the industry because loyal employees will provide high work results along with work efficiency (Elmuti, Grunewald, & Abebe, 2010). Companies that fail to create strategic HR practices can lose valuable employees due to lack of employee loyalty to the company (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Through outsourcing, companies generate profits through HR which is the company’s most valuable asset. While HR itself will feel disadvantaged, so that employees are unable to grow their loyalty in working in the company where they work (Jamil & Naeem, 2013).

Employee loyalty in an organization is absolutely necessary for the success of the organization itself, one of the factors that causes employee work loyalty to increase or decrease is job satisfaction (Citra. L.M., & Fahmi. M, 2019). According to Colquitt, LePine, & Wesson (2012) Job satisfaction is a level of pleasant feeling obtained from the assessment of one’s work or work experience. In addition, according to Mathis and Jackson (2000) job satisfaction is a positive emotional state resulting from the evaluation of work experiences carried out by an individual.

Achieving employee job satisfaction will increase employee work loyalty. Job satisfaction expresses a number of conformities between a person’s expectations about his/her work, which can be in the form of work performance given by the company and the rewards given for his/her work. In essence, a person is encouraged to be active because he/she hopes that it will bring a better and more satisfying situation than the current situation. So working is a form of activity that aims to obtain job satisfaction (Mathis and Jackson, 2000).

Job satisfaction can be seen from employees who feel happy with their work. They will give more attention, imagination and skills in their work. Therefore, a motivator is needed for employees, namely providing physical and non-physical needs. These needs are an encouragement for employees in carrying out activities in a company. This encouragement is called work motivation (Arianty, Bahagia, Lubis, & Siswadi, 2016).

According to Vroom (in Setiawan, 2015) work motivation is how much effort is made to achieve certain results or rewards. Meanwhile, according to Purnama (2008), work motivation is the entire process of providing work motivation to subordinates in such a way that they are willing to work sincerely in order to achieve organizational goals efficiently and economically.

Based on the results of research conducted by Jamil & Naeem (2013) showed that work loyalty has an impact on outsourcing employees. This means that work loyalty that grows in each individual does not depend on the status of the employee, whether permanent or outsourcing. Employee loyalty that grows in the outsourcing company has a positive impact on employee engagement, employees have a sense of attachment to the organization or company where the employee works. In addition, research conducted by Wibowo & Sutanto (2013) also stated that the results of the study showed that there was an influence of job satisfaction and work motivation on employee loyalty in the sales department where if the work motivation of employees in the sales department increased, then the loyalty of employees in the sales department would increase. The regression results also showed that employee loyalty CV. Pratama Jaya was influenced by job satisfaction and work motivation, which was 66.7%. Another study conducted by Thanos, Pangemanan, and Rumokoy (2015) also stated that work motivation and job satisfaction had a significant partial effect on employee loyalty at PT Kimia Farma Apotek.

Based on the explanation that has been presented previously, the hypothesis that can be developed in this study are:

1. H1: job satisfaction and work motivation affect work loyalty in outsourcing employees;
2. H2: job satisfaction affects work loyalty in outsourcing employees;
3. H3: work motivation affects work loyalty in outsourcing employees.

RESEARCH METHODS

The population in this study were outsourcing employees and had the following characteristics: outsourcing employees, had worked for 6 months to 3 or more, because it is expected that during this period of work, real behavior can be seen which is reflected as an action of their loyalty in working for the company where the outsourcing employee works.

The sample (subject) of the study consisted of 100 outsourcing employees who had the same characteristics as the population. Sampling was carried out using non-probability sampling techniques and with purposive sampling types. The answer choices on each scale range from 1 – 6 ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

Job satisfaction in this study can be seen through the scores obtained in the job satisfaction scale according to Spector, (1994) namely aspects of salary, promotion, superiors, benefits, non-material rewards, working conditions, coworkers, nature of work, and communication. This measuring instrument contains 36 items divided into 17 favorable items and 19 unfavorable items. One example of an item in the job satisfaction scale is “I feel paid a fair amount for the work I do”. Based on the results of the analysis of the reliability test of the job satisfaction scale, a Cronbach alpha of 0.870 was found, which means that the scale is reliable in measuring job satisfaction.

Work motivation in this study can be seen through the scores adapted by researchers from Tremblay, MA, Blanchard, CM, Taylor, S., Villeneuve, M., and Pelletier, LG (2009) which are arranged based on the form of work motivation according to Deci & Ryan (2000) namely amotivation, intrinsic motivation, external regulation, projected, identified, integrated, extrinsic motivation. This measuring instrument contains 18 favorable items. One example of an item in the work motivation scale is “The awards given by the company are appropriate”. Based on the results of the analysis of the reliability test of the work motivation scale, a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.840 was found, which means that the scale is reliable in measuring work motivation.

Work loyalty in this study is known based on the score obtained through the work loyalty measurement scale adapted by Asih (2018) which is compiled based on aspects of work loyalty, namely obeying regulations, being responsible, dedicated and honest in working. This measuring instrument contains 32 items divided into 30 favorable items and 2 unfavorable items. One example of an item in the work loyalty scale is “I like to work hard, am agile and always want to do my best for the company”. Based on the results of the analysis of the reliability test of the work loyalty scale, a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.967 was found, which means that the scale is reliable in measuring work loyalty.

The data processing technique in this study used simple and multiple regression tests.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the results of the reliability test in this study to determine the consistency of the measuring instrument based on items that have been declared to have good discrimination power and proven by the Alpha Cronbach technique with the help of the IBM SPSS Statistic version 23 program. According to Azwar (2012) the reliability coefficient on the scale that shows high consistency and stability of values, namely 0.70 to 1. Based on the results of the reliability test that has been carried out, the scale of job satisfaction, work motivation and work loyalty is known to have good alpha Cronbach reliability test values, this means that the reliability coefficient on the scale as a whole shows high consistency and stability of values. The results of the reliability test on the three variables can be seen in the following table:

Table 1. Reliability Test

Variable	Alpha Cronbach	Result
Job Satisfaction (X1)	0,870	Reliable
Work Motivation (X2)	0,840	Reliable
Work Loyalty (Y)	0.967	Reliable

Based on the results of the study, it is known that the variables of job satisfaction and work motivation have an effect on work loyalty in outsourcing employees. The results of the regression test on the three variables can be seen in the following table:

Table 2. Regression Test

Variable	F	R	R Square	Sig
Job Satisfaction (X1)	117,576	0,739	0,543	0,000
Work Motivation (X2)	87,160	0,686	0,471	0,000
Job Satisfaction (X1) and Work Motivation (X2)	16,773	0,507	0,257	0,000
on Work Loyalty (Y)

1. Effect of Job Satisfaction on Work Loyalty

Based on the results of data analysis on the job satisfaction variable, the F value is 117.576 and the significance coefficient is 0.000 (p <0.01), meaning that the job satisfaction variable has a very significant effect on work loyalty. The R value on job satisfaction of 0.739 indicates a positive relationship direction and a strong relationship. The R Square value of 0.543 means that job satisfaction affects work loyalty by 54.3%, the remaining 45.7% is influenced by other factors.

These results indicate that the hypothesis that states that there is an effect of job satisfaction on work loyalty in outsourcing employees is accepted. This means that the satisfaction felt by employees in working can increase or decrease their work loyalty to the company. The results of this study are in line with research conducted by Susilowati and Supriyadi (2018) which states that job satisfaction affects work loyalty by 34.3%. The higher the job satisfaction felt by employees, the higher the employee’s work loyalty to the company.

Employees who are satisfied will achieve work loyalty within the company. Job satisfaction is basically something that is individual, while each individual has a different level of satisfaction. In a company, leaders must pay serious attention to the job satisfaction of the employees they lead, because job satisfaction has a chain with the organization’s human resources, organizational performance, and the sustainability of the organization itself (Husni., Musnadi., and Faisal, 2018).

• Effect of Work Motivation on Work Loyalty

Based on the results of data analysis on the work motivation variable, the F value is 87.160 and the significance coefficient is 0.000 (p <0.01), meaning that the work motivation variable has a very significant influence on work loyalty. The R value on work motivation of 0.686 indicates a positive relationship direction and a strong relationship. The R Square value of 0.471 means that work motivation affects work loyalty by 47.1%, the remaining 52.9% is influenced by other factors. These results indicate that the hypothesis that there is an influence of work motivation on work loyalty in outsourcing employees is accepted. This means that work loyalty can grow and increase if the motivation felt by employees in working also increases.

The results of this study are in line with research conducted by Swadarma and Netra (2020) which states that there is a positive and significant influence between work motivation and employee loyalty at Rame Cafe Jimbaran of 41.6%. If motivation increases, employee loyalty will increase. High work motivation in employees will make employees work harder in carrying out their work. On the other hand, with low work motivation, employees do not have work enthusiasm, give up easily and have difficulty completing work (Husni., Musnadi., and Faisal, 2018).

The growing employee work motivation can come from themselves or from outside themselves. According to Herzberg (in Robbins & Judge, 2006) stated that basically motivation is divided into two main types, namely, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is motivation related to themselves to feel satisfied such as achievement, appreciation, responsibility, opportunities to advance, and the work itself. While extrinsic motivation is motivation from outside themselves such as physical working conditions, interpersonal relationships, company policies and administration, supervision, salary, and job security.

• Effect of Job Satisfaction and Work Motivation on Work Loyalty

Based on the results of data analysis on the variables of job satisfaction and work motivation, the F value is 16.773 and the significance coefficient is 0.000 (p <0.01), meaning that the variables of job satisfaction and work motivation have a significant influence on work loyalty. The R value on job satisfaction and work motivation of 0.507 indicates a positive relationship direction and a strong relationship. The R square value of job satisfaction and work motivation of 0.257 means that job satisfaction and work motivation together affect work loyalty by 25.7%, the remaining 74.3% is influenced by other factors.

These results indicate that the hypothesis that states that there is an influence of job satisfaction and work motivation on work loyalty in outsourcing employees is accepted. This means that the satisfaction and motivation in working felt by outsourcing employees can foster their work loyalty in their workplace. The results of this study are in line with research conducted by Husni., Musnadi., And Faisal (2018) which states that job satisfaction and work motivation owned by prison employees in Aceh Province have an effect on the emergence of employee work loyalty. In addition, another study conducted by Citra and Fahmi (2019) also stated that job satisfaction and work motivation together have an influence of 73.9%, while the remaining 26.1% of work loyalty is influenced by other variables.

Employee loyalty is a positive employee attitude towards the company where they work. Employees with a high level of loyalty can work not only for themselves but also for the benefit of the company. Therefore, the role and duties of a leader in acting and making decisions are very influential, so that they can be a benchmark for actions and motivation for employees in all forms and positive activities that will later build enthusiasm and job satisfaction and even employee work loyalty itself (Citra and Fahmi, 2019).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that job satisfaction influences work loyalty in outsourcing employees by 54.3%, the rest, 45.7% is influenced by other factors outside the study. Furthermore, work motivation influences work loyalty in outsourcing employees by 47.1%, the rest, 52.9% is influenced by other factors outside the study. Thus, job satisfaction and work motivation influence work loyalty in outsourcing employees by 25.7%, the rest, 74.3% is influenced by other factors outside the study.

Based on the results of the study, the following suggestions can be submitted so that employees are expected to continue to reflect work loyalty in their workplaces such as in terms of obeying regulations, being responsible, dedicated and honest in working.

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[1]Ms. Anjumah Majeed, [2]Ms. Iqra Hafiz, [3]Mr. Firdose Ahmad Mir,
[4]Dr. Mohd Arif Hussain Bhat, [5]Mr. Bilal Ahmad Shah, [6]Dr. Asif Qadri,[7]
Mr. Ishfaq Ahmad Wani

ABSTRACT

The current research paper explores the phenomenon of internet addiction among College going students of district Anantnag. The study which was descriptive in nature was conducted on 100 College going students belonging to five different colleges of district Anantnag. The students were sampled by using simple random technique (Lottery Method) whereas, colleges were purposively selected. Data were collected by using a standardized tool developed by Daman Deep Kaur Gulati, Dr. Jose J. Kurisunkal and Dr. Mamta Bakliwal 2021. The data were analyzed by using t-test. The major finding of the study revealed that Internet Addiction is more in Arts Stream Students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag as compared to Science stream students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag.

Key Words: Internet Addiction, Lottery Method, t-test.

INTRODUCTION

In the modern digital age, the internet has become an integral and indispensable component of daily life for billions of people around the world. What was once considered a novel technological innovation has rapidly evolved into an essential tool for communication, information-gathering, entertainment, and a multitude of other functions.The Internet’s pervasive presence and increasingly ubiquitous accessibility through smartphones, laptops, tablets, and other digital devices have transformed the way individuals interact with the world and each other.

The ubiquity of the internet in the 21st century has ushered in a technological revolution, profoundly shaping the way we work, learn, socialize, and entertain ourselves. The internet has become an essential resource for a vast array of daily activities, from professional tasks and academic research to personal communication and leisure pursuits. It has enabled instantaneous access to a wealth of information, fostered global connectivity, and revolutionized the way we consume and share content.

However, as the internet has become more deeply embedded in the fabric of modern society, a concerning trend has emerged – the growing problem of problematic internet use and internet addiction. Internet addiction, characterized by an inability to control one’s use of the internet despite the presence of negative consequences, has emerged as a significant public health concern in recent decades. As individuals, particularly young people, find themselves spending more and more time online, the detrimental effects of this excessive and compulsive internet use on mental health, physical well-being, social relationships, academic or occupational performance, and overall quality of life have become increasingly apparent.

Nature and Scope of Internet Addiction

In order to fully understand the issue of internet addiction, it is essential to first explore the definition and conceptualization of this behavioural disorder. Internet addiction, also referred to as problematic internet use or compulsive internet use, has been the subject of extensive research and debate among scholars and clinicians in recent decades.

The term “internet addiction” was first introduced in the 1990s by Dr. Ivan Goldberg, a psychiatrist who observed patterns of excessive and uncontrolled internet use among his patients. Goldberg proposed that individuals could become addicted to the internet, experiencing symptoms similar to those associated with substance addictions, such as tolerance, withdrawal, and impaired function in daily life. Since then, a growing body of research has sought to further define and characterize this emerging behavioural addiction.

One of the key challenges in defining internet addiction lies in the fact that the internet is not a single, discrete activity, but rather a platform that enables a wide range of activities, from social media and online gaming to e-commerce and information-seeking. As such, internet addiction is often conceptualized as a multidimensional construct, with various sub-types or “addictions” related to specific internet-enabled behaviours, such as social media addiction, online gaming addiction, or cybersex addiction.

Despite this complexity, researchers have proposed various frameworks and diagnostic criteria for internet addiction. One of the most widely recognized models is the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS), developed by Caplan and colleagues. This model posits that internet addiction is characterized by a cognitive-behavioural syndrome, including symptoms such as mood regulation, compulsive use, cognitive preoccupation, and negative outcomes.

Another influential framework is the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), developed by Dr. Kimberly Young. The IAT assesses the degree of preoccupation, compulsive use, withdrawal symptoms, and negative consequences associated with problematic internet use. This assessment tool has been widely used in both clinical and research settings to identify and measure the severity of internet addiction.

It is important to note that the classification and diagnosis of internet addiction remain subject to on-going debate and refinement. While the American Psychological Association (APA) has recognized “Internet Gaming Disorder” as a condition warranting further study in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), the broader concept of internet addiction has not yet been formally included as a distinct diagnostic category. However, many researchers and clinicians advocate for the recognition of internet addiction as a legitimate behavioural addiction, akin to substance use disorders or gambling addiction.

Risk Factors and Etiological Mechanisms of Internet Addiction

The development of internet addiction is a complex and multifaceted process, influenced by a variety of individual, social, and environmental factors. Understanding the underlying risk factors and etiological mechanisms that contribute to the emergence and maintenance of this behavioural disorder is essential for designing effective prevention and intervention strategies.

Individual Factors :

 A growing body of research has identified several individual-level factors that may predispose individuals to the development of internet addiction. Personality traits, such as high levels of impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and neuroticism, have been consistently linked to an increased risk of problematic internet use. Individuals with these characteristics may be more likely to engage in compulsive and excessive online behaviours as a means of mood regulation or stimulation-seeking.

Additionally, the presence of co-occurring mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), has been associated with a higher likelihood of internet addiction. These underlying psychological and neurological factors may contribute to a heightened vulnerability to the development of addictive behaviours, including problematic internet use.

Demographic factors, such as age and gender, have also been identified as risk factors for internet addiction. Adolescents and young adults, particularly males, have consistently been found to be more susceptible to developing internet addiction. This may be partially attributed to the developmental changes and social pressures experienced during these life stages, as well as the increased accessibility and pervasiveness of digital technologies among younger generations.

Social and Environmental Factors

 Beyond individual-level characteristics, social and environmental factors also play a significant role in the etiology of internet addiction. The quality and nature of an individual’s interpersonal relationships and social support systems can influence the risk of developing problematic internet use. For instance, individuals with poor social skills, limited social connections, or dysfunctional family environments may be more likely to turn to the internet as a means of socialization, emotional regulation, or escape from real-world problems.

The availability and accessibility of the internet, as well as the design and features of digital platforms and applications, can also contribute to the development of internet addiction. The ubiquity of smartphones and the constant connectivity they provide, combined with the reinforcing and addictive design elements of social media, online gaming, and other internet-based activities, can foster compulsive and excessive use.

Moreover, cultural and societal factors, such as the normalization of technology use, the perceived importance of online presence and participation, and the lack of digital literacy and self-regulation skills, can also shape an individual’s relationship with the internet and increase the risk of problematic use.

Neuro–biological and Psychological Processes

 In addition to the individual, social, and environmental factors, researchers have also explored the potential Neuro-biological and psychological mechanisms underlying internet addiction. Emerging evidence suggests that the neurological and Neuro-chemical processes involved in the development of substance addictions may also play a role in the etiology of internet addiction.

Studies have found that excessive internet use and engagement in certain online activities, such as gaming or social media use, can trigger the release of dopamine and other reward-related neurotransmitters in the brain’s reward system. This can lead to a heightened sense of pleasure and reinforcement, potentially fuelling compulsive and addictive behaviours.

Furthermore, the cognitive and behavioural patterns associated with internet addiction, such as attentional biases, cognitive preoccupation, and impaired self-regulation, may be underpinned by specific psychological processes. These include the development of maladaptive coping strategies, distorted cognitions related to the internet and its use, and impaired executive functioning and impulse control.

 By understanding the multifaceted risk factors and etiological mechanisms involved in the development of internet addiction, researchers and clinicians can better inform the design and implementation of targeted prevention and intervention strategies. This comprehensive approach is crucial for addressing the growing public health concern of problematic internet use in the digital age.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Various research studies have been conducted by various research scholars across the globe on internet addiction. Few of them have been presented below in chronological order;

In the study by Menon, Shanker & Narayanan, Lakshmi & Kahwaji, Ahmad (2018), the researchers investigated the internet addiction among college students. The study was conducted on 300 students in a management institute in India, were 300 students (first, second and third years’ students) were sampled and the result shows that the older students were more internet addicted than the younger students. It also showed that men were more addicted than women. 

A cross sectional study was conducted by Prashant Bagdey, Hemant Adikane, Uday Narlawar, Dadasaheb Dhage, Kishor Surwase, Alka Kaware (2018) for investigating the association between mental health and internet addiction among college students in Nagpur city. The result showed that the students aged from 17-25 years were high on internet addition. They suggested that excessive use of the Internet effects on physical, mental health and social well-being of students.

A cross sectional study on internet addiction and their relationship with depression among professional college students was carried out by Subhashini KJ, Praveen G (2018). The study was conducted on 300 students from Hassan Institute of Medical Sciences (Government Medical College) and Government Engineering College, Karnataka. They found that out of 300 students 173 (57.7%) were found to be internet addicted and 67 (38.7%) among them were found to be depressed and a there was positive relation between internet and depression. A male student shows more internet addiction than female students. 

Azher, Musarrat (2018) has explored the relationship between Internet Addiction and Anxiety among 300 PG students form University of Sargodha. The data was collected by Internet Addiction Scale (I.A.S) and Beck Anxiety Scale.  The result finding showed that internet addition was more in male students as compare to female students and also suggested that there was positive relationship between internet addiction and anxiety level among University students. 

A cross sectional study on 1304 undergraduate college students (716  were females and 588 were males) was conducted in Udupi taluka Karnataka by Sharma B,Ashok L,Chandrasekaran V, Monteiro A (2018) to examine the correlates of  internet addiction. They found the prevalence of internet addiction was 44% and this was associated gender, father’s occupation, mother’s education, availability of personal gadgets, use of smartphone, exposure to internet at young age and there was positive relationship between internet addiction and level of depression, anxiety, and stress. 

A study conducted by Teena Sarao & Dr. Poonam Sharma (2017) on the relationship between the Internet use and locus of control among college students. The result indicated that internet addicted students’ feel symptoms of tolerance, withdrawal and escape, frequent interpersonal and academic conflicts, and physical health-threatening risks related to problem. The result also showed that men facing more problems then women and they found positive correlation between external locus of control and problem Internet use.

RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

1. Prevalence and Growing Concern

• Increasing Usage: College students are among the most frequent users of the internet, and their usage often extends beyond academic purposes to social media, gaming, and other online activities. With the rise in digital technology, understanding the extent and impact of internet addiction in this demographic is critical.
• Rising Trends: Recent studies and reports suggest that internet addiction is becoming more prevalent among young adults. Research can provide updated data and insights on how widespread the problem is among college students.

2. Impact on Academic Performance

• Academic Challenges: Internet addiction can significantly impact students’ academic performance by leading to procrastination, reduced concentration, and lower grades. Investigating this relationship can help identify the extent of these effects and inform strategies to mitigate them.
• Educational Outcomes: Understanding how internet addiction affects learning outcomes can help educators develop targeted interventions to support students in maintaining academic performance while managing their internet use.

3. Mental Health Concerns

• Psychological Effects: Internet addiction is associated with various mental health issues, including anxiety, depression, and stress. Research can provide insights into how these issues specifically affect college students and identify potential mental health support needs.
• Support Systems: By highlighting the mental health impacts, your research can contribute to developing better support systems and resources within college environments.

4. Social and Behavioral Implications

• Social Interactions: Internet addiction can affect students’ social relationships and communication skills. Research can explore how excessive internet use impacts students’ interactions with peers, family, and faculty.
• Behavioral Patterns: Studying behavioral patterns associated with internet addiction can help in understanding the broader social consequences and developing interventions to promote healthy social interactions.

5. Identification of Risk Factors

• Understanding Triggers: Research can identify specific risk factors contributing to internet addiction among college students, such as academic stress, social pressures, or personal traits. This information can be used to develop preventive measures.
• Targeted Interventions: Identifying risk factors allows for the design of targeted interventions and support programs that address the root causes of internet addiction rather than just its symptoms.

6. Development of Effective Interventions

• Evaluating Existing Programs: Your research can assess the effectiveness of current interventions and support programs aimed at reducing internet addiction. This evaluation can help refine and improve these programs.
• Innovative Solutions: By identifying gaps in existing research, you can propose new strategies or solutions to help students manage their internet use more effectively.

7. Contributing to Policy and Practice

• Institutional Policies: Findings from your research can inform college policies related to internet use and mental health support, promoting a healthier academic environment.
• Educational Practices: Research outcomes can help educators and counselors develop best practices for integrating technology use in a way that supports rather than hinders student success.

8. Future Research Directions

• Foundation for Further Study: Your research can lay the groundwork for future studies on related topics, such as the long-term effects of internet addiction or the impact of emerging technologies on student behavior.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The problem under study was worded as, “Internet Addiction: A Study on College going Students of District Anantnag”.

OBJECTIVE

To compare internet Addiction scores among College going Students of District Anantnag with respect to Stream.

H₀= There is no significant difference in Internet Addiction scores among College going Students of District Anantnag based upon their stream.

DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

• The study was conducted on 100 college going students only,
• Study was conducted on 05 colleges only.

SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

The current study was descriptive in nature. The sample of the study consisted of 100 college going students from 05 going students belonging to district Anantnag. Out of the 100 sampled students 50 were Male and 50 were Female. The students were sampled by using simple random sampling technique (Lottery Method) and the colleges were sampled by using purposive sampling technique. Gender equality was maintained wherever possible. Respondents were selected from diverse socioeconomic status.

TABLE 1.0 depicts the brief sample of the study

S.No.	Name of the College	Gender Male                  Female
01	GDC Boys Anantnag	15	10
02	GDC Women Anantnag	00	20
03	GDC Mattan	10	05
04	GDC Kokernag	15	05
05	GDC Bijbehara	10	10
	Total	50	50
	Grand Total	100

TOOLS

For data collection Internat Addiction Scale (IAS) developed by Daman Deep Kaur Gulati, Dr. Jose J. Kurisunkal and Dr. Mamta Bakliwal 2021

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

Data were collected from 05 different colleges of district Anantnag. After taking the prior permission from the principals of the selected colleges, the respondents selected for the current study were made aware about the objective of the research and were assured that their responses are being used for research purpose only and will be kept confidential.

STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE

The data were analyzed with help of T-Test.

ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

The data related to the objective was collected and analysed by using t-test. But before applying t-test, the investigator checked the assumptions of t-test which are normality and Homogeneity as has been discussed below;

ASSUMPTION OF NORMALITY

H₀= the distribution of Internet Addiction Scores of Arts and Science students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag do not deviate significantly from normality.

Tests of Normality
	Stream	Kolmogorov-Smirnova			Shapiro-Wilk
		Statistic	df	Sig.	Statistic	df	Sig.
Internet addiction scores	Arts	.086	50	.200*	.966	50	.165
	Science	.109	50	.194	.956	50	.059
*. This is a lower bound of the true significance.
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

From above table it is clear that Kolmogorov-Smirnov Statistics for Internet Addiction scores of Arts students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag is 0.086 with df 50, whose significance value is 0.200 which is greater than 0.05, thus the value is not significant at 0.05 level of significance. In view of this the null hypothesis that the “distribution of Internet Addiction Scores of Arts students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag do not deviate significantly from normality” is accepted.

Similarly, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Statistics for Internet Addiction scores of Science students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag is 0.109 with df 50, whose significance value is 0.194 which is greater than 0.05, thus the value is not significant at 0.05 level of significance. In view of this the null hypothesis that the “distribution of Internet Addiction Scores of Science students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag do not deviate significantly from normality” is accepted.

From above table and discussion it is quite clear that Assumption of Normality gets fulfilled. The investigator further proceeded to check the second assumption which is;

Assumption of Homogeneity:

H₀= “there is no significant difference in the variance of Internet addiction scores of Arts and Science Students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag”.

		Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances
Internet Addiction Scores		F	Sig.	t	df	Sig (2-tailed)
	Equal variances assumed	.109	.742	3.837	98	.000
	Equal variances not assumed			3.837	97.082	.000

From table it is clear that Levene’s F value is 0.109, its significant value is 0.742, which is greater than 0.05. Hence, the value is not significant at LOS 0.05. Thus, the Null Hypothesis that “There is no significant difference in the variance of scores of Internet Addiction of Arts and Science Students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag” is accepted. Hence the assumption of Homogeneity of variance holds good.

Further from the above table it is clear that t-value is 3.837 with df= 98, whose two tailed significance value is 0.000 which is less than 0.01 level of significance. Hence the value is significant at 0.01 level of significance. In view of this the null hypothesis that’ “there is no significant difference in Internet Addiction Scores of Arts and Science Stream Students belonging to different Colleges” is rejected which means that Internet Addiction is  not Independent of Stream.

Therefore, it can be concluded that Internet Addiction Scores of Arts and Science Stream Students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag differ significantly.

Also, from the Table below it is observed that mean of Internet Addiction Scores of Students belonging to Science Stream is 67.3600 which is significantly less than the mean of Internet Addiction Scores of Students belonging to Arts Stream which is 75.3600. Therefore, it can be concluded that Internet Addiction is more in Arts Stream Students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag as compared to Science stream students belonging to different Colleges of district Anantnag.

Group Statistics
	Stream	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Std. Error Mean
Internet addiction scores	Arts	50	75.3600	10.92042	1.54438
	Science	50	67.3600	9.90518	1.40080

Similar to our research findings, here are some research studies that suggest internet addiction varies with academic stream or field of study:

1. “Internet Usage Patterns and Addiction Among Students of Different Streams” (2019) by Sharma, A., et al. published in Journal of Educational Technology, 15(3), 1-12. This study found that students from the commerce stream were more likely to experience internet addiction than students from the arts and science streams.

2. “Internet Addiction and Academic Performance: A Study of Students from Different Disciplines” (2020) by Gupta, A., et al. published in Journal of Educational Computing Research, 58(4), 866-881.This study found that students from the engineering and management disciplines were more likely to experience internet addiction than students from the arts and science disciplines.

3. “Internet Addiction and Its Relationship with Academic Performance Among Students of Different Streams” (2018) Singh, S., et al. published in International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science, 9(1), 240-246.This study found that students from the arts stream were more likely to experience internet addiction-related problems than students from the science and commerce streams.

                     In contrast to our results here are some studies whose findings suggest that internet addiction is same irrespective of the academic stream of students

1. “Internet Addiction Among University Students: A Study of Engineering and Humanities Students” (2017) by, Kumar, A., et al. (2017) in  International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science, 8(3), 355-361.- This study found no significant differences in internet addiction between engineering and humanities students.

2. “Internet Addiction Among University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study” (2019)  Al-Dhahir, M., et al. in Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, 14(1), 34-41.  – This study found no significant differences in internet addiction among students from different faculties (arts, science, engineering, and medicine).

REFERENCES

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Akin, A., & Iskender, M. (2011). Internet Addiction and Depression, Anxiety and Stress. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 3(1), 138-148. 

Akin, A. (2012). The relationships between internet addiction, subjective vitality, and subjective happiness. Cyber psychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15, 404–410.

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Atindra Nath Dutta (2016), A comparative study of mental health of addicted and          non-addicted adolescent students, The International Journal of Indian Psychology, Volume 4, Issue 1, No. 76, ISSN 2348-5396 (e) DIP:

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Azher, M. (2014). The Relationship between Internet Addiction and Anxiety among students of University of Sargodha. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4 (1), 288.

Behrman, J., & Deolalikar, A. (1988). Health and Nutrition. In H. Chenery, & T. Srinivasan, Handbook of Development Economics (Vol. 1, pp. 631-711). Amsterdam, North Holland.

Berte, D.Z., Mahamid, F.A. & Affouneh, S. (2019) Internet Addiction and Perceived Self-Efficacy Among University Students. Int J Ment Health Addiction. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469–019–00160–8

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Betul Keles, Niall McCrae & Annmarie Grealish (2020). A systematic review: the influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25:1, 79-93, DOI: 10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851

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Mir Firdose Ahmad , Shah Bilal Ahmad, Rather Ilyas Ahmad , Bhat Mohd           Arif Hussain  (2021). A Comparative Study Of Internet Addiction Among           Higher Secondary School Students Of District Anantnag, published in                Elementary Education Online, 2021; Vol 20 (Issue 2): pp. 3960-3970, doi: 10.17051/ilkonline.2021.02.412

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[1] Student Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, J&K, INDIA

[2] Former Student, University of Kashmir, Department of Economics, J&K, INDIA

[3] Assistant Professor (Environmental Science), GDC Women Anantnag, J&K, INDIA

[4] Principal, Islamia Faridiya College of Education Kishtwar, J&K, INDIA

[5] Assistant Professor (Education), GDC Women Anantnag, J&K, INDIA

[6] Assistant Professor (Kashmiri), GDC Mattan Anantnag, J&K, INDIA

[7] Teacher at Department of School Education, J&K, INDIA

*Adah, Obaa Daniel, ¹Badey Dinebari

*Centre for Gender and Development Studies, University of Port Harcourt

¹Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Port Harcourt.

Abstract

The present study is focused on assessing the coping mechanisms of women and children in IDPs camps in Abuja as components of the Human security needs of these vulnerable groups of persons. The theoretical background was the Human Needs theory. The study employed a survey research design using mixed method for data collection, quantitative data was obtained by the administration of questionnaires while qualitative data was gotten through key informant interview schedule, participants were drawn using purposive sampling technique. The data generated using the questionnaires was analyzed using descriptive statistics of frequency counts and percentages, presented in tables. The data generated from the interview schedule was analyzed using the explanation building technique. The results showed that women and children had applied coping mechanisms to address the challenges faced in the IDP camps and these mechanisms have contributed to their overall human security, however, there is a mixed perception of the effectiveness of the interventions applied as there is need for more tailored, sustainable, and inclusive interventions. The study recommends amongst others collaboration and coordination among humanitarian actors, government agencies, local authorities, and community-based organizations to ensure a coherent and integrated response to the needs of displaced women and children, empowerment of women and youth as agents of change within the IDP camps by providing opportunities for leadership, skills development, and civic engagement.

Keywords: Internally Displaced Persons, Coping Mechanisms, interventions, Women and Children.

1.0 Introduction

Like many other African nations, Nigeria is strikingly incapable of offering human security that meets international standards. Nigeria has around one-third of Africa’s IDP population and approximately 10% of the world’s IDP population. Nigeria ranks third in the global ranking, with around 3.3 million displaced persons, primarily women and children (IDMC, 2018). Insecurity caused by the Boko Haram (BH) insurgency and military counter-insurgency operations affects around 26 million people in Northeast Nigeria, with over 14 million in desperate need of humanitarian assistance (OCHA, 2017). Women and children are typically more vulnerable than other affected displaced populations, contributing to the grave human rights violations that they face (Brookings Institution, 2014).

Furthermore, women and children experience displacement in ways that men do not, and they face unique obstacles that must be acknowledged in order to offer them the proper and specific help they require (IDMC, 2020). Unfortunately, this distinction is rarely considered while giving aid and protection. Instead, gendered behaviors in IDP camps have reinforced previously existent discrimination against women and children. These IDP experiences, according to UNFPA (2016), are rooted in uneven and discriminatory social norms, gender inequity, and stereotypes. According to IDMC (2014), the ongoing lack of disaggregated data on displacement dynamics has resulted in a lack of awareness of Nigeria’s displacement dynamics and fragmented, unsuitable, and ineffective response actions. As a result, internally displaced persons face many obstacles in various camps across Nigeria.

Nigeria has faced numerous hurdles since gaining its independence, including nation-building, industrial and scientific advances, political and economic development, high education standards, and health care quality. Human security has been a big concern for the Nigerian government despite the country’s abundance of riches. It has also significantly weakened the country’s economy by depressing investment and tourism. Many other elements work together to impede the attainment of human security, aside from the government’s apathetic attitude towards it. Even worse, Nigeria is one of the nations where the most horrible terrorist organizations, like Boko Haram, are based, drawing attention, support, and engagement from around the world. Human insecurity has a detrimental impact on a country’s ability to achieve the current Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the upcoming Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Displaced persons are now more vulnerable as a result of internal displacement. In addition, it makes the victims’ poverty worse, endangers national security, causes property loss and suffering, violates human rights, discriminates, malnourishes displaced children, and spreads diseases. Rape, child labor, poor health, and inadequate education have all claimed the lives of women and children. Notably, women, the victims of displacement, lack enough necessities (Walsh, 2016). Despite these concerns and issues, there is a distinct shortage of research evidence on human security in general, especially those facets of human security related to the sustenance of IDPs, such as food and social security. Most studies on IDPs have either focused on non-conflict-induced Displacement (non-CID) or, when focused on CID, have generally focused on reasons for displacement, types of displacement, and international legal instruments that control IDPs (Mehari, 2017). According to Taylor-Robinson and Oleribe (2016) and Bamidele (2023), most studies have not assessed the coping mechanisms of IDPs, especially women and children. IDPs in Nigeria are in a severe and precarious situation, with ever-worsening living conditions, including food and social insecurity. This should be considered in addition to the high frequency of human insecurity and IDPs’ lack of a long-term solution (IDMC, 2019). As a result, this study seeks to assess the coping mechanisms of IDPs and the situation of women and children in the New Kuchingoro and Wassa Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) Camps as a means of offering suggestions and insights that can help find long-term solutions that will safeguard their human security.

1. Objectives of the Study

1.   Determine the coping mechanisms employed by women and children in selected IDP Camps to address the challenges they face and their impact on their resilience and overall human security.

• Evaluate the effectiveness of the coping mechanism employed by women and children in the selected IDP Camps in promoting human security.
• Assess the effectiveness of the interventions implemented by different stakeholders in addressing the human security needs of women and children in the selected IDP Camps.

1.2 Research Questions

1. What coping mechanisms are employed by women and children in selected IDP Camps to address the challenges they face and their impact on their resilience and overall human security?
2. How effective are the coping mechanism employed by women and children in the selected IDP Camps in promoting human security?
3. How effective are the interventions implemented by different stakeholders in addressing the human security needs of women and children in the selected IDP Camps?

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Theoretical Framework

Theory of Human Needs

The human needs theory (HNT), first put forth by renowned psychologist Abraham Maslow in his groundbreaking article “A Theory of Human Motivation,” published in the esteemed psychological review in 1943, serves as the foundation for this empirical study. The HNT, which has had a significant impact on psychology, maintains that human wants are inherently non-negotiable as well as intrinsic and universal. It asserts that some requirements are essential for human life and general well-being (Olanrewaju et al., 2018). Despite what the general public believes, these demands go beyond the necessities of food, shelter, and water. They include necessities that are both material and immaterial, as well as a variety of other demands that people have a strong desire to satisfy (Marker, 2005). As a result, the HNT provides deep insights into both the root causes of conflicts and viable paths for their settlement. Prominent academics generally acknowledge its effectiveness as a valuable tool for mediation, proactive peace-building, and post-conflict peace-building initiatives (Danielsen, 2005).

As for Osagioduwa and Oluwakorede (2016), the HNT posits that conflicts mostly stem from the unfulfilled demands of individuals at many levels, including the individual, societal, and collective levels. Drawing on the research of Burton (1990, referenced in Danielsen, 2005), it is clear that marginalized groups frequently turn to violence in order to express their rights and satisfy their unfulfilled wants as a result of the ongoing disregard for global human needs. Renowned scholars like Max Neef (1991), Burton (1990), and Maslow (1943) have studied the HNT in great detail. They have concentrated their research on the complex relationship between human needs and conflicts at different levels of society, from intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts to international conflicts and intergroup conflicts (Danielsen, 2005). The basic tenet that conflict emerges when the needs of individuals and groups are not sufficiently satisfied helps explain the relationship between conflict and human needs (Olanrewaju et al., 2018). Consequently, only when the wide range of human needs is well met and conflict interests are appropriately addressed can effectively conflict resolution be accomplished

2.2 Conceptual Clarification

Human Security, according to UNDP Human Development Reports (1994), the first significant document addressing the issue, refers to protection from damaging upheavals in daily life and protection from long-term threats like famine, disease, and oppression. Protection against both traditional and contemporary safety risks, such as persistent poverty, ethnic violence, human trafficking, climate change, pandemics, international terrorism, and sudden economic downturns, is referred to as human security. Such threats often turn into international issues. A former UN Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, in his perspective, asserts that human security is linked to defending national interests within the parameters of foreign policy or even international security in the event of a nuclear war (HDR, 1994, cited in Titko & Kurtynet, 2019).

According to Bayar and Aral (2019), human security is the establishment of political, social, environmental, economic, military, and cultural institutions that collectively provide individuals with the means of surviving, supporting themselves, and maintaining their dignity. Two essential elements make up the notion of human security, initially presented in the Human Development Report 1994. These are the freedoms from desire and fear. In order to be free from fear, people must be safeguarded against dangers, including physical harm, armed conflict, and war, using various strategies, including the architecture of peacebuilding. However, emancipation from non-violent dangers to people’s welfare and dignity, such as poverty, malnourishment, illnesses, environmental degradation, and others, is necessary for freedom from want (Woldetsadik, 2018). Szpak (2015) further describes human security in terms of its emphasis on people, their lives, their functioning in society, their autonomy, access to the market, and social chances, citing the 1994 Human Development Report. In addition, it addresses the State of peace, which is a prerequisite for human security. Living in a state of peace and safety where everyone is free to exercise their fundamental liberties and human rights without hindrance means being humanely secure. Individuals must be able to fulfill their objectives and aspirations as well as their societal demands. According to Jacobs (2016), human security encompasses all human needs for survival, development, and growth, not just the requirement for physical defense against aggression.

The first global study to project security more comprehensively was the United Nations Human Development Study (HDR) of 1994 (Lawal & Mbiba, 2020). Along with rules and regulations for execution, it considers the socioeconomic requirements of people and communities as a crucial aspect of security (Aduloju & Pratt, 2014). The study was written in response to the “Economics of Peace” Round Table discussion on North-South relations in Costa Rica in 1990. All participants in the Round Table acknowledged and accepted the need for a more dynamic and widely accepted security paradigm in the post-Cold War era. In the post-Cold War order framework, the emphasis was on the need to cut back on military spending and instead concentrate on human-centered development, such as bettering the economy and the environment, to achieve world peace (North-South Roundtable 1990). The HDR made the case that the definition of security had been applied too narrowly for too long, with the definitions being limited to the defense of national interests abroad, the security of territory against external assault, or the prevention of a nuclear holocaust. Rather than being directly linked to people, it has been more strongly linked to nation-states (HDR 1994).

According to Titko and Kurtnets (2019), the elements of human protection are economic security, food security, health protection, environmental security, personal (physical) security, community security, and political security

2.3 Empirical Review

Adams (2021) conducted a study on the challenges faced by displaced individuals, particularly females, in Borno State, Nigeria. The study focused on the humanitarian crises experienced by female internally displaced persons (IDPs) in specific IDP camps, namely Jerusalem IDP camp, Zabarmari IDP camp, Muna Dati IDP camp, Ethiopia IDP camp, and Teachers’ Village IDP camp. These crises were primarily caused by the activities of Islamist Jihadists, herdsmen, and armed bandits. The paper explored a range of predicaments faced by female IDPs, including human rights violations, sexual violence and abuses, environmental racism, hunger, starvation, health issues, educational marginalization, and social ostracism. In response to these challenges, the study examined the role of the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) and other Christian charities in addressing the humanitarian crises faced by female IDPs in the selected camps. To gather data, the study employed an observer-as-participant ethnographic approach with a combination of qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques. The collected data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), and the study drew on the human needs theory as its theoretical framework. The research findings indicated that CAN and other Christian charity organizations have made commendable efforts in responding to the crises, with a response rate of 98.1%. The study concludes that considering the diverse array of challenges faced by female IDPs in the selected IDP camps, the timely and intensified response from CAN is crucial.

Additionally, by identifying and applying the fundamental principles of the human needs theory, the crises faced by female IDPs can be significantly reduced. Overall, Adams’ study sheds light on the challenges of forced displacement and coping strategies employed by displaced women in selected IDP camps in Nigeria, emphasizing the role of CAN and other Christian charities in addressing the humanitarian crises faced by female IDPs in the study area. While the study explored the challenges faced by IDPs in Borno State, it focused more on the plight of women and children in IDP Camps in Nigeria from 2015 to 2020.

Olanrewaju and Omotoso (2018) examined the challenges faced by displaced women in selected IDP camps in Nigeria, with a particular focus on the lack of adequate care and financial resources. The study utilized a qualitative approach, employing a descriptive survey and conducting focus group discussions to gather responses from the participants. The study’s main findings highlighted that the lack of adequate care and financial resources were the significant challenges affecting displaced women. Economic opportunities were identified as the most significant coping strategy employed by these women. The data generated from the study aimed to contribute to the development of a framework for implementing global best practices in the management of internal displacement in Nigeria. The study objectives revolved around assessing the challenges linked to internal displacement in Nigeria and exploring the coping strategies adopted by displaced women. The study design used a qualitative approach to conduct focus group discussions and a descriptive survey. The sample population consisted of all Boko Haram terrorism-displaced women living in selected IDP camps in Nigeria, with a total of 116 respondents. The participants were divided into different groups based on their marital status and age. The focus group discussions were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis. It is important to note that no specific intervention was provided to the study participants as the primary focus of the research was to assess the challenges associated with internal displacement in Nigeria and explore the coping strategies adopted by displaced women. Based on the findings, the study put forth several policy recommendations. These recommendations included the adoption of a legal and institutional framework for managing internal displacement, the development of a national displacement policy, and the necessity to evaluate intra-gender vulnerabilities and implement targeted interventions to address the specific needs of displaced women. While the study shares some semblance with the theme of the present study, unlike the present study, the focus is on the general plight of women and children in IDP camps in Abuja from 2015-2020.

3.0 Methodology

The study employed a survey research design using mixed method for data collection. Both quantitative and qualitative data was used for the study, quantitative data would be gotten by the administration of questionnaires while qualitative data was gotten through key informant interview schedule, purposive sampling technique was used to draw participants for the study from the entire population of IDPs. The data generated using the questionnaires was analyzed using descriptive statistics of frequency counts and percentages, presented in tables. The data generated from the interview schedule was analyzed using the explanation building technique.

4.0 Results

Research Question One: What coping mechanisms are employed by women and children in selected IDP Camps to address the challenges they face and their impact on their resilience and overall human security?

Table 1: Coping Mechanisms and Human Security

Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly Agree
I Employ coping mechanisms to address challenges	10 (5.1%)	20 (10.3%)	30 (15.4%)	80 (41.0%)	55 (28.2%)
Coping mechanisms contribute to overall human security	8 (4.1%)	15 (7.7%)	25 (12.8%)	85 (43.6%)	62 (31.8%)

The data in Table 1 suggests that many women and children employ coping mechanisms to address the challenges they face in the IDP camps. Additionally, a notable majority believe these coping mechanisms contribute to their overall human security. This underscores the resilience and agency of women and children in the face of adversity but also emphasizes the importance of supporting and strengthening these coping strategies to enhance human security further.

Respondents’ utilization of coping mechanisms reflects their resilience and adaptive capacity in navigating the challenges of displacement. Strengthening these coping strategies is essential for promoting human security and well-being among displaced populations. Efforts to support and empower women and children in the IDP camps should focus on enhancing their access to resources and opportunities that enable them to cope effectively with adversity.

Research Question Two: How effective are the coping mechanism employed by women and children in the selected IDP Camps in promoting human security?

Table 2: Effectiveness of Interventions

Statement	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly Agree
Interventions effectively address human security needs	12 (6.2%)	20 (10.3%)	35 (17.9%)	85 (43.6%)	43 (22.1%)

Responses to Table 2 regarding the effectiveness of interventions in addressing human security needs indicate a mixed perception among respondents. While a significant proportion agree that interventions effectively address these needs, a notable number express disagreement or neutrality. This highlights the importance of evaluating existing interventions to identify gaps and areas for improvement in ensuring comprehensive support for displaced populations.

The mixed perceptions regarding the effectiveness of interventions underscore the importance of ongoing evaluation and improvement in humanitarian response efforts. Identifying and addressing gaps in existing interventions is essential for maximizing their impact and ensuring that the needs of displaced populations are adequately met. Strengthening coordination and collaboration among stakeholders is crucial for enhancing the effectiveness and sustainability of interventions in the IDP camps.

The consensus among respondents regarding the need for context-specific recommendations for sustainable improvement in human security highlights the importance of tailored approaches to addressing the unique challenges displaced populations face. Implementing these recommendations is essential for promoting long-term resilience and well-being among women and children in the IDP camps. Failure to act on these recommendations could perpetuate cycles of insecurity and vulnerability, undermining efforts to build a more inclusive and resilient society.

In summary, the quantitative analysis results provide valuable insights into the perceptions and experiences of women, children, and NEMA staff in the IDP camps, highlighting both achievements and areas for improvement in promoting human security and well-being. Addressing the identified challenges and implementing targeted interventions is essential for creating safe, supportive, and sustainable environments for displaced populations in Abuja, Nigeria.

Research Question Three: How effective are the interventions implemented by different stakeholders in addressing the human security needs of women and children in the selected IDP Camps?

Theme 1: Support and Interventions

The qualitative responses shed light on the perspectives of displaced populations regarding the support and interventions provided by humanitarian organizations and government agencies. Participants appreciated the assistance received but highlighted the need for more tailored, sustainable, and inclusive interventions. These findings align with the quantitative data indicating mixed perceptions regarding the effectiveness of interventions, underscoring the importance of addressing gaps in coordination, communication, and resource allocation to maximize the impact of humanitarian response efforts.

“We appreciate the support provided by humanitarian organizations, but more needs to be done to address our specific needs and priorities. There are times when we feel overlooked or marginalized in the aid distribution process.” – Participant J.

“Government agencies and NGOs play a crucial role in assisting, but gaps in coordination and communication need to be addressed. Sometimes, there is duplication of efforts, leading to inefficiencies in resource allocation.” – Participant K

“We need sustainable interventions that empower us to rebuild our lives and regain our independence. Short-term aid is not enough to address the root causes of our displacement. We need long-term solutions that address the underlying drivers of conflict and displacement.” – Participant L.

The qualitative reflections offer critical perspectives on humanitarian actors’ and government agencies’ support and interventions. While quantitative data may assess the effectiveness of interventions in terms of outcomes, qualitative narratives elucidate the processes, dynamics, and underlying challenges shaping the delivery and impact of assistance. Participants’ accounts of appreciating assistance and experiencing gaps in coordination, communication, and inclusivity highlight the complexities and limitations of humanitarian response efforts. These findings underscore the need for participatory, accountable, and context-sensitive approaches to humanitarian action. Strengthening community engagement, promoting transparency and accountability, and fostering partnerships with local actors can enhance interventions’ relevance, responsiveness, and sustainability. By centering the voices and priorities of displaced populations, humanitarian actors can ensure more effective, dignified, and rights-based assistance, ultimately fulfilling human security for all.

5.0 Summary/Conclusion

Most respondents employ coping mechanisms to navigate the challenges of displacement, demonstrating resilience and adaptability. These strategies contribute significantly to overall human security, enhancing safety, well-being, and resilience within the camp environment. Recognizing and supporting these coping mechanisms is crucial for empowering displaced populations and improving their human security. Research emphasizes the importance of community support and adaptive strategies in promoting resilience among displaced individuals.

The majority of respondents believe that interventions effectively address human security needs, indicating a positive perception of efforts by various stakeholders. These interventions, which focus on preventing and responding to sexual violence and mainstreaming gender-sensitive approaches, are essential for protecting displaced populations. Coordinated efforts by humanitarian agencies, government authorities, and civil society organizations are vital in addressing IDPs’ complex challenges and enhancing their human security within camp settings. The positive impact of these interventions underscores the importance of continued support and collaboration in humanitarian responses.

6.0 Recommendations

Strengthen Community-based Support Systems: Foster community cohesion and social support networks within the IDP camps to promote resilience and mutual assistance among residents. Facilitate community-led initiatives, peer support groups, and cultural activities to strengthen social ties and address psychosocial needs.

Enhance Coordination and Collaboration: Foster collaboration and coordination among humanitarian actors, government agencies, local authorities, and community-based organizations to ensure a coherent and integrated response to the needs of displaced populations. Establish mechanisms for information sharing, joint planning, and monitoring of interventions to maximize effectiveness and minimize duplication of efforts (UNHCR, 2020).

Empower Women and Youth: Empower women and youth as agents of change within the IDP camps by providing opportunities for leadership, skills development, and civic engagement. Promote participation in decision-making processes, community governance structures, and advocacy initiatives to amplify the voices and priorities of marginalized groups (UNDP, 2016).

Strengthen Child Protection Systems: Strengthen child protection systems within the IDP camps to safeguard the rights and well-being of children, including prevention and response to child labor, trafficking, and exploitation. Provide specialized services for vulnerable children, such as reunification with family members, psychosocial support, and access to education and healthcare (UNICEF, 2019).

References

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Lawal, A. and Mbiba, B. (2020). Human Security in the Northeast Nigeria: Some  Conceptual Reflection. In International Conference on Engineering, Applied Sciences and System Modeling (pp. 397-409). Springer, Cham.

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Olanrewaju, A. M., Omotoso, S., & Alabi, O. (2018). Environmental governance and internal displacement in Nigeria: issues, challenges, and prospects. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 9(10), 130-139.

Osagioduwa, E. O., & Oluwakorede, O. (2016). Understanding the dynamics and causes of internal displacement: a case study of Nigeria. African Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 2(1), 1-16.

Titko, A., & Kurtynet, B. (2019). Understanding Human Security: Conceptual Foundations and Contemporary Debates. Security Studies, 28(1), 89-105.

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Dr. Raj Vayyavur, Senior, IEEE

 rvayyavur@gmail.com

 Abstract— Data strategy is critical to the successful implementation of artificial intelligence (AI), big data, and metadata management across various industries. This paper explores how effective data strategies impact AI implementation, public health systems, emergency department (ED) data management, and the banking sector, with an emphasis on big data and metadata. In AI-centric applications, the emerging concept of data-centric AI (DCAI) emphasizes data quality and maintenance, shifting focus from model development to data optimization. In public health, metadata facilitates real-time data integration and interoperability, enabling faster response times and better outcomes. Emergency departments utilize metadata for patient care optimization, while banks implement both offensive and defensive data strategies to ensure compliance and enhance customer experiences. The role of big data and metadata is further explored, particularly in creating data governance frameworks that support AI-driven analytics. Despite its potential, implementing data strategies faces challenges, including data quality, privacy concerns, and regulatory compliance. Limitations such as resource constraints and the evolving nature of data governance highlight the need for continuous improvement in data strategies. This paper also provides an empirical review and research limitations, stressing the importance of refining data strategies to keep pace with technological advancements. In conclusion, robust data strategies are essential for harnessing the full potential of big data and AI, making them critical drivers of innovation and competitive advantage across multiple sectors.

Keywords— Data Strategy, Artificial Intelligence, Big Data, Metadata, Data-Centric AI, Public Health, Banking, Emergency Department, Data Governance, Data Analytics

I. INTRODUCTION

    In the modern digital era, the proliferation of data has led to transformative changes across industries, driven by innovations in artificial intelligence (AI), big data analytics, and metadata management. As organizations strive to stay competitive and meet the evolving demands of their customers, the role of data as a strategic asset has become more crucial than ever. AI, big data, and metadata are central to this transformation, offering organizations the ability to harness vast amounts of information, derive actionable insights, and improve decision-making processes.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a cornerstone of technological innovation, enabling machines to perform tasks that traditionally required human intelligence. From natural language processing to predictive analytics, AI is revolutionizing how businesses operate, optimizing processes such as customer service, supply chain management, and fraud detection. However, the success of AI systems heavily depends on the quality of the data they are trained on. The concept of data-centric AI (DCAI) highlights this dependency, shifting the focus from merely developing better algorithms to ensuring that data quality, labeling, and maintenance are prioritized throughout the AI development lifecycle [1].

Alongside AI, the growth of big data has been pivotal in enabling organizations to make informed, data-driven decisions. Big data refers to the large volumes of structured and unstructured data generated by digital systems, social networks, sensors, and other sources. Its defining characteristics, often summarized as the three Vs—volume, variety, and velocity—mean that traditional data management techniques are no longer sufficient to handle the sheer scale and complexity of data generated today. Organizations that can successfully implement big data analytics can gain insights into customer behaviors, operational inefficiencies, and market trends, thereby gaining a competitive edge [2]. However, the key challenge remains: managing and extracting value from this data in a way that is both cost-effective and efficient.

A critical component in managing big data and AI is the role of metadata, which can be thought of as “data about data.” Metadata provides essential context, describing the characteristics, structure, and meaning of data within a given system. By leveraging metadata, organizations can ensure that their data assets are discoverable, interpretable, and usable by AI systems and data analysts alike. Metadata also plays an integral role in ensuring data governance and compliance with regulations such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), as it allows for better traceability and accountability of data usage [7].

Together, AI, big data, and metadata form the foundation of data strategies, which define how organizations manage, organize, and govern their data assets. A well-structured data strategy is critical for ensuring that data is reliable, accessible, and actionable, enabling organizations to derive maximum value from their data investments. In sectors like healthcare, finance, and public services, effective data strategies are essential for meeting regulatory requirements, improving operational efficiency, and fostering innovation [3].

The role of data strategies in enhancing AI implementation, optimizing big data use, and ensuring metadata management is the focus of this research. This paper explores how data strategies are applied across various industries, such as public health, emergency departments, and the banking sector, to support AI-driven decision-making, improve interoperability, and enhance regulatory compliance. In addition to highlighting the successes of data strategies in these fields, the paper discusses the challenges and limitations organizations face in implementing effective data governance frameworks and sustaining data quality over time.

The synergy between AI, big data, and metadata is becoming increasingly critical as organizations transition from traditional data management practices to more advanced, data-driven models. In the context of AI, data-centric AI (DCAI) emphasizes the importance of having well-structured, high-quality data that AI models can learn from. DCAI shifts the focus away from refining algorithms and instead highlights the value of improving the data that fuels AI systems. This approach ensures that AI implementations are more robust, adaptable, and capable of handling real-world complexities, where data imperfections often hinder AI performance [1].

Big data analytics, meanwhile, empowers organizations to leverage vast datasets to uncover hidden patterns, correlations, and insights. The ability to process and analyze such data in real time is a game changer in industries like finance, healthcare, and retail, where decisions must be made rapidly and accurately. However, the sheer volume, velocity, and variety of big data present significant challenges. Without an effective data strategy, organizations may struggle with data silos, inconsistencies, and quality issues, making it difficult to extract actionable insights [4]. A sound data strategy integrates big data into decision-making processes by ensuring that data is governed, cleansed, and accessible to the appropriate systems and stakeholders.

Metadata plays a crucial role in organizing and understanding big data, particularly when dealing with complex datasets from various sources. As organizations collect and integrate data from disparate systems, metadata ensures that this data is correctly categorized, labeled, and stored in a way that allows for easy retrieval and analysis. For example, in healthcare, metadata can help streamline access to patient records, allowing for seamless transitions between different care providers or systems [7]. Metadata also supports data governance, ensuring that data is used responsibly and in compliance with regulatory requirements.

The rise of data governance frameworks has also been a critical development in managing data across industries. These frameworks establish policies and procedures for how data is collected, stored, and used, ensuring consistency, accountability, and compliance with both internal standards and external regulations. Strong data governance is particularly important in industries such as banking and healthcare, where sensitive information must be protected while still being accessible for decision-making and service delivery. A well-governed data environment allows organizations to mitigate risks related to data breaches, privacy violations, and non-compliance, while also unlocking new opportunities for innovation and operational efficiency [6].

In the sections that follow, we will delve deeper into the application of data strategies in different sectors. We will explore the role of AI, big data, and metadata in shaping public health initiatives, optimizing emergency department operations, and transforming banking systems. We will also examine the challenges organizations face in implementing these strategies, including data quality issues, cost constraints, and the evolving regulatory landscape.

This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of how data strategies can be effectively deployed to harness the full potential of AI and big data. By drawing on both empirical examples and theoretical insights, we will show that a well-defined and adaptable data strategy is essential for organizations looking to innovate and stay competitive in today’s fast-paced, data-driven world. Through a combination of case studies and analyses, we will highlight best practices for implementing data strategies across industries and offer recommendations for overcoming common obstacles in data governance and AI deployment.

Fig.1. Data Strategy Framework for AI and Big Data

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Big Data and Data Strategy

The concept of data strategy has evolved significantly over the years. Traditional data management focused on storage and retrieval; however, the advent of big data and AI has introduced more dynamic data ecosystems. Big data analytics has become crucial in improving decision-making, particularly in industries like finance and healthcare, where timely insights lead to better customer service and patient outcomes [3]. Big data has been recognized as a vital resource that can be leveraged to unlock value through advanced analytics, enhancing competitiveness and driving innovation [4].

B. Data-Centric AI (DCAI)

Data-centric AI (DCAI) emphasizes the importance of high-quality, well-maintained data. Instead of focusing solely on improving AI models, DCAI advocates for better data governance, data augmentation, and data labeling to ensure that AI systems are trained on reliable datasets [5]. This approach has proven critical in industries that rely on predictive analytics and machine learning to forecast outcomes, such as the banking sector, which uses AI for fraud detection and customer behavior analysis [6].

C. Metadata and Data Governance

Metadata plays a key role in data strategies by ensuring that data is findable, accessible, and understandable. Metadata supports data governance frameworks, which are essential for compliance with regulatory standards, particularly in heavily regulated industries like finance and healthcare [7]. The effective use of metadata also ensures that data is properly categorized and easily accessible, making it a critical component for organizations aiming to streamline data processes and maintain high levels of data quality. Metadata-driven frameworks help maintain data traceability, ensuring that organizations can track the origin and usage of data, which is particularly important for compliance purposes in industries such as healthcare and finance [8].

III. Industry Use Cases and Insights

    The successful implementation of data strategies across various industries highlights the critical role of AI, big data, and metadata in improving operational efficiency, decision-making, and regulatory compliance. This section explores the application of data strategies in key sectors such as AI-driven industries, public health, emergency departments (ED), and the banking sector.

A. AI Implementation

The increasing reliance on artificial intelligence (AI) has necessitated robust data strategies to ensure the successful development and deployment of AI systems. A critical concept that has emerged in this context is data-centric AI (DCAI), which shifts the focus from improving AI algorithms to improving the quality of data fed into these models. Data-centric AI emphasizes the importance of data collection, labeling, and continuous maintenance, all of which are essential to ensure AI models are accurate, reliable, and adaptable to real-world applications [1]. Data strategies for AI implementation must ensure data quality through effective governance frameworks and metadata management, allowing for better traceability, context, and usability of data.

Industries that have embraced AI solutions—whether in manufacturing, finance, or logistics—have found that the accuracy and effectiveness of AI models hinge on the quality of data available. Data strategies in these industries typically focus on improving data governance processes, managing metadata to ensure data traceability, and maintaining data quality through robust frameworks. These strategies help to mitigate the risks of biased, incomplete, or low-quality data influencing AI outcomes, leading to more trustworthy and effective AI systems [1].

B. Public Health Data Management

Public health systems around the world rely heavily on data-driven insights to guide their policies and improve patient outcomes. Effective data strategies in this sector are critical to managing vast amounts of health-related data, ensuring that data is not only accurate but also accessible across different platforms. Metadata management plays a key role in public health, enabling seamless integration and interoperability between various healthcare systems [9].

Public health agencies have recognized the importance of real-time data integration to enhance disease surveillance, track patient outcomes, and guide public health initiatives. For example, the integration of electronic case reporting (eCR) systems has significantly reduced the manual workload associated with reporting, thereby streamlining data flows and improving response times [9]. This highlights the importance of ensuring that data strategies are built with a focus on interoperability, which is critical for making data shareable and usable across multiple platforms and stakeholders. Metadata facilitates this process by providing essential context for the data, ensuring that information from different systems can be aligned and understood cohesively.

Furthermore, public health agencies often face the challenge of ensuring data privacy and security, particularly when dealing with sensitive patient information. Therefore, robust data governance frameworks are necessary to ensure compliance with health regulations such as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) and the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). These frameworks focus on protecting sensitive data while still allowing for the secure sharing and use of data for public health initiatives [3].

C. Emergency Department (ED) Data Strategy

Emergency departments (EDs) face unique data management challenges due to the high volume of patients and the need for real-time access to accurate medical records. Effective ED data strategies focus on ensuring data interoperability and facilitating rapid access to patient information. Metadata plays a central role in categorizing and organizing patient data, ensuring that healthcare professionals can access accurate information when making critical decisions [10].

The increasing use of AI in emergency departments for predictive analytics has further heightened the importance of robust data strategies. AI systems in EDs rely on continuous streams of data, including patient health records, diagnostic results, and real-time monitoring data. Therefore, metadata management ensures that data from different sources is compatible and usable by AI systems, ultimately improving patient care by enabling faster decision-making and optimizing the allocation of resources [10].

In this context, metadata and data governance frameworks ensure that data is securely stored, easily retrievable, and compliant with healthcare regulations. As emergency departments increasingly adopt AI-driven solutions for patient care and operational efficiency, maintaining high data quality through comprehensive data strategies becomes critical for successful AI implementation.

D. Banking Sector

The banking industry has embraced data strategies as an essential component of its operations, driven by both the need to enhance customer experience and to comply with increasingly stringent regulations. Banks employ both offensive and defensive data strategies to meet these objectives. Offensive data strategies focus on leveraging data for growth, such as through personalized financial products, predictive analytics for customer engagement, and AI-driven fraud detection systems [7]. Defensive strategies, on the other hand, prioritize data protection, regulatory compliance, and risk management.

A key element of data strategies in banking is ensuring compliance with data privacy laws such as the GDPR and the Payment Services Directive (PSD2). This requires banks to implement robust data governance frameworks that control access to sensitive information, track data usage, and ensure that data handling practices are in line with regulatory requirements [11]. Metadata plays an integral role in this process, ensuring that financial data is traceable, well-organized, and easily auditable.

Additionally, the banking sector relies heavily on AI and big data analytics to optimize operations, particularly in areas such as fraud detection, risk management, and customer relationship management. By utilizing AI systems powered by comprehensive data strategies, banks can process vast amounts of transactional data in real time to detect anomalies and provide personalized customer service. For these AI systems to function optimally, data strategies need to ensure that data is accurate, reliable, and updated consistently [7].

E. Insights from Data Strategy Implementation

Across all these industries, several key insights can be drawn regarding the implementation of data strategies:

Data Quality: Data quality is paramount in ensuring the success of AI systems, particularly in industries that rely on real-time analytics. Poor data quality can result in inaccurate predictions, inefficiencies, and increased risks. Ensuring data quality through proper governance frameworks, metadata management, and regular data audits is essential for effective data strategy implementation [5].

Metadata Management: Metadata serves as the backbone of many data strategies by enabling data interoperability, traceability, and compliance. Organizations that effectively manage their metadata are better equipped to integrate data from multiple sources, track data lineage, and ensure compliance with regulatory requirements [8].

Data Governance: Data governance is critical across all industries to ensure compliance with privacy and security regulations. Effective data governance frameworks allow organizations to control access to data, ensure data integrity, and mitigate the risks of data breaches or regulatory non-compliance [12]. These frameworks are especially important in highly regulated sectors such as healthcare and banking, where the improper handling of data can have serious legal and financial repercussions.

AI and Big Data Integration: Successful AI systems are built on a foundation of high-quality data and effective metadata management. The integration of big data analytics and AI enables organizations to derive insights that can inform decision-making, improve operational efficiency, and drive innovation [6]. However, without a robust data strategy, these systems may fail to deliver the expected outcomes.

IV. RESEARCH LIMITATION

    Despite the potential benefits of implementing robust data strategies, there are several limitations to consider. One major challenge is the high cost and complexity of establishing comprehensive data governance frameworks, particularly for smaller organizations. These frameworks require significant investments in technology, training, and infrastructure, which may be prohibitive for organizations with limited resources [12].

Another limitation lies in maintaining data quality across diverse and complex datasets. As organizations integrate data from multiple sources, ensuring data accuracy, consistency, and completeness becomes increasingly difficult. This is particularly challenging in industries like healthcare and finance, where the quality of data can directly impact decision-making and operational outcomes [9].

Privacy and regulatory concerns also pose significant challenges. Organizations must navigate an evolving landscape of data protection laws and regulations, which can vary by region and industry. Ensuring that data strategies comply with these regulations requires ongoing adjustments and monitoring, which can add to the complexity and cost of implementation [7].

V. CONCLUSION

    Effective data strategies are critical for the successful implementation of AI, big data, and metadata management across various industries. This paper has examined how data strategies impact AI systems, public health management, emergency department operations, and banking processes. Data-centric AI (DCAI), with its focus on data quality and maintenance, is emerging as a crucial approach for organizations aiming to optimize AI-driven systems. Additionally, the role of metadata in improving data interoperability and traceability has been emphasized across several sectors.

While there are challenges to implementing robust data strategies—such as high costs, privacy concerns, and data quality issues—the potential benefits far outweigh these limitations. As industries continue to adopt digital technologies, refining and optimizing data strategies will be essential to unlocking the full potential of AI and big data. In conclusion, data strategies are not just operational necessities; they are strategic assets that can drive innovation, efficiency, and competitive advantage in today’s data-driven world.

Acknowledgment

    I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the researchers, scholars, practitioners, and experts whose invaluable contributions have laid the foundation for this research. Your dedication, insights, and pioneering work have been instrumental in shaping the understanding and knowledge within this field. Without your relentless pursuit of excellence, this research would not have been possible. Thank you for your commitment to advancing the boundaries of knowledge, which continues to inspire and guide future endeavors.

References

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[5] Sestino Andrea, Kahlawi Zakaria, De Mauro Andrea, “Decoding the Data Economy: Emerging Themes and Challenges,” PREPRINT, 2023.

[6] A. Ng, D. Laird, L. He, “Data-Centric AI Competition,” DeepLearning AI, 2021.

[7] J. LaValle, E. Lesser, R. Shockley, M. S. Hopkins, N. Kruschwitz, “Big Data, Analytics, and the Path from Insights to Value,” MIT Sloan Management Review, vol. 52, no. 2, 2011.

[8] G. Grover, R. Chiang, T. Liang, D. Zhang, “Creating Strategic Business Value from Big Data Analytics: A Research Framework,” Journal of Management Information Systems, vol. 35, no. 2, 2018.

[9] “Public Health Data,” Public Health Journal, 2023.

[10] “Emergency Department Data Strategy,” Medical Data Management Report, 2023.

[11] “Data Strategy of Banks,” Banking Data Strategies Report, 2023.

[12] “From Strategy to Execution: Bridging the Gap Between Data Strategy and Data Governance,” Data Governance Journal, 2023.

[13] A. McAfee and E. Brynjolfsson, “Big Data: The Management Revolution,” Harvard Business Review, vol. 90, no. 10, pp. 60-68, 2012.

[14] D. Loshin, “The Practitioner’s Guide to Data Quality Improvement,” Elsevier, 2010.

[15] M. Wamba, A. Gunasekaran, S. Akter, S. J. Ren, R. Dubey, and S. J. Childe, “Big Data Analytics and Firm Performance: Effects of Dynamic Capabilities,” Journal of Business Research, vol. 70, pp. 356-365, 2017.

[16] T. Davenport, J. Harris, “Competing on Analytics: The New Science of Winning,” Harvard Business Review Press, 2017.

[17] C. Shorten and T. Khoshgoftaar, “A Survey on Image Data Augmentation for Deep Learning,” Journal of Big Data, vol. 6, 2019.

[18] I. Goodfellow, J. Shlens, and C. Szegedy, “Explaining and Harnessing Adversarial Examples,” in Proceedings of the International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR), 2015.

[19] S. Venkatasubramanian and M. Alfano, “The Philosophical Basis of Algorithmic Recourse,” in Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT), 2020.

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AUTHOR

Dr. Raj Vayyavur (Senior, IEEE) is a distinguished transformation expert, practitioner, and leader in the IT field with over two decades of experience. He currently serves as the Director of Enterprise Architecture at Public Consulting Group (PCG). His comprehensive expertise spans Enterprise Architecture (EA), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Project Portfolio Management, Software Engineering, IT Management & Governance, and more. Dr. Vayyavur is renowned for his strategic vision, deep technological expertise, and strong business acumen, which he uses to lead transformative initiatives that align IT strategies with business objectives, driving organizational success and delivering measurable outcomes.

A prolific author, Dr. Vayyavur has published numerous research papers on technology, enterprise architecture, and project portfolio management, solidifying his position as a thought leader in the field. His work has been featured in leading journals and conferences, offering actionable insights and bridging the gap between theory and practice. He frequently speaks at prestigious forums, including IEEE conferences, where he shares his insights on the latest trends in technology and enterprise architecture.

Holding advanced degrees in Computer Science, Business Administration, an MBA, and a Doctorate, Dr. Vayyavur is committed to continuous learning and staying at the forefront of industry developments. His active participation in the IEEE and PMI communities, where he serves as a senior member, reviewer, judge, and chair for various committees, further reflects his dedication to advancing the field.

Through his visionary leadership, Dr. Vayyavur has set new standards for technology management, earning recognition as a sought-after transformation expert known for driving innovation and excellence in every project he leads.

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Dr. Raj Vayyavur, Senior, IEEE

 rvayyavur@gmail.com

 Abstract— Capability and process modeling are critical techniques in enterprise architecture (EA) that help align business strategies with IT infrastructure. These methods offer structured approaches for organizations to visualize, assess, and optimize their competencies, processes, and dependencies. This paper explores several key modeling techniques, including business capability modeling, process mapping, and dependency mapping, using real-world use cases from industries such as telecommunications, healthcare, banking, and broadcasting. These case studies illustrate how organizations can improve alignment between operations and business objectives, enhancing overall efficiency and decision-making.

Keywords— Capability Modeling, Process Mapping, Dependency Mapping, Business-IT Alignment, Enterprise Architecture, Telecommunications, Healthcare, Banking, TOGAF, Gartner, Operational Efficiency, Strategic Decision-Making

I. INTRODUCTION

    In today’s fast-paced and technology-driven environment, organizations across industries are continuously challenged to optimize their operations and stay competitive. The convergence of business and IT strategies has become more critical than ever, as companies seek to leverage technology not only to streamline processes but also to achieve their broader strategic goals. Enterprise Architecture (EA) frameworks, particularly those centered on capability and process modeling, play a pivotal role in ensuring that businesses can adapt and thrive in such complex landscapes.

Capability and process modeling have emerged as fundamental tools within enterprise architecture, enabling organizations to capture and visualize their core competencies, workflows, and the relationships between different systems and processes. These modeling techniques allow businesses to gain deeper insights into their operations, identify inefficiencies, and make informed decisions that improve both operational efficiency and alignment between business and IT [1]. As organizations become more dependent on technology to drive innovation and growth, the importance of these models in managing complexity and enabling transformation cannot be overstated.

One of the significant challenges faced by enterprises today is the growing need to ensure that IT systems and business processes are not only aligned but also flexible enough to support rapid change. Organizations are increasingly turning to capability models to assess their current competencies and identify gaps that may hinder their ability to respond to evolving market conditions [2]. These models provide a structured approach to assessing an organization’s readiness to meet future demands, offering a roadmap for where to invest in technology or process improvements.

Process modeling, on the other hand, provides a lens through which organizations can examine their operational workflows in detail. By mapping out the flow of work and decision points, organizations can better understand how activities are carried out and where inefficiencies or bottlenecks occur. This enables businesses to implement targeted solutions, such as process automation or system upgrades, that drive greater efficiency and reduce operational costs [3]. Dependency mapping further complements this by offering insights into the interconnections between systems and processes, allowing organizations to anticipate the impact of changes across their operations [4].

The need for capability and process modeling is evident in numerous sectors, including telecommunications, healthcare, banking, and broadcasting, where organizations must manage highly complex environments. For instance, in the telecommunications industry, organizations rely on capability models to assess and manage the growing demand for digital services. In healthcare, process modeling helps streamline patient data management, while in banking, dependency mapping ensures that front-end and backend systems remain in sync as institutions pursue digital transformation strategies [7].

While frameworks such as TOGAF provide guidance on defining capabilities and processes, the application of these models in real-world contexts highlights their tangible benefits. The ability to visualize, assess, and optimize capabilities allows organizations not only to align their operations with their strategic goals but also to remain agile in the face of uncertainty and change [5].

This paper explores the key techniques of capability modeling, process mapping, and dependency mapping, examining their practical applications across various industries. Through real-world use cases, we will demonstrate how these models can be leveraged to enhance organizational efficiency, improve decision-making, and better align business strategies with IT capabilities.

Fig.1. Key Concepts of Capability & Process Modeling

II. GENERAL CONCEPTS OF CAPABILITY & PROCESS MODELING

A. Business Capability Modeling

Business capability modeling captures the abilities required by an organization to achieve its objectives. Capabilities encompass people, processes, technology, and information. A well-defined capability model aligns business strategies with operational execution, providing a holistic view of the organization’s abilities. Capabilities can be mapped and evaluated based on maturity, guiding decision-making for process improvements or IT investments.

B. Process Mapping

Process mapping visually represents workflows, decisions, and information flows across an organization. By creating visual models of processes, organizations can gain insight into how work is carried out, where inefficiencies exist, and how IT systems can support workflows. Process mapping is vital for identifying bottlenecks, improving coordination, and streamlining operations.

C. Dependency Mapping

Dependency mapping identifies relationships between business capabilities, processes, and IT systems. This technique helps organizations understand how changes in one area impact others. Dependency mapping ensures that organizations make informed decisions about process changes or technology upgrades without disrupting critical business operations.

III. DEFINING CAPABILITIES: TOGAF Vs. GARTNER APPROACHES

    Different frameworks offer distinct methods for defining capabilities. Two commonly used frameworks are TOGAF and Gartner, each providing unique advantages.

A. TOGAF’s Noun-Based Approach

TOGAF defines capabilities using nouns, emphasizing what the organization can do. Examples include:

·         Resource Management

·         Customer Service

·         Product Development

This approach provides a structured, high-level view of the organization’s capabilities, focusing on outcomes and categories [5].

B. Gartner’s Verb-Based Approach

Gartner’s model uses verbs to define capabilities, making them more action-oriented and focused on processes. For example:

·         Plan and Manage Resources instead of Resource Management

·         Deliver Customer Service instead of Customer Service

·         Design and Develop Products instead of Product Development

By defining capabilities with verbs, organizations can focus on processes and actions that drive outcomes, making the model more dynamic and actionable [6].

C. TOGAF vs.  Gartner Approach

TOGAF (Noun-Based)	Gartner (Verb-Based)
Resource Management	Plan and Manage Resources
Customer Service	Deliver Customer Service
Product Development	Design and Develop Products
Risk Assessment	Assess and Mitigate Risks
Financial Planning	Plan and Execute Financial Strategy

Table 1. TOGAF vs. Gartner Approaches

TOGAF offers a high-level structure, while Gartner’s approach focuses more on the processes that drive results. Both methods are valuable, depending on the organization’s goals and context.

IV. KEY TECHNIQUES & REAL USE CASES

A. Business Capability Modeling: Telecom Industry

A telecommunications company applied business capability modeling to manage rising demand for DSL services. The company mapped key capabilities, including network planning, demand forecasting, and customer service management, identifying inefficiencies in resource allocation. By assessing the maturity of each capability, the company prioritized investments in areas that were critical but underdeveloped. For instance, the customer service management capability was identified as a low-maturity, high-priority area, leading to investments in automation and employee training [1].

Capability	Description	Maturity Level	Priority for Investment
Network Planning	Ability to manage infrastructure for service delivery	Medium	High
Customer Service Management	Handling customer inquiries and technical issues	Low	High
Demand Forecasting	Predicting future customer demand for DSL services	High	Low

Table 2. Telecommunications Capability Model

This approach enabled the telecommunications company to align its IT infrastructure with business needs, ensuring that investments were made in areas that had the greatest impact on service delivery and customer satisfaction.

B. Process Mapping: Healthcare Industry

A healthcare organization used process mapping to streamline patient data management and billing workflows. The initial process maps revealed inefficiencies such as repetitive data entry and manual handoffs between departments, leading to delays in billing and patient care. By visualizing these processes, the organization introduced automated systems to integrate patient records across departments, reducing errors and improving the speed and accuracy of billing [2].

Fig.2. Process Mapping in Healthcare

Process mapping allowed the healthcare provider to automate repetitive tasks, improve information flow, and enhance overall service efficiency.

C. Dependency Mapping: Banking Industry

A banking institution used dependency mapping to assess relationships between its digital banking systems and backend legacy systems. The bank aimed to enhance its online and mobile banking services but found that upgrading the front-end systems would overwhelm the backend legacy infrastructure. Through dependency mapping, the bank identified dependencies that required simultaneous upgrades to the backend systems to avoid bottlenecks [3].

Front-End System	Dependent Backend Systems	Upgrade Needed
Mobile Banking App	Core Banking, Fraud Detection	Yes
Web-Based Banking Platform	Core Banking, Customer Data Systems	Yes
ATM Network	Legacy Systems, Customer Records	No

Table 3. Inter-organizational Capability Sharing in Broadcasting

Dependency mapping enabled the bank to prioritize system upgrades, ensuring smooth integration between front-end and backend operations.

Fig.3. Dependency Mapping for Banking Digital Services

D. Inter-organizational Collaboration: Broadcasting Industry

In the broadcasting industry, inter-organizational collaboration is increasingly important as companies seek to pool resources and share capabilities. Several broadcasting companies used business capability maps to align their operations for joint ventures in content distribution and technology sharing. By developing a shared capability map, the companies identified areas of synergy and reduced costs through resource sharing [4].

Capability	Company A Contribution	Company B Contribution
Content Distribution	Infrastructure for video streaming	Licensing agreements for content
Customer Relationship Management	Call center services	CRM software and data analytics
Advertising and Sponsorships	Partner relationships with advertisers	Programmatic ad-buying systems

Table 4. Inter-organizational Capability Sharing in Broadcasting

The use of business capability maps allowed the broadcasting companies to leverage each other’s strengths, reducing operational costs and improving service delivery.

V. CONCLUSION

    Capability and process modeling are vital techniques for aligning business strategies with operational execution. By using methods like business capability modeling, process mapping, and dependency mapping, organizations can visualize their competencies, streamline workflows, and optimize resources.

Real-world examples from telecommunications, healthcare, banking, and broadcasting industries demonstrate how these modeling techniques help organizations improve business-IT alignment, enhance operational efficiency, and make informed strategic decisions. Depending on their needs, organizations can choose between TOGAF’s noun-based approach and Gartner’s verb-based approach for defining capabilities.

Acknowledgment

    I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the researchers, scholars, practitioners, and experts whose invaluable contributions have laid the foundation for this research. Your dedication, insights, and pioneering work have been instrumental in shaping the understanding and knowledge within this field. Without your relentless pursuit of excellence, this research would not have been possible. Thank you for your commitment to advancing the boundaries of knowledge, which continues to inspire and guide future endeavors.

References

[1] T. Barroero, G. Motta, and G. Pignatelli, “Business Capabilities Centric Enterprise Architecture,” in IFIP TC 5 International Conference on Enterprise Architecture, Integration, and Interoperability, Brisbane, Australia, 2010.

[2] F. Yilmaz, O. Schmidt, and F. Matthes, “Interorganizational Business Capability Maps: Use Cases for Horizontal Collaboration,” in Proceedings of the Americas Conference on Information Systems (AMCIS), Montreal, 2021.

[3] S. Kurnia, P. Taylor, S. Kotusev, and G. Shanks, “Artifacts, Activities, Benefits, and Blockers: Exploring Enterprise Architecture Practice in Depth,” in Proceedings of the Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS), 2020.

[4] F. Yilmaz et al., “Deriving a Process for Interorganizational Business Capability Modeling through Case Study Analysis,” in Proceedings of the International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems (ICEIS), 2021.

[5] The Open Group, The TOGAF Standard, 10th Edition — A Pocket Guide, Van Haren Publishing, 2022.

[6] T. Barroero, G. Motta, and G. Pignatelli, “Business Capabilities Centric Enterprise Architecture,” in Proceedings of the IFIP TC 5 International Conference on Enterprise Architecture, Integration, and Interoperability, 2010.

[7] N. Rohani, “Leveraging Enterprise Architecture in Decision-Making,” University of Kebangsaan Malaysia, 2020.

[8] K. Bakhtiyari, A. R. Barros, and N. Russell, “Enterprise Architecture for Business Network Planning: A Capability-Based Approach,” in Proceedings of the International Conference on Advanced Information Systems Engineering, Springer, Cham, 2015, pp. 257-269.

[9] J. Fleischer, M. Herm, and J. Ude, “Business Capabilities as Configuration Elements of Value-Added Networks,” Production Engineering, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 187-192, 2007.

[10] G. Bondel, A. Faber, and F. Matthes, “Reporting from the Implementation of a Business Capability Map as a Business-IT Alignment Tool,” in Proceedings of the 22nd International Enterprise Distributed Object Computing Workshop (EDOCW), IEEE, 2018, pp. 125-134.

[11] S. Chopra and M. S. Sodhi, “Supply-Chain Breakdown: Understanding the Risks,” MIT Sloan Management Review, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 53-61, 2004.

[12] T. Mueller, D. Schuldt, B. Sewald, M. Morisse, and J. Petrikina, “Towards Inter-Organizational Enterprise Architecture Management: Applicability of TOGAF 9.1 for Network Organizations,” in Proceedings of the 19th Americas Conference on Information Systems, Chicago, IL, 2013.

[13] K. Provan and P. Kenis, “Modes of Network Governance: Structure, Management, and Effectiveness,” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 229-252, 2008.

[14] A. Aleatrati Khosroshahi, M. Hauder, S. Volkert, F. Matthes, and M. Gernegroß, “Business Capability Maps: Current Practices and Use Cases for Enterprise Architecture Management,” in Proceedings of the 51st Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS), 2018.

[15] G. Toppenberg, S. Henningsson, and G. Shanks, “How Cisco Systems Used Enterprise Architecture Capability to Sustain Acquisition-Based Growth,” MIS Quarterly Executive, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 151-168, 2015.

[16] F. Matthes, F. Yilmaz, and O. Schmidt, “Interorganizational Business Capability Maps: Use Cases for Horizontal Collaboration,” Americas Conference on Information Systems (AMCIS) Proceedings, 2021.

[17] The Open Group, The TOGAF Standard, Version 9.2: A Pocket Guide, Van Haren Publishing, 2018.

[18] D. Ulrich and M. Rosen, “The Business Capability Map: The ‘Rosetta Stone’ of Business/IT Alignment,” Cutter Consortium Enterprise Architecture, vol. 24, no. 4, 2011.

[19] P. Runeson and M. Höst, “Guidelines for Conducting and Reporting Case Study Research in Software Engineering,” Empirical Software Engineering, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 131-164, 2009.

[20] R. K. Yin, Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods, 6th ed., Sage Publications, 2017.

AUTHOR

Dr. Raj Vayyavur (Senior, IEEE) is a distinguished transformation expert, practitioner, and leader in the IT field with over two decades of experience. He currently serves as the Director of Enterprise Architecture at Public Consulting Group (PCG). His comprehensive expertise spans Enterprise Architecture (EA), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Project Portfolio Management, Software Engineering, IT Management & Governance, and more. Dr. Vayyavur is renowned for his strategic vision, deep technological expertise, and strong business acumen, which he uses to lead transformative initiatives that align IT strategies with business objectives, driving organizational success and delivering measurable outcomes.

A prolific author, Dr. Vayyavur has published numerous research papers on technology, enterprise architecture, and project portfolio management, solidifying his position as a thought leader in the field. His work has been featured in leading journals and conferences, offering actionable insights and bridging the gap between theory and practice. He frequently speaks at prestigious forums, including IEEE conferences, where he shares his insights on the latest trends in technology and enterprise architecture.

Holding advanced degrees in Computer Science, Business Administration, an MBA, and a Doctorate, Dr. Vayyavur is committed to continuous learning and staying at the forefront of industry developments. His active participation in the IEEE and PMI communities, where he serves as a senior member, reviewer, judge, and chair for various committees, further reflects his dedication to advancing the field.

Through his visionary leadership, Dr. Vayyavur has set new standards for technology management, earning recognition as a sought-after transformation expert known for driving innovation and excellence in every project he leads.

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Rimshayelly Fitri

Gunadarma University, Faculty of Psychology, Jl. TB Simatupang Pasar Minggu, Jakarta Selatan, Indonesia

ABSTRACT

This study aims to look at measuring the emotional maturity with self control towards aggressiveness in students who follow the martial arts. In this study using 75 participants. Participants are students, both male and female who follow the martial arts for at least a year. The data collection technique used in this study was purposive sampling technique. The analysis in the study used multiple regression tests. The results showed that there was a significant effect of 19%, which means that there was an influence between emotional maturity and self control on agressiveness in students who follow the martial arts.

Keywords: Student, Emotional Maturity, Self control, Aggressiveness, Martial arts

INTRODUCTION

Aggressiveness or violent behavior is not a new phenomenon in Indonesia. Every year, there are numerous cases of violence occurring within society, such as murder, robbery, kidnapping, rape, brawls, and many more. This aggressive behavior is highly detrimental to the community, not only in terms of material loss but also in causing fatalities that lead to trauma and deep sorrow for the victims’ families.

According to data obtained from the police registration records (Sub-directorate of Political and Security Statistics, 2014), crime incidents in Indonesia during the 2011–2013 period tended to fluctuate. The total number of crime incidents, or crime totals, decreased from around 347,000 cases in 2011 to approximately 341,000 cases in 2012. However, in 2013, it increased again to around 342,000 cases.

Mass brawls during the 2005–2011 period included fights between groups of residents, fights between villagers, fights between residents and security forces, and fights between students or university students, as well as inter-ethnic fights. The percentage of villages that managed to resolve conflicts between residents and fights between students or university students in 2011 was 90.83% and 86.21%, respectively. Meanwhile, the coverage for resolving conflicts between residents and security forces and inter-ethnic fights was only 72.22% and 83.33%, respectively. From the above data, it can be concluded that mass brawls occurred most frequently among residents and students (Sub-directorate of Political and Security Statistics, 2014).

Every person has the right to receive a proper education, security, and comfort. However, in reality, many students still experience violence and even die tragically. One such case involved a student from an outdoor activity club at a university in Yogyakarta. An activity that was supposed to provide meaning and good experience ended tragically due to violent behavior by senior students towards juniors (Rudiana, 2017).

The aggressive phenomena mentioned above also occur among students involved in martial arts activities, such as karate, taekwondo, jiu-jitsu, judo, hapkido, wrestling, taido, taijutsu, pencak silat, kung fu, and muay thai. Mashudi (2011) reported a violent incident involving a student martial arts member in Kediri. This violent behavior involved two martial arts schools, namely Kera Sakti and PSHT. Bony (22), a PSHT warrior, was beaten by about nine members of Kera Sakti at his boarding house. A duel ensued, with several moves exchanged between the victim and his attackers. The victim was punched and kicked, sustaining injuries, but they were not severe.

Martial arts, which should serve as a means of self-defense, is regrettable if the knowledge acquired is misused, for instance, to assert dominance, engage in brawls, rob, or deliberately harm others. Ideally, martial arts should be used to protect oneself only when there is a threat to oneself or others. In karate, for example, before starting training, there is an opening ceremony and a recital of the karate oath, which includes maintaining personality, adhering to honesty, striving for excellence, preserving etiquette, and mastering self-control. Based on these five principles, the researcher concludes that karate is not only about physical strength or demonstrating power but also about character development and self-control, both inside and outside the dojo.

According to Allen and Anderson (2017), aggressive behavior is intended to harm someone who does not wish for such an event. To control aggression, self-control is essential in an individual.

When talking about self-control, every individual should be able to restrain themselves from actions that could harm themselves or others, focus more easily on achieving goals, choose beneficial actions, demonstrate emotional maturity, and not be easily influenced by impulses or actions that provide temporary pleasure (Hurriyati, 2013). According to Nofziger (2001), self-control is the ability and willingness to resist temptations in situations that may hinder long-term goals and delay gratification. Nofziger also states that self-control is the ability to manage emotional impulses, thus suppressing tendencies toward undesirable behavior. Therefore, good self-control in a person is necessary to avoid aggressive actions. This is consistent with the findings of Hurriyati’s (2013) study, which suggests that self-control can be used to predict aggressive behavior.

In addition to self-control, the vulnerability of emotional maturity is also a factor in controlling aggressive behavior. Emotional maturity is a state or condition of achieving a level of emotional maturity and development, whereby the individual no longer exhibits emotional patterns that are inappropriate for social settings (Sarwono, 2017). Pastey and Aminbhavi (2006) describe emotionally mature individuals as those who can manage their emotional lives effectively.

The purpose of this study is to empirically examine the influence of emotional maturity and self-control on aggressiveness among students involved in martial arts activities.

RESEARCH METHODS

This study uses a quantitative approach and involves 75 students as participants. The participants are active students who have participated in martial arts student organizations for at least one year. Data collection was conducted using a questionnaire method. The sampling technique used was purposive sampling, which is a sample selection based on specific criteria (Sugiyono, 2009).

The measurement tools used in this study include three variables: emotional maturity (X1), self-control (X2), and aggressiveness (Y). The emotional maturity scale used in this research is based on the emotional maturity scale by Singh and Bhargavawas (1990), which measures five aspects of emotional maturity, such as emotional stability, emotional development, social adjustment, and integration. This scale consists of 41 items. After calculating item discrimination, 8 items were discarded. The remaining 33 items have a reliability of 0.896. One example of an item on this scale is, “When I am angry, I feel like fighting with others.”

The self-control scale is based on Tangney’s self-control scale (2004) consisting of 21 items, covering aspects such as self-discipline, non-impulsive actions, healthy lifestyle, work ethic, and reliability. After item discrimination analysis, 2 items were removed, leaving 19 items with a reliability of 0.853. An example of an item on this scale is, “I am able to control my emotions in stressful situations.”

The aggressiveness scale used in this study is based on the aspects of aggressiveness described by Buss and Perry (1992), including physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility. This scale consists of 24 items. After item discrimination analysis, no items were discarded. The reliability of this scale is 0.873. An example of an item on this scale is, “Sometimes I cannot control the urge to hit someone.”

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the research findings, a regression test was conducted to determine the influence of emotional maturity on aggressiveness. The results of this simple regression analysis show an F value of 0.004 and a significance coefficient of 0.947 (p≤0.005). Additionally, the R square value obtained is 0.000, indicating that the influence of emotional maturity on aggressiveness is 0%. The regression test results can be seen in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Regression Test Results of Emotional Maturity on Aggressiveness

F	Sig	R Square
0.004	0.947	0.000

Based on the regression test results in Table 2 below, a test was conducted to determine the influence of self-control on aggressiveness. The regression analysis shows an F value of 16.142 and a significance coefficient of 0.000 (p≤0.005). These results indicate that the aggressiveness variable is influenced by the self-control variable. Furthermore, the R square value obtained is 0.181, indicating that the influence of self-control on aggressiveness is 18.1%, while the remaining 81.9% is influenced by other factors not explained in this study.

Table 2. Regression Test Results of Self-Control on Aggressiveness

F	Sig	R Square
16.142	0.000	0.181

Based on the regression test results in Table 3 below, a test was conducted to determine the influence of emotional maturity and self-control on aggressiveness. The results of this multiple regression analysis show an F value of 8.439 and a significance coefficient of 0.001 (p≤0.005). These results indicate that the aggressiveness variable is influenced by both emotional maturity and self-control variables. Additionally, the R square value obtained is 0.190, indicating that the influence of emotional maturity and self-control on aggressiveness is 19%, while the remaining 81% is influenced by other factors not explained in this study.

Table 3. Regression Test Results of Emotional Maturity and Self-Control on Aggressiveness

F	Sig	R Square
8.439	0.001	0.190

Based on the hypothesis testing results, it is found that emotional maturity does not affect aggressiveness, while self-control does affect aggressiveness (minor hypothesis), and emotional maturity and self-control together affect aggressiveness among students participating in martial arts (major hypothesis). From these two hypotheses, it is found that the minor hypothesis in this study is rejected, and the major hypothesis is accepted. This indicates that emotional maturity and self-control together have an influence on aggressiveness. However, emotional maturity alone does not affect aggressiveness.

The lack of influence of emotional maturity on aggressiveness may be due to other factors that have a greater impact on aggressiveness. Aggressiveness can be influenced by internal factors, external factors, environmental stressors, and situational stimuli. Internal factors influencing aggressiveness include genes, hormones, emotions, stress, instincts, blood chemistry, frustration, and self-concept. External factors include family, peers, neighbors, and school (Susantyo, 2011).

Steffgen and Gollwitzer (2007) stated that emotional maturity is not just a symptom in aggressive behavior; other factors can also influence aggressive behavior, such as triggers, amplifiers, moderators, or even ultimate goals of aggressive behavior.

According to Susantyo (2011), understanding the complexity of aggressive behavior allows for the development of a comprehensive strategy to address the issues in individuals (perpetrators), particularly their behavior.

Self-control has an influence on aggressiveness of 18.1%. Self-control is closely related to reducing the risk of psychosocial problems, such as delinquency and aggressiveness. Factors that weaken self-control increase aggression, while factors that strengthen self-control reduce aggression (DeWall, Finkel, & Denson, 2011).

This is in line with the theory of Goldfield and Merbaum (Indraprasti & Rachmawati, 2008), which defines self-control as the ability to organize, guide, regulate, and control impulses within oneself, directing behavior toward positive consequences. Self-control varies between individuals; some have high self-control, while others have low self-control. Individuals with high self-control can change events and act as the main agents in directing behavior toward positive consequences.

The findings of this study are supported by previous research conducted by Asmoro, Matulessy, and Meiyuntariningsih (2018), which found that the higher the self-control, the lower the aggressive behavior, and vice versa. Individuals with good self-control tend to direct themselves positively and not harmfully.

Emotional maturity and self-control have a significant influence on aggressiveness, amounting to 19%. The findings of this study are supported by previous research conducted by Hurriyati (2013), which indicated a significant relationship between emotional maturity and self-control with aggressive behavior. Behavior is considered aggressive if it shows actions such as physical assault, object assault, verbal or symbolic attack, violating property rights, or attacking someone else’s possessions. Individuals with good emotional maturity and self-control tend to be able to reduce aggressive behavior. Further, Meldrum, Young, and Weerman (2009) stated in their study that individuals with a high level of emotional maturity tend to have better self-control, preventing aggressive behavior. With such self-control, individuals can weigh options and make appropriate decisions for their problems.

Hurlock (2012) states that emotionally mature individuals will have good self-control, can express their emotions appropriately and according to the situation, and can adapt well, providing appropriate responses to the circumstances they are experiencing.

In Puspitasari’s (2018) study, it was found that the lower the emotional maturity, the higher the aggressive behavior. Individuals with high emotional maturity tend to remain optimistic in facing difficult tasks beyond one’s expectations and are not easily provoked by negative emotions or easily offended. They also have a high level of patience, do not like to impose their opinions, and do not need to struggle to solve problems.

Emotional maturity is a state or condition of achieving a level of maturity in emotional development, where the individual is involved in emotional control (Guswani & Kawuryan, 2011).

With good emotional maturity and self-control, individuals can avoid aggressive actions that may harm themselves and others. Each individual has a mechanism that helps regulate and direct behavior. Based on this study, it is clear that emotional maturity and self-control are factors influencing aggressive behavior.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that emotional maturity alone does not have an effect on aggressiveness, while self-control alone does have an effect on aggressiveness. However, emotional maturity and self-control together can influence aggressiveness. This indicates that the higher the emotional maturity and self-control, the lower the aggressiveness in students participating in martial arts.

REFERENCES

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D M David Mathews

Research Scholar

Department of English

Osmania University, Hyderabad

Abstract: 

Northern Ireland has been called one of the most violent regions of this world. The Troubles as they are termed now was a period of heightened tensions and violence beginning in the late 1960s that ‘ended’ with the signing of the Good Friday Agreement. Seamus Heaney writing from that region has called out the intractable violence that has been a veritable feature of the region. In doing so, the poet recurrently overturns some symbols and metaphors of romantic poetry, most significantly of the nightingales and swallows. In his first poem itself he referenced digging through which he promised his readers that he will dig through his family history, the history of the turbulent region, and of troubles that flared during the 1970s and 80s. The paper then goes on to raise issues on the role of the artist in such a clime, and how to counter violence that seems endemic. He also calls for a middle ground that offers a place for conciliation and peace.

Keywords: Northern Ireland; Seamus Heaney; overturning romantic symbols; role of the artist; countering violence

Introduction

In 1982, some his poems were included in the Penguin Book of Contemporary British Poetry edited by Blake Morrison and Andrew Motion. To that Heaney wrote a not so flattering rejoinder to them in a poem titled “An Open Letter” (1983): “My anxious muse… has to refuse/ The adjective/ British, no, the name’s not right” (Heaney) [The poem remains an unpublished one in any of his collections]. This is both a rejection of the continuing British suzerainty over Northern Ireland and an assertion of his Irish roots. It is also that, if a poet writes in a certain language, his/her poetry instantly becomes part of its national tradition. Heaney seems to differ. Then again, this is further complicated by the poet choosing to write in English! In an interview with Dennis O’Driscoll, he commented on the force of his writing in English and not in Irish:

The writing current has to flow in your limbs and joints and the linguistic experiences that threw my switches were in English. What happened subsequently was a process of squaring this experiential fact with the cultural and political pieties I grew up with. There were always those old nationalist tests hovering over you: could you be an Irish writer if you wrote in English? Of course, you could, but you were still faced with that screening process (O’Driscoll 73).

In the significant sequence “Singing School”, the poet writes of this ambivalence, a predicament that did not possess easy answers, but posed several other contradictions: “Ulster was British, but with no rights on/ The English lyric: all around us, though/ We hadn’t named it, the ministry of fear” (Heaney Opened Ground 125-126). The poet-persona questions if the region Ulster is indeed British, how come it has no place for the lyric? The people of Ulster seem to be secondary citizens, especially Catholics, rather than a people exercising their free will. The thing that has not been named yet, is the rapid enclosing of Northern Ireland by British paramilitaries, connoting Graham Greene’s work The Ministry of Fear. Perhaps, it could also mean what Michael Parker wrote in his work Seamus Heaney: The Making of the Poet (1993):

…he came to recognize that the ‘gagging’ in the North within both communities, and the unwillingness to confront and speak out against injustices within his own, had been major factors in the explosion of violence (Parker 2).

Seamus Heaney also has a way of overturning some of the symbols of British romantic poetry. The first lines of his beautiful poem “Serenades” from his fourth collection Wintering Out (1972) are worth quoting: “The Irish nightingale/ Is a sedge-warbler,/ A little bird with a big voice/ Kicking up a racket all night (Heaney Opened Ground 72). Though Heaney says it’s just a serenade, these are serious lines. He’s asserting I’m Irish, I’m a nightingale but no I’m not the nightingale of John Keats who sings of summer, sunburnt mirth, and Bacchus. Not only he is incapable of singing hymns but one who not content with keeping himself awake, kicks up a racket and wakes up others. But, why does he want to kick up a racket? Doesn’t he like Keats nightingale sing drowsy songs and go numb? The poet seems to say a firm no. In the next stanzas of the poem he compares his song to “broken voice of a crow,” (75) the “wheeze of bats,” (75) and the hoarse notes of the corncrakes. Perhaps this is the poet’s way of answering the query as to his work being written in English: ‘yes, I will write in the language of my oppressor but I will overturn and transform its images and symbols.’

The very first of his poems’ “Digging” from his first collection Death of a Naturalist (1966) is an illustration of this. In it he promised his readers to use his pen to dig and bring out his family’s history, of his homeland, and of the uneasy relationship between the British and the Irish. He begins with the land because he cannot be a potato planter like his ancestors. He speaks of bogs which reveal the connection of the Irish land to the European continent. In the sixth stanza he says that he carried milk to his father, we find no mention of tea and the leisurely ways of the island that has colonized it. He also makes reference to the violent history of the nation as he says in the very second line, “The squat pen rests; snug as a gun.” And in the last line, which is a repetition of the first two-lined stanza, he almost says it as if he is answering a journalist’s question, “The squat pen rests,/ I’ll dig with it” (Heaney Opened Ground 14-15). There is something very important going on here. It is the use of this particular word ‘squat.’ It is of course a sitting position but also means something else in geographical/ territorial sense. It connotes unlawful occupation of land or territory. The squatting is done through unlawful treaties and phony laws, some thing that is registered in “Act of Union.”

In the beginning of the poem the squat pen rests, that is, the English have occupied and not leaving the Irish lands. It is achieved through the British paramilitary forces and intelligence agencies which regularly foment trouble. Now, of course, it can also mean that Heaney intends to use his pen as a gun, that is, to train his words towards the unlawful occupation. But then, to see this in the light of the last line of the poem in which Heaney says, “I’ll dig with it” (14-15). The gun in the first line is juxtaposed with the digging for potatoes and metaphorically to everything Irish. He’ll unearth not just his family’s past but also the often violent struggles as well. Helen Vendler, one of Heaney’s long-time critics offers this view:

This is to conceive of writing as, like war, politics by other means. It is significant that in this – the first poem in his first book – Heaney rejects the concept of writing as aggression and chooses the spade as his final analogue for his pen: the pen will serve as an instrument of exploration and excavation, yielding warmth (like his grandfather’s turf for fires) and nourishment (like his father’s potatoes) (Vendler 28).

Then again, the poet although abjuring the violence of the gun, in a way is transfixed by the power that comes out if it, both the bullet as well as the power to kill or not unkill, even if it is a horse as in the poem “Turpin Song”: “The horse pistol, we called it:/ Brass inlay smooth in the stock,/ Two hammers cocked like lugs” (Heaney Electric Light 18). In another poem he recalls the exhilaration of the “bullet’s song” (Heaney Seeing Things 75) as he fires it “once and only once” (75) in his life, as it jolts the poet into a “new quickened sense” (75).

“Requiem for the Croppies” an elegiac sonnet from his second collection Door into the Dark (1969) but written quite differently from the sonnets of the English mainland. The poem is an elegy for the Irish rebels who died while fighting the British in 1798. They were inspired by the French Revolution demanding an independent Ireland free of the English rule. The croppies refer to the men who cropped their hair close in the style of the French Republican army. This was a style that was against the wig style, considered aristocratic and supportive of the British rule. Heaney describes the people who marched without training and equipment against a regular army. It was more like hiking than an army marching to the battlefield, with their coats full of barley gains rather than with grenades, ammunition or other weapons. Their weapons were scythes, hardly a match to the heavy cannons of the enemy. The “conclave” which Heaney uses is significant. It is not a conclave where people met to discuss important things or even to elect the Pope, but where thousands were ambushed and slaughtered at Vinegar Hill. And then as a way to complete the cycle of the poem, the barley that the men took with them, got buried with them and in August on the land where thousands were buried “without shroud or coffin” (Heaney Opened Ground 34) there grew barley. Linking the Easter Rising of 1916 with the unsuccessful revolt in 1798, as well as the coming storm of the Troubles, Heaney himself commented:

The oblique implication was that the seeds of violent resistance sowed in the Year of Liberty had flowered in what Yeats called ‘the right rose tree’ of 1916. I did not realise at the time that the original heraldic murderous encounter between Protestant yeoman and Catholic rebel was to be initiated again in the summer of 1969, in Belfast, two months after the book was published (qtd. in Allen 34).

Then he castigates himself for not being part of the rebellion in the fourth poem “Summer 1969” in the series “Singing School.” While the Irish guerilla forces were facing heat from their British counterparts, all Heaney faced is the heat of Madrid. The artist has gone into exile but he cannot fully leave what is happening in his nation. Though he has for companionship James Joyce he can only see and marvel what Goya has painted in his “Shootings of the Third of May.” In this way this poem is an answer to Heaney’s question of the place of the artist in society and more importantly on how they should respond. The poem answers this by affirming the position of Goya. Considered as one of the first paintings of the modern era, the painting “Shootings at the Third of May” depicts a row of soldiers standing with their rifles aiming to shoot down Spanish citizens. The answer through the evocation of the painting of Goya is that… no matter what, it is the responsibility of the artist to portray and document ‘truthfully’ the events that are happening around them, even when they are violent. Lucy McDiarmid argues that this poem might suggest “the possibility that the realm of poetry might be used to oppose the State” (Bloom 43). Thus, Heaney questions himself and provides some answers to the most crucial questions of all… how should an artist respond to violence and civil strife?

“Casualty” offers a much closer view on the question of artists living and writing in a deadened world. The poem is written as an elegy to a family friend of Heaney who was killed in the aftermath of the Bloody Sunday of 1972. This friend questions Heaney on what he is writing in his poems. But then the poet is too shy to talk about his own craft and would rather talk to him on anything but poetry. He calls his writing “tentative art” (Heaney Opened Gound 141) as there are no sides to be taken in the conflict: 

We would be on our own

And, always politic

And shy of condescension,

I would manage by some trick

To switch the talk to eels

Or lore of the horse and cart

Or the Provisionals (Heaney Opened Ground 141-142).

“Making Strange” from Station Island (1984) offers a further answer to this nagging question of the artists responsibility and how she/he should respond to things that happen around her/him. Two sides, one of “travelled intelligence” (202) and the other “unshorn and bewildered,” (202) fight for the poet’s voice, but then a third side crops up. This “cunning middle voice” (202) instructs the poet to “be adept and be dialect” (202). In “England’s Difficulty,” the poet imagines himself during war time as German bombs fall on Belfast, forcing him to move “like a double agent” (Heaney Opened Gound 87), as he tries to reach home. The poem ends with the poet-persona crossing checkpoints, uttering secret passwords to make a turn, and congratulating himself. But then, the poet seems to ask why would he have to do all this if he is in his own country?

I lodged with ‘the enemies of Ulster’, the scullions outside the walls. An adept at banter, I crossed the lines with carefully enunciated passwords, manned every speech with checkpoints and reported back to nobody (Heaney Opened Ground 87).

A similar experience is recorded in “The Flight Path” as the sentry questions where he is from, the poet replies that is comes from “far away” (Heaney The Spirit Level 30), the sentry is unaware of that place as he asks “Where’s that?” (30), to that the poet writes in half-mocking tone: “He’d only half-heard what I said and thought/ It was the name of someplace up the country” (30).

Speaking in dialect and a middle voice is the central theme of “Whatever You Say Say Nothing” from his collection North (1975). Why does Heaney would want to give a title like this. At a first reading it looks ironical… how can anyone say something and say nothing. It can mean that someone can speak a lot and still not say anything… that is, talking pointlessly. Does it mean that the poem is pointless? No, on the contrary the title invites us to be more serious about what Heaney is saying in the poem. To go a little deeper, doesn’t the title sound more like an injunction from someone who does not want the speaker to say anything at all… something like a polite way to stop speaking. And then, doesn’t it also mean that the speaker can speak but only on things that are non-controversial. Heaney here interrogates the role of media and almost urges them to provide a fuller and humane narrative rather than writing the usual descriptive phrases like “backlash,” “provisional wing,” and “long-standing hate” (Heaney Opened Ground 121). He questions the language used by the media to denote the conflict by putting these phrases and others in single-inverted quotations. In the third section of the poem, he writes…

O land of password, handgrip, wink and nod,

Of open minds as open as a trap,

….

Where tongues lie coiled, as under flames lie wicks (Heaney Opened Ground 121-122).

Heaney here writes of the mistrust that dominates the relationship between warring groups. The entire scene is one of a military siege where one has to furnish passwords just to stay alive. Even then they are not sure if they’d live as people’s minds have become traps and anybody could betray anybody. Even with all of this going on Heaney says he’ll sing of this:

Yet for all this art and sedentary trade

I am incapable. The famous

…

Northern reticence, the tight gag of place

And times: yes, yes. Of the ‘wee six’ I sing

And Whatever you say, you say nothing (Heaney Opened Ground 121-122). 

He says he is incapable of joining the armed resistance but all he has are words and pen through which he’ll sing of the sacrifices that the Irish have made in their long battle for freedom.

            In “Route 110”, Heaney is anxious on how to express his anguish about the violence in Irish history. It is complicated, nonetheless, but how best to represent something that cannot be easily done. The poem reaches its crescendo in the section IX, as Heaney recounts those that the violence in Northern Ireland has taken away. Among them are his friends, people he knew from pubs, people who have been killed in reprisals, those that British paramilitary gunned down, and those that history forgets to lay them…

In war graves with full honours, nor in a separate plot

Fired over on anniversaries

By units drilled and spruce and unreconciled (Heaney Human Chain 52).

If history has forgotten people who have given their lives in the struggle for self-determination and freedom, the poet attempts to memorialize them in his poem as they “cannot rest in peace but remain restive, like the unburied dead of Virgil’s Limbo, until their loss is duly acknowledged” (O’Brien 41).

            A spirit, perhaps an embodiment of conscience is ever present in his poetry. In “District and Circle” a busker, a fellow artist, nudges him to review his work as a poet, as he travels down the London Underground:

               As the music larked and capered

I’d trigger and untrigger a hot coin

Held at the ready, but now my gaze was lowered

For was our traffic not in recognition?

Accorded passage, I would re-pocket and nod,

And he, still eyeing me, would also nod (Heaney District and Circle 21).

The poet wishes to act like a normal person, acknowledge his music and grant him a coin; but the artist in him plays with the coin in his coat pocket as the other artist concedes access. For a moment the poet-persona wishes to hide his identity, but the busker not only recognizes but also quietly questions him, in spirit. Eugene O’Brien argues that:

…it would be impossible not to read the title poem without thinking of the fallout from the American “war on terror” as visited upon London by the 7/7 bombers who killed fifty people and injured more than seven hundred in the Underground’s District and Circle line in 2005 (O’Brien 196).

While a fellow artist like the busker queries his personhood as a poet, another singer from “The Fragment” interrogates… “Since when,” he asked,/ Are the first line and the last line of any poem/ Where the poem begins and ends?” (Heaney Electric Light 47). In a tribute to Ted Hughes in the collection Seeing Things, he commented “I trust contrariness” (Heaney Seeing Things 15), suggesting that it is through a counter-measuring of differences and dialectics that art can be made as well as lives remade. Gates, gate-keeping, of things coming in and going out is also the central theme of “Field of Vision” as the woman in the wheel chair does not carry even “a spare ounce of emotional weight” (Heaney Seeing Things 24).

Conclusion

            It was inferred from the above discussion that Heaney had not shied away from responding according to his artistic sensibilities to the Troubles and to his nation’s struggle for independence. From his first published poem on, the poet has been acutely aware that he is writing in a language that is learnt. But then, it was also observed that the poet attempts to overturn some symbols and images from English romantic writers, like the sedge-warbler who cannot sing like a nightingale but ‘sings’ in its own way. The poet abjures violence but wishes for a free and independent Irish nation. It was observed that as an artist he is ambivalent about the positions he has to take, but then he favours the stance of Goya, who seems to represent in whatever way he can, the atrocities and deaths. Heaney over the years also favoured a position that he called ‘travelled intelligence’ as well of ‘fork-tongue’ and ‘governing ones tongue’. He favours a representation and writing that takes in all the complex and complicated histories of his nation as well as of the private sphere as well.

Works Cited

Allen, Michael, editor. Seamus Heaney. St Martin’s Press, 1997.

Andrews, Elmer. The Poetry of Seamus Heaney: All the Realms of Whisper. Macmillan, 1998.

Bloom, Harold, editor. Seamus Heaney. Chelsea House Publishers, 2003.

Crowder, Ashley Bland and Jason David Hall, editor. Seamus Heaney: Poet, Critic, Translator. Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

Heaney, Seamus. Opened Ground: Poems 1966-1966. Faber and Faber, 1998.

—. Death of a Naturalist. Faber & Faber, 1970.

—. District and Circle. Faber & Faber, 2009.

—. Door into the Dark. Faber & Faber, 2013.

—. Electric Light. Faber & Faber, 2010.

—. Human Chain. Faber & Faber, 2010.

—. North: Poems. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1975.

—. Seeing Things: Poems. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2014.

—. Station Island. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986

—. The Spirit Level. Faber & Faber, 2009.

—. Wintering Out. Faber & Faber, 2011.

O’Brien, Eugene. The Soul Exceeds Its Circumstances: The Later Poetry of Seamus Heaney. University of Notre Dame Press, 2016.

O’Donoghue, Bernard, editor. The Cambridge Companion to Seamus Heaney. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

O’Driscoll, Dennis. Stepping Stones: Interviews with Seamus Heaney. Faber and Faber, 2009.

Parker, Michael. Seamus Heaney: The Making of the Poet. University of Iowa Press, 1993.

Vendler, Helen. Seamus Heaney. Fontana, 1999.

Lessons from Past Revolutions and Strategies for Future Growth & Sustainability

Dr. Raj Vayyavur, Senior, IEEE

 rvayyavur@gmail.com

 Abstract— The evolution of business landscapes has been profoundly shaped by technological revolutions, from the Industrial Revolution to the current age of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and blockchain. Each revolution has significantly altered the way companies operate, innovate, and compete, pushing businesses towards new frontiers of efficiency, growth, and sustainability. This research paper explores the critical success factors in business transformation, focusing on the roles of leadership, organizational culture, and technology adoption. It provides a historical overview of major technological revolutions, analyzing how companies have successfully adapted to these changes while others have failed. The paper highlights contemporary disruptions driven by AI, with companies like OpenAI leading innovation across industries. It also examines the challenges faced by traditional sectors, such as banking, in adopting new technologies like blockchain. Drawing on over twenty scholarly sources, this research identifies key indicators of successful transformation and offers a roadmap for companies aiming to achieve sustainable growth in a rapidly evolving technological landscape.

Keywords—Business Transformation, Technological Revolutions, Leadership and Vision, C-Level Executives, D-Level Managers, Organizational Culture, Innovation and Agility, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Blockchain Technology, Digital Transformation, Sustainability

I. INTRODUCTION

    Business transformation has emerged as a critical imperative for organizations seeking to adapt and thrive in a rapidly evolving global landscape. Driven by continuous technological advancements, shifting consumer expectations, and dynamic competitive environments, business transformation involves the comprehensive rethinking and restructuring of an organization’s strategy, processes, culture, and technological infrastructure. The goal is to achieve sustained growth, improve operational efficiency, and maintain a competitive edge.

Historically, business transformation has been catalyzed by significant technological revolutions. The Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century marked the beginning of mass production and mechanization, reshaping economies and societies. This was followed by the Second Industrial Revolution in the late 19th century, which introduced electricity, the internal combustion engine, and telecommunication technologies, further accelerating industrial and economic growth. The late 20th century witnessed the Digital Revolution, characterized by the advent of computers, the Internet, and mobile communication, which fundamentally transformed how businesses operate and interact with customers.

Today, we find ourselves at the cusp of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, often referred to as Industry 4.0, which is characterized by the fusion of digital, physical, and biological worlds. This revolution brings together advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), robotics, and big data analytics, driving unprecedented levels of automation and connectivity. Alongside this, the rise of blockchain technology is revolutionizing how transactions are secured and verified, offering new paradigms for data transparency and trust. Additionally, emerging developments in quantum computing promise to redefine the limits of computational power, paving the way for breakthroughs in complex problem-solving across various industries.

In this context, business transformation is no longer a one-time initiative but a continuous process of adaptation and innovation. Organizations that successfully navigate these technological waves are able to reinvent their business models, improve customer experiences, and streamline operations. For instance, companies like Amazon have leveraged cloud computing to redefine IT infrastructure management, while Tesla has disrupted the automotive industry through its pioneering efforts in electric vehicles and autonomous driving technologies. Conversely, organizations that fail to adapt to these changes risk obsolescence, as seen in the decline of traditional brick-and-mortar retailers who could not compete with the agility and customer reach of online marketplaces.

The success of business transformation initiatives largely depends on several key factors: leadership, culture, and technology. Leadership plays a pivotal role in setting the vision for transformation and ensuring alignment with strategic goals. C-level executives, particularly Chief Executive Officers (CEOs), Chief Information Officers (CIOs), and Chief Digital Officers (CDOs), are instrumental in driving innovation and fostering an environment that supports change. They must champion transformation efforts, allocate necessary resources, and guide their organizations through the complexities of technological adoption.

Equally important is the role of organizational culture. A culture that encourages innovation, continuous learning, and agility can significantly enhance an organization’s ability to respond to market changes and technological advancements. Employee engagement and empowerment are crucial, as the success of transformation initiatives often depends on the willingness and capability of employees to adopt new ways of working. Organizations that cultivate a culture of inclusiveness and open communication are better positioned to harness the creative potential of their workforce and drive successful transformation.

Furthermore, the integration of cutting-edge technologies is central to business transformation. Technologies such as AI and blockchain offer vast potential to automate processes, enhance decision-making, and secure transactions. Organizations must strategically invest in technology that aligns with their business objectives, ensuring that these technologies are not just adopted for their novelty but are integrated into the fabric of their operations to drive tangible business outcomes.

This paper aims to explore the critical success factors in business transformation by examining historical precedents, contemporary examples, and emerging trends. It highlights the importance of leadership, organizational culture, and technology in shaping successful transformation efforts and provides insights into how organizations can navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by the ongoing technological revolution. By drawing on a wide range of scholarly sources and case studies, this research provides a roadmap for companies aiming to achieve sustainable growth and maintain competitiveness in a fast-paced, technology-driven world.

II. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTIONS

A. The First Industrial Revolution

The First Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century catalyzed a shift from agrarian economies to industrialized production. Innovations such as the steam engine and mechanized textile manufacturing drove mass production and urbanization. Early adopters of these technologies experienced unprecedented growth, while those resistant to change faced obsolescence [1].

B. The Second Industrial Revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution, occurring in the late 19th century, was characterized by the introduction of electricity, steel production, and the internal combustion engine. The rise of assembly line production, as pioneered by companies like Ford, revolutionized industries such as manufacturing and telecommunications, facilitating global market expansion [2], [4].

C. The Digital and Internet Revolution

The Digital Revolution, often referred to as the Third Industrial Revolution, was marked by the advent of computers, the Internet, and mobile communications. Businesses that embraced these changes, such as Amazon and Google, were able to set new standards for digital transformation and customer experience [3]. Companies that failed to adapt were quickly left behind, exemplifying the importance of agility in business transformation [5].

D. The Fourth Industrial Revolution

The Fourth Industrial Revolution, or Industry 4.0, is driven by advancements in AI, robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT), and big data. Industry 4.0 emphasizes the integration of cyber-physical systems and smart manufacturing. Early adopters like Siemens and General Electric have embraced these technologies, leading to higher efficiency levels and innovation [6], [7].

E. AI and Blockchain Revolution

AI and blockchain are transforming industries by enabling automation, predictive analytics, and secure, decentralized transactions. OpenAI’s success with AI-driven tools demonstrates the disruptive potential of these technologies. The financial sector, particularly through the use of blockchain, exemplifies how industries can innovate and streamline operations [8], [9].

F. Green and Sustainability Revolution

The Green Revolution is driven by a growing focus on sustainability and eco-friendly technologies. Tesla’s leadership in electric vehicles and renewable energy solutions demonstrates the opportunities that lie at the intersection of business transformation and sustainability [10].

G. Quantum Computing Revolution

Quantum computing, though still in its early stages, holds the potential to transform industries requiring immense computational power, such as cryptography and material science. As quantum technology advances, industries will need to adapt rapidly to leverage its capabilities [11].

III. SUCCESS FACTORS IN BUSINESS TRANSFORMATION

    Business transformation success hinges on several critical factors that encompass leadership, organizational culture, strategic alignment, technological adoption, and competencies at both technical and functional levels. These factors, when effectively integrated, can drive sustainable growth and innovation, enabling organizations to navigate technological revolutions and maintain a competitive edge.

Fig.1. Business Transformation Success Factors

A. Leadership and Vision

Effective leadership is a cornerstone of successful business transformation. C-level executives, including CEOs, CIOs, and CDOs, are responsible for setting a clear vision that aligns with the organization’s strategic goals and market realities. Leaders must articulate this vision, ensuring that all levels of the organization understand the objectives and their roles in achieving them. They play a pivotal role in fostering a culture of innovation, where employees feel encouraged to contribute ideas and embrace new technologies. Leaders must also manage change effectively, guiding the organization through transitions, overcoming resistance, and ensuring that resources are allocated efficiently to support transformation initiatives [10][18].

Strong leadership also involves the ability to make decisive and timely decisions that capitalize on emerging opportunities. In the context of technological disruption, leaders must possess a forward-looking mindset, staying abreast of industry trends and potential disruptions. Their ability to anticipate market shifts and react quickly is essential in maintaining a competitive advantage. Leaders must champion innovation, driving initiatives that leverage new technologies such as AI and blockchain to optimize operations and enhance customer experiences [19].

B. Organizational Culture and Agility

A successful business transformation requires an organizational culture that supports agility, continuous learning, and innovation. Agility enables organizations to respond swiftly to technological advancements and changing market conditions. Companies that foster a culture of agility can pivot quickly, seize new opportunities, and address challenges effectively. This requires an environment where employees are empowered to take risks, experiment with new ideas, and learn from failures without fear of retribution [12][20].

Cultivating a culture of innovation is equally important. Organizations should encourage cross-functional collaboration, enabling teams to work together, share knowledge, and develop creative solutions. Employee engagement is critical, as engaged employees are more likely to embrace change and contribute to transformation efforts. Providing ongoing training and development opportunities helps employees build the skills needed to adapt to new technologies and processes. This not only enhances technical and functional competencies but also boosts morale and retention [21].

C. Strategic Alignment and Technology Integration

Aligning technological initiatives with overall business strategy is crucial for effective transformation. Strategic alignment ensures that technology investments directly support the organization’s goals, such as improving customer experience, increasing operational efficiency, and entering new markets. Companies must take a holistic approach, integrating technology with business processes and customer interactions to create seamless, efficient, and scalable operations [13][14].

The successful integration of new technologies requires careful planning and execution. Organizations must assess their existing technological infrastructure, identify gaps, and prioritize investments that deliver the most value. This involves not only adopting cutting-edge technologies but also optimizing legacy systems to enhance compatibility and performance. Effective technology integration supports data-driven decision-making, enabling organizations to leverage insights for strategic planning and execution [22].

D. Technical and Functional Competencies

Building technical and functional competencies within the organization is vital for successful business transformation. Technical competencies refer to the skills and knowledge required to understand, implement, and manage new technologies effectively. This includes expertise in areas such as AI, data analytics, cybersecurity, and cloud computing. Organizations must invest in training and upskilling their workforce to ensure that employees have the technical proficiency needed to operate in a technology-driven environment [23].

Functional competencies, on the other hand, relate to the ability to apply technical knowledge to specific business functions. This includes skills in project management, process optimization, and customer relationship management. Developing these competencies enables employees to use technology effectively to improve workflows, enhance product quality, and provide better customer service. Organizations that excel in building both technical and functional competencies can drive innovation, streamline operations, and achieve their strategic objectives [24].

E. Managing Teams Effectively

Effective team management is crucial for driving business transformation. This involves assembling diverse, cross-functional teams that bring together different perspectives and expertise. Leaders must foster collaboration and communication within teams, ensuring that members work towards common goals and objectives. Establishing clear roles, responsibilities, and accountability helps streamline workflows and avoid confusion or overlap in tasks [25].

Managing teams effectively also requires motivating and engaging employees. Leaders should recognize and reward contributions, provide constructive feedback, and create an inclusive environment where all team members feel valued. By promoting a sense of ownership and belonging, organizations can enhance employee commitment to transformation initiatives, resulting in higher productivity and better outcomes [26].

F. Speed to Market and Innovation

In the fast-paced business environment, speed is a critical factor in gaining a competitive edge. Organizations must be able to bring innovative products and services to market quickly to capitalize on new opportunities and meet customer demands. This requires streamlined development processes, efficient decision-making, and the ability to rapidly prototype, test, and refine new ideas. Agile methodologies, such as iterative development and continuous integration, can help organizations accelerate product development cycles and reduce time to market [27][28].

Speed to market also involves effectively managing the product lifecycle, from ideation to launch. Organizations need robust processes for market research, product design, testing, and feedback collection. By continuously monitoring market trends and customer preferences, companies can anticipate shifts and adjust their product strategies accordingly. This proactive approach enables organizations to stay ahead of the competition and maintain relevance in their industry [29].

G. Marketing and Customer Engagement

Successfully marketing and bringing new products to customers is a vital component of business transformation. Organizations must develop marketing strategies that effectively communicate the value of their innovations, build brand awareness, and attract customers. This involves leveraging digital marketing tools, social media platforms, and data analytics to reach target audiences and tailor messages to their preferences [30].

Customer engagement is equally important. Organizations must create meaningful interactions with customers, providing personalized experiences that build loyalty and trust. This can be achieved through customer-centric approaches, such as using AI-driven insights to understand customer behavior, preferences, and feedback. By actively engaging with customers, organizations can foster long-term relationships and enhance brand reputation, ultimately driving growth and success [31].

IV. CONTEMPORARY EXAMPLES OF BUSINESS TRANSFORMATION

A. OpenAI and the AI Industry

OpenAI has set benchmarks in AI applications by developing technologies like ChatGPT, which have transformed customer service, content creation, and other business functions. OpenAI’s success showcases the potential of AI to drive efficiency and innovation, providing companies with competitive advantages [6].

B. Fintech Disruption in the Banking Industry

Fintech innovations and blockchain technology have disrupted traditional banking by offering more efficient, user-friendly services. Fintech startups, with their agility and technological expertise, have challenged traditional banks, highlighting the importance of embracing digital transformation to remain competitive [7][16].

C. Tesla and the Automotive Industry

Tesla has revolutionized the automotive industry by promoting electric vehicles and autonomous driving technology. Tesla’s focus on sustainability and innovation exemplifies how aligning business transformation with environmental goals can drive success [8].

D. Amazon’s Cloud Computing Revolution

Amazon Web Services (AWS) has transformed IT infrastructure management through scalable, on-demand cloud computing solutions. AWS’s success demonstrates the impact of strategic innovation and technology adoption on market leadership and growth [17].

V. CONCLUSION

    Business transformation towards growth and sustainability requires strategic leadership, a culture of innovation, and technological agility. Historical and contemporary examples illustrate that companies must proactively embrace change, leverage new technologies, and align transformation initiatives with strategic goals to remain competitive. Success in business transformation is a collective effort involving leadership, middle management, and every employee. By understanding and applying the key success factors identified in this research, organizations can navigate the complexities of technological evolution and achieve sustainable growth in the future.

VI. RESEARCH LIMITATION

    While this research paper provides a comprehensive overview of the critical success factors in business transformation, several limitations should be acknowledged:

A. Scope of Technological Coverage:

The paper focuses primarily on major technological revolutions, including AI, blockchain, and quantum computing, which are currently prominent. Other emerging technologies, such as biotechnology and 5G, were not explored in depth, potentially limiting the comprehensiveness of the analysis.

B. Industry-Specific Analysis:

The paper provides a generalized view of business transformation across various sectors. While examples from industries such as automotive, finance, and cloud computing were highlighted, a deeper industry-specific analysis could provide more tailored insights and reveal sector-specific success factors and challenges.

C. Geographical Focus:

The research predominantly references cases and examples from developed economies, particularly focusing on companies in the United States and Europe. Emerging markets and developing economies might experience different challenges and opportunities in business transformation, which were not extensively covered in this study.

D. Time Frame:

The analysis is based on current and historical trends up to the early 21st century. Rapid advancements in technology and shifts in global economic conditions could alter the landscape of business transformation, meaning that findings could evolve quickly as new developments emerge.

E. Qualitative Nature of Analysis:

The study primarily utilizes qualitative data from existing literature and case studies. While this approach provides valuable insights, incorporating quantitative analysis and empirical data would strengthen the conclusions and provide a more data-driven perspective on business transformation success.

F. Organizational Culture and Employee Engagement:

Although the importance of organizational culture and employee engagement in successful business transformation is acknowledged, the paper does not delve deeply into specific strategies for fostering such a culture or measuring employee engagement quantitatively. Future research could explore these areas in greater detail.

Focus on Large Enterprises: The examples and case studies used in the paper are mostly from large, well-established organizations. Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) face different challenges and may require distinct strategies for business transformation, which are not extensively covered in this paper.

Acknowledgment

    I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the researchers, scholars, practitioners, and experts whose invaluable contributions have laid the foundation for this research. Your dedication, insights, and pioneering work have been instrumental in shaping the understanding and knowledge within this field. Without your relentless pursuit of excellence, this research would not have been possible. Thank you for your commitment to advancing the boundaries of knowledge, which continues to inspire and guide future endeavors.

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AUTHOR

Dr. Raj Vayyavur (Senior, IEEE) is a distinguished practitioner, expert, and leader in the IT field with over two decades of experience, currently serving as the Director of Enterprise Architecture at Public Consulting Group (PCG). His extensive expertise covers Enterprise Architecture (EA), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Project Portfolio Management, Software Engineering, and IT Management & Governance, and more. Dr. Vayyavur is renowned for his strategic vision, deep technological expertise, and strong business acumen, which he leverages to lead transformative initiatives that align IT strategies with business goals, driving organizational success and delivering measurable outcomes.

A prolific author, Dr. Vayyavur has published numerous research papers on technology, enterprise architecture and project portfolio management, solidifying his position as a thought leader in the field. His work has been featured in leading journals and conferences, where he explores cutting-edge trends and provides actionable insights that bridge the gap between theory and practice. Additionally, Dr. Vayyavur frequently speaks at prestigious forums such as IEEE conferences, sharing his insights on the latest trends in technology and enterprise architecture.

Holding advanced degrees in Computer Science, Business Administration, an MBA, and a Doctorate, Dr. Vayyavur is committed to continuous learning and staying at the forefront of industry developments. His active participation in the IEEE and PMI communities, where he serves as a senior member, reviewer, judge, and chair for various committees, further reflects his dedication to the advancement of the field.

Through his visionary leadership, Dr. Vayyavur has set new standards for technology management, making him a sought-after expert known for driving innovation and excellence in every project he undertakes.

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Srinivasa Madhur[1]

Abstract

India has a potential demographic dividend, as more than three-thirds of its growing population is in the working-age group of 15-64 years. Historical experience as well as cross-country evidence show that a vibrant, labor-intensive manufacturing sector is a pre-requisite for maximizing a country’s demographic dividend. This paper provides a synthesis of the vast literature related to the subject. The paper does use a fair amount of quotes from the existing studies relating to the subject in an effort to put ‘the right pieces in the right places’. The key conclusion of the paper is that India is far from maximizing its demographic dividend. Therefore, there is much merit in the policy makers considering four sets of economic reforms to boost the labor-intensive segment of  India’s manufacturing sector: liberalizing external trade; attracting foreign investment; deregulating domestic labor  laws; and keeping up India’s traditional strength in IT-related services.

Key terms

Demographic dividend; informal sector; labor-intensive; liberalization; productive jobs; structural reforms; unemployment untapped potential.

1. Introduction

India has now surpassed China as the most populous country in the world. Moreover,  at 68%, India has one of the highest percentage of working-age population — defined as people in the   age-group of 15-64 years. The median age of the Indian population is about 28 years, compared to 37 years in China and the United States (US), 45 years in Western Europe, and 49 years in Japan (Business Today 2023, 24 September). Indeed, while the rest of the world is ageing, India is getting younger (Ernst and Young 2023, October).

When a country’s share of  working-age population remains high, that country is supposed to be enjoying a ‘demographic dividend’.  It is a ‘dividend’ because the much larger supply of its workforce could allow the country’s economy grow faster. However, for the country to maximize the demographic dividend, it has to find productive employment to the increasing number of working-age  population (Kapoor 2023, 3 November). “The ‘Asian Miracle’ was built on harnessing this trend: Japan entered this sweet spot in 1964, South Korea in 1967, and China in 1994” (Chakravorti and  Dalmia 2023, 6 September).

Demographic dividend is thus a plausibility, not a certainty. Put differently, if the demand for a country’s young and growing workforce does not keep pace with the increasing supply, the country would end up with either higher unemployment rate and/or higher underemployment rate (a scenario in which a person is engaged in a job that is far less commensurate with her/his skills). If that happens, the demographic dividend could turn out to be a demographic disaster.

This paper is a synthesis of issues and challenges that India faces in realizing its demographic dividend. The key contribution of the paper lies in systematically weaving through the storyline that emerges from the existing work and thinking on the subject. While doing so, the paper does use a fair amount of quotes from the existing studies on the subject — in an effort to put ‘the right pieces in the right places’. Section 2 of the paper examines how far India has utilized its demographic dividend. Section 3 comes up with policy options that the policy makers could consider to maximize the demographic dividend in the coming years. Section 4 sums up.

2. India’s Demographic Dividend: The Evidence

India did post admirable economic growth rates in the last decade and a half. Indeed its economy has been one of the fastest growing large economies in the world. However, it seems that the growth in the manufacturing sector has been somewhat tardy to absorb the rapidly growing young workforce.  One of the key indicators that could be used to assess how far the country has realized the demographic dividend is trends in the unemployment rate (Figure).

Figure: Recent Trends in Unemployment Rate in India

Source: Forbes India (2024, 8 July) “Unemployment Rate in India: Current Rate, Historical Trends and More”, https://www.forbesindia.com/article/explainers/unemployment-rate-in-india/87441/1 (accessed on 25 August 2024). These rates were estimated by Forbs India using data from India’s Center for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE). Unemployment rate is calculated as number of unemployed persons as a percent of civilian labor force.

Trends in the unemployment rate indicate that there is significant scope for maximizing the country’s demographic dividend.  This is especially so because unemployment rate among the youth (who are in the age group of 20-24 years) is reported to be a whopping 42% (Bloomberg News 2024, 9 May). It is not surprising that: “While India has experienced growth levels of approximately 8% or higher over 10 nonconsecutive years between 2003 and 2022,  its performance in the creation of jobs has been disappointing” (Mitra 2024, 10 January). Reasons for the country not realizing its potential demographic dividend could be many, but the most important one seems to be the inability to develop a labor-intensive manufacturing sector.

Almost a decade ago, a study by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) had highlighted that India’s manufacturing sector has not contributed much to the country’s  economic growth and employment generation; in addition,  the sector’s share in total merchandise exports has been declining (Joumard et.al., 2015, 8 January). The study also found that even the little employment the manufacturing sector generated has been in the ‘informal sector’ where productivity is low because of the small size of the firms that precludes them from realizing economies of scale.

A 2020 study by the Asian Century Institute did also point out that the weak spot in an otherwise robust economic growth and development India has posted lies in the slow progress in its labor-intensive manufacturing sector. No wonder that the country’s “manufacturing exports have fallen as a share of total exports and their composition has shifted from labor-intensive to high-skill and technology-intensive items. Indeed, for textile, garment and footwear, India has seen its share of world trade decline in recent years, while Bangladesh has almost caught up to India, and Vietnam has well overtaken it” (West 2020,18 February).

The study cautioned that the lack of labor-intensive exports is very costly for India. It pointed out that the country has 11 million youngsters entering the labor market every year. These youngsters could indeed offer the country a demographic dividend, something that Japan, Korea and China enjoyed during their high growth periods. However, India has not been generating enough productive jobs for these youngsters (West 2020,18 February).

More recently,  another expert came to similar conclusion: “India’s idiosyncratic structural transformation from agriculture to services — leapfrogging the phase of manufacturing growth — has generated limited opportunities for  well-paid employment for those at the lower end of the education and skills ladder” (Kapoor 2023, 3 November). A recent Report by the international Labor Organization put it so aptly “…the Indian economy has managed to surpass expectations in its recovery and is likely to remain the fastest-growing among G20 economies in 2024. However, rapid economic growth has not translated into productive employment and decent work opportunities for the vast majority of India’s labor force” (International Labor Organization 2024, 29 March).

A 2020 Report on India by McKinsey and Company had underscored the need for India to create 90 million new nonfarm jobs in the decade between 2020 and 2030 if the country were to fully utilize its demographic dividend (McKinsey &Company 2020, 26 August). The Report went on to say that “A clarion call is sounding for India to put growth on a sustainably faster track and meet the aspirations of its growing workforce” (McKinsey &Company 2020, 26 August). Similar cautionary notes have been sounded by other experts too (UNFPA 2022, 13 January; Mehrotra 2023, 30 October; Mitra 2024, 10 January; Singh and Sheriff  2024, 1 September)

A 2023 International Monetary Fund (IMF) Report had emphasized that  excluding those at school, the number of young people who completed more than upper primary level education increased by 44 million over the eight years before the outbreak of the ‘corona’ pandemic. However, only 10 millions of them could find employment, while the rest of them either struggled to find descent job or remained unemployed (International Monetary Fund 2023, April).

One-third of young Indians is neither pursuing education nor is employed. Moreover, about two-fifths of the country’s youngsters have an education level below the secondary level (Mahapatra 2024,15 April). It seems that “half of urban workers have full-time jobs, while far too much of India’s employment is in low productive informal sectors” (Chakravorti and Dalmia  2023, 6 September). “India needs at least 10-12 million new nonfarm jobs each year to realize its demographic dividend. For the country to generate new jobs of that magnitude, it needs to anchor its economic growth on a vibrant, labor intensive manufacturing sector, just as China and the East Asian countries did in their high-growth phase” (Mehrotra 2023, 30 October).

A recent report by Standard and Poor’s – the global credit rating agency – went on to say that increasing the share of manufacturing in the economy is a major challenge for the country’s policymakers (Standard and Poor’s 2023, 3 August). In a similar vein, a 2023 report by Ernst and Young noted that India’s structural change has been accompanied by a rising share of the surplus labor released by agriculture moving in to service sector rather than to the manufacturing sector (Ernst and Young 2023, October). In 2023, the share of manufacturing in India was 12.8%, compared to some of the other Asian countries – China ( 26.2%), Vietnam (23.9%), and Malaysia (23.0%) (World Bank 2023). In 2022, the share of manufacturing jobs in India stood at 11.7% , compared to  figures in, say, China (28.7%), Vietnam (21.7%), and Malaysia (16.7%) (UNIDO 2023).

Other experts too echo this sentiment: “India and Indonesia, two of most promising candidates for transformative industrialization over the coming decades, stand at a critical juncture in their development strategies. Their youthful populations and recent strong economic performance put them in a demographic sweet spot… The attunement of their development strategies to the principles derived from the East Asian experience would position them better both to fulfill their economic potential and avoid the danger that both now face of jobless growth” (Drsysdale and Joshi 2023, 6 November).

It is also important to note that India’s informal manufacturing sector has been inhabited by miniscule enterprises. “The small informal sector firms which employ over 75% of the manufacturing workers cannot compete in world markets. In contrast, China’s manufacturing employment is concentrated in 1000+ worker firms and has much higher productivity. This means that it is necessary to create conditions for small-scale units to evolve into medium and large industries with much higher productivity and wages” (Rao 2024, 2 February).

In 2017, one expert had put it so very aptly: “ One of the most labor-intensive industry is textiles, and India has been a long-term player in this field. So long term and unsuccessful that both Bangladesh and Vietnam, significantly behind us a few years ago, are rapidly catching up. Five years ago, India exported $ 33 billion worth of textiles, with Bangladesh $ 19.1 billion, and Vietnam $16.8 billion. In 2015, Indian textile exports were at $ 37.2 billion, Bangladesh at $ 28.1 billion and Vietnam, $ 27.3 billion” (Bhalla 2017, 28 January). This phenomenon has not changed much since then. In 2022, India’s share in global textile trade was 4.4%, behind China (32.2%), Bangladesh (6.1%), and Vietnam (4. 4%).

All these evidences indicate that India is far from maximizing its demographic dividend. A more positive way of summarizing that assessment is that the country has a huge untapped potential to exploit its demographic dividend. East Asian countries initially and China subsequently grew at exceptionally high rates and at the same time provided productive manufacturing jobs to their workforce.  Their remarkable performance was anchored on deeper integration of their economies with the global production networks and supply chains in the manufacturing sector. As a result, their economies were subject to the disciplines of international markets (Madhur 1994, 5 February).

Overall, it looks as if  “India and the Indians have made some progress in the seventy-five years after Independence. It looks good but not good enough… the shine from the story fades when India is compared with the East Asian Tigers and China” (Lahiri 2023, p.306). Indeed, following the economic liberalization of China beginning late 1970s, its economy grew at an annual average rate of 10% for three decades (Bloomberg News 2024, 8 April).

Such huge economic expansion made China a magnet for foreign investment. To put it figuratively, every big international company then had to have a ‘China Strategy’. Labor-intensive manufacturing has consistently been the most important route to achieving high economic growth and job creation. “Vietnam’s manufacturing miracle is the most recent evidence to support that establishing large scale manufacturing exporting to the world market can catalyze economic growth and employment generation in a country” (Srinath and Sagar 2023, 3 October).

 Indeed,  “the space vacated by China was fast being taken over by Bangladesh and Vietnam in case of apparels; Vietnam and Indonesia in case of leather footwear. What was worse, even Indian apparel and leather firms were relocating to Bangladesh, Vietnam, and even Ethiopia” (Kaul 2020, 13 May). All these evidences sound a wakeup call to India.

3. Issues and Policy Options

The historical experience and cross-country empirical evidence presented in the previous section unequivocally show that a vibrant manufacturing sector is the kingpin for a country to realize its demographic dividend. India is now in a favorable position to give a big boost to its labor-intensive segment of its manufacturing sector. The most of important of these favorable factors are two. First, in recent years,  the investor sentiment towards China has been deteriorating, as the United States and its allies began following the so called ‘de-risking strategy’. Second, China is slowly but surely moving up the global production networks and supply chains – from being an ‘imitator to an innovator’ (Madhur 2024, February; Madhur, July). India should, therefore, look out for opportunities arising from the relocation of labor-intensive manufacturing away from China.

With the right policies that would subject domestic firms to global competition, it is quite possible for India to develop an efficient manufacturing sector by taking up the labor intensive manufacturing that are being vacated by China. In particular, India’s policy makers need to recognize that the demographic dividend has an expiry date. Indeed, the country’s policymakers owe  a huge debt to the younger generation of Indians, if they fail to fully reap the country’s potential demographic dividend. If they fail in this task,  the demographic dividend could turn into a demographic disaster.

Encouragingly, The Chief Economic Officer of India’s NITI Ayog (meaning ‘Policy Commission’ if translated into English),  Subramanyam put it aptly: “…in the next 15 to 20 years’ time span, India has an opportunity in manufacturing. But the opportunity and the window for India is at best two to three years, because supply chains are unwinding, they’re becoming shorter, and they’re looking for new geographies” (reported in The Economic Times 2023, 8 December).

He went on to add: “India has a two-to-three-year window to capitalize on the global strategy of de-risking from China and the government needs to be very alert to come up with a set of policies that make the shift of businesses to India attractive and easier” (reported in The Economic Times 2023, 8 December). From now on, if the country were to provide productive employment to about 11 million youngsters entering the labor market every year, it is critical that the country’s policy makers focus on increasing the export competitiveness of labor-intensive manufacturing products.

The government recognizes the importance of creating more manufacturing jobs in the country, but its response to the problem tends to be introduction of a new government-sponsored ‘administrative scheme’. In the 2024 Budget, the Union Government introduced three government subsidized schemes under which about 300,000 youths are expected to benefit (Sharma 2024, 23 July). Stripped to its core, the Scheme provides government subsidies to firms for hiring youth who are eligible under the Scheme. The 2024 Budget has allocated Rs.150,000 to finance the subsidy.

This is a good gesture on the part of the government. However, it is important to remember that these three government schemes introduced in 2024 simply add to about 41 somewhat similar schemes that already exist – 40 of them initiated since 2014 (Directorate General of Employment (2024, 19 July).  Despite these large number of previous government schemes, there still remains a huge shortage of productive manufacturing jobs                 

Government sponsored schemes such as these may just about provide a chip on the margins, without addressing the core problem of youth unemployment and shortage of productive manufacturing jobs.  Such schemes are typically administrative measures rather than hardcore policy liberalization that the country badly needs to realize its demographic dividend. Creating jobs through government subsidies have more often than not played a minor role in creating productive jobs over the long term. Such schemes involve the government departments administering them taking the economy back to the good old ‘Permit Raj’ system or its variants. Moreover, “given the shortage of resources and administrative capacity, the time is opportune to rethink the role of the State. It should complement the market rather than compete with it” (Rao 2024, 2 February).

Moreover, the policy makers need to recognize the slow pace of productive manufacturing employment in the country is fundamentally a structural problem – which require structural reforms, not piecemeal, temporary, government-subsidy schemes. The government would, therefore, be better off if it could create an enabling business environment for the private manufacturing sector to grow and create productive employment to the country’s growing young population. “While India’s policy environment and business climate have improved in recent years, there is much need for improvement before India can be a major player in Asia’s Global Value Chains” (West 2020, 18 February).To do that, there is an enormous merit in the policymakers considering four sets of economic reforms: liberalizing external trade; attracting foreign investment; deregulating the domestic labor laws; and keeping up India’s strength in IT-related services.

            3.1 Liberalizing External Trade

 “India still retains many restrictions on international trade, despite the impressive trade liberalization from the early 1990s. (West 2020,18 February). “Indian trade policy has long had a protectionist bent. Even the liberalizing reforms of the early 1990s – as important and beneficial as they were – were limited, and vested interests and populist domestic politics continue to trump policies that would be beneficial for India now and into the future” (Batra, 2023, 6 February).

Another expert  put it so aptly: “International experience shows that opening up the economy for trade and investment is important to accelerate growth and create employment. Exports have been strong engines in every country that has shown high growth performance such as South Korea, Taiwan and, more recently, China. India has 17% of the world’s population but accounts for just about 2.5% of global exports” (Rao 2024, 2 February).

High import duties are acting as a huge deterrent to the country’s ambitions of “Make in India, Make for World” — a government initiative to make Indian manufacturing globally competitive and enhance exports (Dewan 2023, 20 January). In the past 11 years preceding 2023, India’s trade-weighted average Most Favored Nation (MFN)  rate rose from 7.7% to 11.4%, in comparison to a decline in the global average from 7.7% to 6.9% (Pandey (2023, 18 July).

Moreover, India imposes higher import duties on  capital and intermediate goods such as machinery and transport equipment than on the end-products – the phenomenon of tariff-inversion (Mitra 2024, 10 January). The 2023-24 Budget continued the trend of raising import duties (International Trade Administration (2024, 12 January).  The multiple clearances that enterprises are required to get from government departments adds to the burden of manufacturing enterprises.

As one expert pointed out: India’s high import tariffs on electronic parts and components have hurt assembly and input processing, which was the engine of growth and employment generation in China; similarly 60–125 per cent tariffs on import of automobiles have made the domestic automobile industry enormously inefficient and uncompetitive – another case of missed opportunity in labor-intensive automobile assembly line (Mitra 2024, 10 January).

“India would need to raise its competitiveness in high-potential sectors like electronics and capital goods, chemicals, textiles and apparel, auto and auto components, and pharmaceuticals and medical devices, which contributed to about 56 percent of global trade in 2018. India’s share of exports in these sectors is 1.5 percent of the global total” (McKinsey &Company 2020, 26 August). “Despite our contrarian experience, there has been steadily increasing protectionism since 2017, and this has led to a fall in exports as a percentage of GDP” (Rao 2024, 2 February). In order to change this policy regime, far-reaching policy reforms are badly needed now.

A quintessential part of the required policy reforms should involve dismantling all the hurdles to the country’s external trade and foreign investment. Indeed, at this juncture, policymakers should avoid a ‘piecemeal’ approach to policy reforms; instead, they should adopt a ‘big bang’ approach to its external trade liberalization. The Indian economy needs a long-overdue shake up, if it were to wake up to international competition and fully reap its demographic dividend – no more negative lists of imports, no constraints on exports, and just adopt a low customs duty across all imports, if at all it is required. In other words, India needs a ‘free trade and investment regime’. Let the entire country be a ‘large free economic zone’ for external trade and foreign investment.

“The time is ripe for India to become a major manufacturing player, and the present geopolitical system has given us the right opportunity. Given the sheer size of India, we should ideally be in a position create at least 5 Vietnam’s within India! This will only be possible if we can successfully create a globally competitive ecosystem in manufacturing” (Srinath, Nitya and Ayaan Sagar 2023, 3 October). Another expert nearly echoed that sentiment: “To absorb its large and still-growing labor force into the future, India still needs a strong, broad-based, internationally competitive and dynamic manufacturing sector. For this, trade openness is essential” (Batra, 2023, 6 February).

Vijay Kelkar, a well-known Indian economist  was once reported as saying: “If you want to be  great economic power, you can’t  be protectionist” (Shirali and Mehra 2021, 21 January). Those words are even more important in today’s global setting. Indeed, the policy slogan should be: free up the economy to let the young Indians flourish! Moreover,  at this juncture, India could liberalize the its external trade regime from a position of strength, as the country’s foreign exchange reserves are at an all-time high of about $684 billion (The Economic Times 2024, 7 September). These reserves provide a coverage for about 11 months of the country’s import bill. If policymakers do not implement a big-bang trade liberalization now, posterity would judge them as denying the country’s youngsters productive employment and a descent standard of living!

3.2Attracting Foreign Investment

“Attracting foreign direct investment is often a starting point for participating in global value chains. And while India has been attracting growing amounts of FDI, its restrictions on FDI remain higher than most OECD countries, based on the OECD’s Foreign Direct Investment Regulatory Restrictiveness Index” (West 2020,18 February).

The rapidly changing geopolitical configuration, including the ‘de-risking’ strategy of the U.S and its allies is translating into new business opportunities for India (Chakravorti and Dalmia 2023, 6 September). A good example of this trend was the recent plan of Apple to relocate its iPhone production from China to India (Time Magazine 2023, 2 October). In 2022, about 232 million iPhones that Indian consumers bought were made in a single massive Foxconn facility in Zhengzhou city in China. However, as per Apple’s plan, beginning 2024, the Indian Plant is expected to quadruple its production of iPhones to around 20 million a year, creating about 50,000 jobs.

Similarly, in recent years Boeing India has grown its India team in engineering, research and development,  with more than 6000 employes as of December 2023. Indeed, Boeing’s India team has the largest number of employees, more than in any country outside the United States (Bloomberg News 2024, 8 April). The company has also set up a new engineering center in Bengaluru in southern India. The setting up of the center will cost $200 million. In addition, the company has pledged to spend $100 million on infrastructure and training pilots to meet the growing demand for pilots.

Foreign investment such as these should help India reduce its unemployment and at least partially help it reap its demographic dividend. Indeed,  India could and should attract many more such big-ticket foreign investments, just as China did during its 3 decades of double-digit annual economic growth. India has a great opportunity to allure many more international companies to relocate their labor-intensive  manufacturing production to India. That, in turn, would require India to dismantle most of its hurdles on external trade and foreign investment.

In recent years, India has strengthened its infrastructure and logistics. Reflecting that, “India’s overall logistics performance index (LPI) score has risen from 3.08 in 2014 to 3.40 in 2023, and its global rank has improved from 54^th to 38^th” (Khurana 2024, 21 March). However, quite a few hurdles such as inadequate handling facilities at ports and delays in customs clearance of imports at times increase India’s overall trade costs. “Becoming a global player means raising standards at home” (Khurana 2024, 21 March).

3.3 Deregulating Domestic Labor Laws

“The prevailing factor-market rigidities, generated by existing land and labor laws, prevent the structural change required for economic development and the creation of better jobs” (Mitra 2024, 10 January). Similarly, “The cost of doing business in India has improved, but many challenges remain. Land acquisition can stall construction projects and the courts are slow-moving institutions. Land records may be non-existing or outdated and environmental clearances have created additional barriers. On top of this, contract enforcement remains challenging… A legacy of protectionism still persists” (Chakravorti and Dalmia 2023, 6 September)

It is encouraging that recently the policy makers have specified that to form a trade union in any firm, the majority of the workers have to be represented. This should discourage formation of trade unions which more often than not become ‘vested interest groups’ hindering employment expansion. “Shorter, fixed-term labor contracts and a new web portal for self-reporting of labor law compliance have also been introduced” (Mitra 2024, 10 January). “The reforms initiated by the Union Government to impart flexibility to the labor market by merging 24 laws into four codes should help in the medium and long term. The new Industrial Relations Code allows manufacturing units up to 300 workers to hire and fire without the government approval” (Rao 2024, 2 February).

These are welcome moves from the government, but effective implementation of these measures is as important as their initiation.  Moreover, “While the government has offered production subsidies and protective tariffs, many companies have not boosted manufacturing capacity at a rate commensurate with India’s rapid economic growth” (Sharma 2024, 10 September). Indeed, there is enormous merit in policymakers completely abolishing the requirement of government approval for hiring and firing labor, irrespective of the size of labor employed in a firm. In other words, India needs a quick move to ‘constructive destruction’ – it is high time that firms that cannot compete in the world markets should give way to those that can.

Without such a process, the country would continue to have zombie firms hanging in there, neither offering quality products to the consumers nor providing productive employment to the youngsters. “When a firm goes out of business, we feel a certain sorrow about its departure. But a key idea of economics is that birth and death of firms is healthy and desirable. The great economist Joseph Schumpeter termed this process ‘creative destruction’” (Kelkar and Shah 2022, p.104)

3.4 Keeping Up the Strength in IT-Related Services

To be sure, none of these policy options should be taken to mean that the country should give up its strength in service sectors related to such Information Technology and Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning–based analytics (McKinsey & Company (2020, 26 August).

As one expert put it so aptly: “India has a lot of extremes. It has the brightest minds, and then the greatest institutes in India that compete with the Ivy League universities, but then on average human capital levels are just not quite comparable to most other countries in the region, let alone higher or more developed countries,” (Alexandra Hermann – Quoted in Bloomberg News 2024, 8 April). The country needs to manage these extremes effectively so that the benefits of its economic diversity helps, rather than hinders economic growth and employment

generation

India’s prowess in AI is not just a temporary phase of excellence.  It indeed is “a testament to the nation’s growing availability of talent, ample resources, and sustained government support” (Wheebox 2024). It is estimated that India now has more than 2 million AI professionals. By 2025, that figure is estimated to surge to about 5 million.

India’s commitment to build a talent pool in artificial intelligence is evident from the efforts from institutions ranging from industry to academics. On the part of the government, it has initiated the National Skill Development Mission (NSDM), a flagship program designed to propel skill development in the country. As part of the NSDM, the FutureSkills Prime program is a noteworthy initiative, offering free online AI training courses that seems to have reached millions of youngsters nationwide (Wheebox 2024)

More recently, The United States has come forth to explore the possibility of a joint venture with India on semiconductor supply chain (U.S Department of State 2024, 9 September). Manufacturing of essential products ranging from vehicles to medical devices relies on the strength and resilience of the semiconductor supply chain.  This collaboration between the United States and India underscores the potential to expand India’s semiconductor industry to the benefit of both nations. A comprehensive assessment of the feasibility study shall provide the groundwork for this joint venture.

That said, “The shape of tech leadership has evolved from core tech to digital and AI, and now it’s moving into business and functional leadership. The potential value from rewiring enterprises is growing, as are advances in tech. The link between creating tech and creating business value is stronger than ever. To meet the moment, company leaders and tech leaders must capture the rewards of this shift in mindset” (McKinsey & Company 2024, 11 September).

4. Summing Up

India is in its demographic prime. India needs to make sure that its demographic dividend is realized fully, especially if India has to play a major role at the global level.  “India’s ambitions of assuming major power status are justified – it is the world’s largest democracy … and has huge economic and political potential. But its ambitions will remain just that – ambitions – if its economic growth doesn’t deliver upon its potential. Fundamental will be an update to trade strategy that encourages, rather than hinders, participation in global value chains and the development of a competitive manufacturing sector” (Batra 2023, 6 February).

Indeed,  “We have been through similar surges of Indo-optimism before. But the on-the-ground reality has continued to frustrate even the most ardent of India’s champions. From bold predictions that it would overtake China (an economy still five times larger than India’s), to McKinsey’s 2007 “bird of gold” promise of the Indian consumer that never quite panned out, to deregulation followed by policy reversals and crises of confidence in doing business with India, to devastating periods through the pandemic, the country’s promised inevitable rise has remained elusive” (Chakravorti and Dalmia 2023, 6 September).

Moreover “economic policy lies within the subject of political economy, the dark crossroads where economics and politics meet” (Kelkar and Shah 2022, p.13). “In a democracy, politicians and their parties, who aspire to capture positions of governance and formulate policies, must carry the people along with them. Doubtless, they can sway public opinion to some extent, and some charismatic leaders can do that better others, but within finite and region-specific limitations” (Lahiri 2023, p.41).

“Economics provides the principal rationale for human cooperation. Politics provides the framework within which that cooperation works. Economics and politics are necessarily symbiotic … They are married to each other. But theirs is also a difficult marriage. Managing this productive, yet fraught, relationship requires awareness of these realities” (Wolf 2023, p.13). Effective political leaders would circumvent the political constraint rather succumb to it.

While addressing the G20 meeting in September 2023, PM Modi did so eloquently articulate the need for India to be well integrated with the rest of the world: “our global conduct is rooted in the fundamental principle of ‘Vasudeva Kutumbakam’, which means ‘world is one family’” (Government of India 2023, 8 September). One hopes that he puts this mindset into action.

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[1] Srinivasa Madhur is an Adjunct Professor at the Faculty of Social Sciences and International Relations at the Pannasastra University of Cambodia, Phnom Penh and a former Senior Director at Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines. The views expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author and should not in any way be attributed to the Pannasastra University of Cambodia and/or Asian Development Bank. Moreover, the author would like to confirm that no funding was received to finance the paper from any financing agencies and thus no conflict of interest in any form is involved. The contact email of the author is: srinimadhur@gmail.com

^*Ega, I. J., Oluwalowo, I. A and Giwa Musibau

Department of building/woodwork technology, school of secondary education (Technical) Federal college of education (Technical) Asaba. ^*Tel; +2348035998855,                                  email; egasaves@gmail.com

Abstract

Technical education is thought to empower the citizenry, enhance employment and stimulate sustainable development through industrialization or small-scale businesses; thus, reduces poverty, improves quality of life, reduces the frequency of social vices and encourage a culture of peace. However, these have appear to be an illusion in southern Nigeria. This study is on assessment of acquired skills for establishment and effective management of small-scale industries among technical education students in southern Nigeria. Four research questions guide the study with survey research design adopted. The population for the study consists of final year Technical Education Students in Federal Colleges. Purposeful sampling was used. A five-point rating-scale questionnaire was used for data collection. The researchers administered the research instrument and collected the data through the help of three research assistants. The data collected were analyzed using mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions and determine the spread of the responses. The findings of the study reveal inadequacy of skills among the graduating students of the Nigerian Certificate in Technical Education for the establishment and effective management of small-scale industry without additional training. The implication is that the graduates are not likely to participate in the establishment and management of small scale industry except those with special ingenuity. However it was concluded that due to the high level of unemployment in Nigeria, there is a need to prepare the students for both teaching and industry. Thus, the training should cover both areas so that the graduates can have optional career.

INTRODUCTION

Technical education as intended for colleges of education according to Federal Republic Nigeria (2014) is an education obtained at tertiary institution with the goals to contribute to national development through high level of manpower training to produce skills relevant to the needs of the labour market; promote and encourage scholarship, and entrepreneurship among others. Consequently, the graduates are expected to be self-reliance since they are required to be theoretically and practically sound teachers. This means that the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) graduates should be well equipped for paid employment order than teaching or to become self-employed and employers of labour with requisite skills to establish and manage a business or industry effectively. In line with that Omorodion, (2016) opined that the graduate teachers should have the ability to understand basic aspects of their field of study and make life out of it by managing their own businesses.

Small-scale industry which is the focus of this study can be seen as a firm that employs 10-15 workers and does not have a high volume of sales (Ayozie, Oboreh, Umukoro & Anozie, 2013). Ayozie et al (2013) further observed that small-scale industries are generally privately owned and are sole proprietorships, corporations or partnerships. With the acquired skills the graduates are expected to be able to establish their own businesses since skills are the lens through which business opportunity are viewed by an entrepreneur (Ega & Ega 2023). Therefore, with the skills acquired, the NCE graduates should be entrepreneurially able to own or manage small-scale industries. That is hope to mitigate the serious economic and financial crisis that Africa continent had due to unemployment as a result of lack of skills (Ubulom & Enyekit, 2017). This is to improve quality of life, reduce poverty, limit the incidence of social vices due to joblessness and promote a culture of peace, freedom and Democracy (Federal Ministry of Education, 2016).

However, these objectives seem to be an illusion as many of the graduates are unemployed and in standard unproductive. It has been reported that, industrialists are becoming increasingly skeptical of the products from the technical programme in Nigeria (Abdulkadir & Ma’aji, 2014). Consequently, most of the graduates of technical education join the already large number of unemployed youths due to inadequate skills (Dantawaye, 2014). This is attributed to lack of adequate resources to train students in Technical Education to acquire the skills needed by employers of labour by the higher institutions (Akinyele & Bolarinwa, 2018).

Consequently, this study, is concerns with the increasing level of joblessness among graduates of NCE in the Southern Nigeria which appears to be inadequate training and subsequent lack of relevant skills to establish and effectively manage Small Scale Industries. It is on the above framework that this study on assessment of acquired skills by technical education students for establishment and effective management of small-scale enterprises was considered imperative to offer appropriate empirical data for actionable objectives by relevant stakeholders. The study is thus designed to determine the extent of technical, entrepreneurial, management, and human relation skills acquired by technical education students for effective management of small-scale industries.

METHODOLOGY

This study used survey research design in its investigations; Survey research design is most suitable when an investigation is centered on opinions, attitude and perceptions (Omorodion, 2016). Survey research design is considered most appropriate for this study due to the involvement in gathering of opinions data from technical students on their acquired skills.

The study was conducted among the Federal Colleges of Education (Technical) in Southern Nigeria.  Southern states comprise South-South, South-East and South-West. The Federal Colleges Education (Technical) selected for the current study include; FCE,(T) Asaba, Delta State for South-South, FCE, (T) Umunze, Anambra State, for South-East and FCE, (T) Akoka-Yaba, Lagos State for South- West. These zones were chosen because there were considered as the industrial hub of the Nigeria yet many youths are unemployed, due to the failure of technical education graduates to embark on the operation of small-scale industries and create jobs (Idowu, 2023).

 The population for the study comprises of the final year technical education students in the three colleges of education (technical) selected in southern Nigeria. The population of this study basically consisted of graduating students from the following department; Automobile, Building, Electrical/Electronic, Metalwork and Woodwork technology education from the three colleges. The total population thus are 142 respondents which were purposively sampled. The instrument for data collection was structured based on a five-point rating scale of Very High (VH – 5points), High (H – 4 points), Average (A – 3 points), Low (L – 2 points) and Very Low (VL – 1 point).

Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation determine the respondents’ closeness. Decision on the research questions were based on limit of numbers as presented in Table 1.

1. Table 2; Questionnaire Decision Rating 

Codes	Keys	Range
VH	Very High	4.50-5.00
H	High	3.50-4.49
A	Average	2.50-3.49
P	Poor	1.50-2.49
VP	Very Poor	1.00-1.49

RESULTS

Cluster 1; the extent of acquired technical skills for establishment and effective management of small-scale industry.

Table 2: Means and standard deviations of the respondents on the extent of acquired technical skills.

S/N	ITEM	Very high	High	Average	Poor	Very Poor	Mean	Standard  deviation	Decision
1	Knowledge of tools and equipment in my area of specialization for small-scale industry.	32	50	40	12	5	3.66	0.45	High
2	Skills on how to handle relevant tools and equipment in my area of specialization for small-scale industry.	20	35	50	32	10	3.34	0.12	Average
3	Knowledge of relevant materials used in the production or operation in (my area of specialization) small-scale industry.	40	50	30	10	9	3.73	0.53	High
4	Knowledge of the process of production or construction of a product in (my area of specialization) small-scale industry).	40	42	29	21	7	3.63	0.40	High
5	Skills on repair or maintenance of tools and equipment used in (my area of specialization) small-scale industry.	9	35	30	45	20	2.77	0.05	Average
	Grand mean						3.37	1.22	Average

Table 1 clearly shows the extent of acquired technical skills rating for effective management of small-scale industries or businesses by the respondents.  It expresses that the respondents agreed on having high knowledge of tools/equipment, and of relevant materials used in the production or operation in small-scale industry. Also, the knowledge of the process of production or construction of products in small-scale industry was also rated high. However, the skills in handling relevant tools/equipment and the skills on repairs and maintenance of tools and equipment were rated average. The grand mean of 3.37 so indicated an average value of the acquired technical skills.

Cluster 2: the extent of acquired entrepreneurial skills to establish and effective management of small-scale industry.

Table 3: Means and standard deviations of the respondents on the extent of acquired entrepreneurial skills.

S/N	ITEM	Very high	High	Average	Poor	Very Poor	Mean	Standard  deviation	Decision
6	Skills on how to identify business opportunity for small-scale industry in my area of specialization.	26	50	40	20	3	3.55	0.30	High
7	Skills on how to organize business ideas for small-scale industry.in my area of specialization	15	29	60	35	10	3.10	0.01	Average
8	Skills on how to manage risks in small-scale industry in my area of specialization.	10	18	40	60	11	2.68	0.10	Average
9	Skills on how to write and organise plan for small-scale industry in my area of specialization.	7	20	30	58	19	2.55	0.20	Average
10	Skills on how to generate and organise resources for small-scale industry in my area of specialization.	3	10	37	69	20	2.33	0.11	Poor
	Grand total						2.84	0.72	Average

Table 3shows clearly the means and standard deviations of the respondents on the extent of acquired entrepreneurial skills to establish and effective management of small-scale industry. The analysis shows that the respondents rated high the Skills on how to identify business opportunity for small-scale industry, while skills on how to oranised resources was rated poor.

However, the other items in the cluster; skills on how to organize business ideas, Skills on how to manage risks in small-scale industry and Skills on how to write and organise plan for small-scale industry were rated average. Again, the grand mean of 2.84 indicated an average value of the acquired entrepreneurial skills.

Cluster 3: The extent of acquired management skills for effective management of small-scale industry.

Table 4: Means and standard deviations of the respondents on the extent of acquired management skills.

S/N	ITEM	Very high	High	Average	Poor	Very Poor	Mean	Standard  deviation	Decision
11	Acquired skills in materials management in small-scale industry in my area of specialization.	10	26	55	41	7	2.61	0.15	Average
12	Acquired skills in personnel management in small-scale industry in my area of specialization	0	16	55	41	27	2.43	0.32	Poor
13	Acquired skills in time management in small-scale industry in my area of specialization	10	12	33	67	17	2.50	0.25	Average
14	Acquired skills in tools/ equipment management in small-scale industry in my area of specialization	3	10	30	60	36	2.32	0.68	Poor
15	Acquired skills in financial management in small-scale industry in my area of specialization	9	21	39	61	9	1.83	1.37	Poor
	Grand total						2.34	2.77	Poor

The analysis of data presented in Table 4 shows the responses of the respondents on the extent of acquired management skills for effective management of small-scale industry. The respondents rated skills on materials management and skill on time management as average. The other items; skills in personnel management, skills on tools/ equipment management and skills in financial were rated poor. The average mean of 2.34 also shows that the rating of acquired management skills is poor and the discrepancy between the mean respondent is reasonable.

Cluster 4: The extent of acquired human relation skills for effective management of small-scale industry.

 Table 5: Means and standard deviations of the respondents on the extent of acquired human relation skills.

S/N	ITEM	Very high	High	Average	Poor	Very Poor	Mean	Standard  deviation	Decision
16	Acquired skills on Leadership for the effective management of small-scale industry.	16	28	50	30	15	3.0	0.00	Average
17	Acquired skills on motivation of staff for the effective management of small-scale industry.	4	10	25	60	40	2.12	0.77	Poor
18	Acquired skills on how to work with others or team for the effective management of small-scale industry.	10	40	40	30	19	2.94	0.00	Average
19	Acquired skills on staff training for the effective management of small-scale industry.	30	60	31	10	8	3.67	0.45	High
20	Acquired skills on customer’s satisfactions for the effective management of small-scale industry.	3	14	30	52	40	2.19	0.66	Poor
	Grand total						2.78	1.98	Average

The data presented and analysed in Table 5 shows the responses of the respondents on the extent of acquired human relation skills for effective management of small-scale industry: while the skills on staff training was rated high, skills on Leadership and skills on working with others or a team were rated average. However, the skills on motivation of staff and skills on customer’s satisfactions were rated poor. But the grand total mean rate is 2.98 signifying average rating and the standard deviation of 1.98 shows that the disparities between the respondents rating is insignificant.  

SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS

The following are the summary of the findings of this study;

1. The acquired technical skills by the graduating students of the Nigeria Certificate in Education is of average.
2. The acquired entrepreneurial skills among the graduating students of the Nigeria Certificate in Education is also of average.
3. The acquired management skills among the graduating students of the Nigeria Certificate in Education is poor.
4. The acquired human relation skills among the graduating students of the Nigeria Certificate in Education is again of average.

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

The capacity to be self-employed or manage a small scale industry the graduates must acquire both sound knowledge and high skills in their area of specializations. Firstly, technical education students should have versatile technical skills at the same time a good entrepreneurship skills to be able to establish their own businesses. That is not all, to sustain the business and work with others, there is the need to have good management skills and human relation skills.

However, the findings of the current study have shown that the acquired technical skills is of average. The details of the findings show that the students are better acquainted with knowledge or information rather than skills. The implication of this is that the graduates are limited in identifying business opportunity since skills is the lens through which entrepreneur could view business opportunity (Ega & Ega, 2023). It may also be difficult for the graduates to assess the risks involved in the business.

This average rating of technical skills could be attributed to respondents training programme (NCE). The NCE by its established objectives is mainly designed to train students to teach technical related subjects in primary and junior secondary schools. Thus the curriculum does not cover in details or prepared them for business hence the average knowledge or the skills. The implication of this is that the graduates can only conveniently teach and may not have the charisma to venture into business without additional training or apprenticeship.   

The average acquired entrepreneurial skills recorded again shows that the curriculum required modification to increase their skills on how to expressly identify business opportunity, organise the plan, write business plan, and take risk. Again, it is also very necessary to understand how to gather resources for such business.  Entrepreneurial skills is the key to starting any business venture and the lack of it or half-baked of it as in this study will not encourage starting a business.

Management skills is necessary to sustain a small-scale industry. However, the findings of this study has shown that the acquired management skills is poor. This result is thus expected since the graduates are yet to enter into the job market or industry, they do not have the confidence on their ability to manage such industry. They may be having the theoretical knowledge but not practical or field experience.  However, Diran (2016) observed that the acquisition of management skills contribute immensely to the effective management of business. Again, Dantawaye, (2014) iterates that management competencies are needed by technical college welding and fabrication graduates for self-employment.

Further, the human relation is another skills necessary to sustain a business in Nigeria. Human relation involve leadership skills, motivation skills, and ability to work with others. Others include skills on staff training and skills on customer’s satisfactions. The absence of these skills will prevent effective management of a business. However, the findings of the current study have rated human relation skills of the graduating students as average. The average rating again could be attributed to inadequate or absence of these special skills training in their curriculum. Although the students industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) is expected to partly take care of this, however, the SIWES is hardly taken seriously by some of the students. Yet according to Chia (2018) possession of human relation skills is very important for enhancement of productivity.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study reveal inadequacy of skills among graduating students of Nigerian certificate in technical education for the establishment and effective management of small-scale industry without additional training. This is because some basic skills are still lacking in their training. This can be attributed to the emphasis of the programme as focus is mainly for the graduates to teach in the class room.  The implication is that the graduates are not likely to participate in the establishment and management of small scale industry except those with special ingenuity.

However, due to the high level of unemployment in Nigeria, there is a need to prepare the students for both teaching and industry. Consequently the training should cover both areas so that the graduates can have optional career, and to do this the curriculum should be reviewed.

REFERENCES

Abdulkadir, M. & Ma’aji, S.A. (2014). Assessment of workshop resources management   practices in technical colleges of Niger State. International Journal of Scientific and    Research Publications, 4(1); 1-6.

Ayozie, D. O, Oboreh S.O. Umukoro, F., & Anozie, V. (2013). Small and medium scale   enterprises (SMEs) in Nigeria: the marketing interface. Global journal of management and business research marketing Vol. 13 Issue 9 Version 1.0 year 2013

Dantawaye, J. B, (2014). Management competencies needed by technical college welding and                  fabrication graduates for self-employment in Kaduna State. Unpublished masters’ thesis submitted to the Department of teacher education- industrial technical education unit,          University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Diran, M. (2016). Entrepreneurs: perception of skills needed for management of Small-Scale       businesses in Okitipupa local government of Ondo State. Unpublished maters’ thesis,      submitted to the Department of Vocational and Technical Education, Delta State      University, Abraka

Ega, I. J., & Ega, E. F. (2023). Entrepreneurial model for business development from skill to        enterprise. In H. S. Nalado, R. O. Igbodo, A. O. Isibor, & A. O. Attah (Eds), Current trends in entrepreneurship (569-575). Rupee-com publisher & coy, Asaba.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2014) National policy on education. Abuja: NERDC

Omorodion, S. O. (2016). Assessment of the level of technological literacy possessed by   vocational and technical education students in tertiary institutions.  Unpublished   masters’ thesis submitted to the department of technology and vocational education,             Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka 2016)

 Ubulom W. J. & Enyekit, E. ((2017). Evaluation of Facilities Utilized for the Implementation of                         Business Education Programmes in Tertiary Institutions in Rivers State International        Journal of Innovative Education Research 5(3):68-76.

Komal Ashok Raisinghani

Email: raikomal2109@gmail.com

Abstract

In Leah Kaminsky’s The Waiting Room (2015), the spectral presence of the protagonist’s mother and various memory objects serve as powerful symbols for the enduring effects of trauma across generations. This study examines how Kaminsky uses these elements to explore the interplay between past and present, where unresolved grief and historical trauma manifest in both tangible and intangible forms. The ghostly figure of Dina’s mother symbolizes the persistent, haunting memories of the Holocaust, while objects such as cardboard boxes function as conduits for trauma that refuse to fade into history. This research analyses how Kaminsky intertwines spectral figures with memory objects to create a narrative space where the dead and the living coexist, revealing the continuous psychological toll of inherited trauma. The study further investigates how the novel portrays trauma as an omnipresent force that shapes identity, disrupts time, and blurs the boundaries between reality and memory. By delving into the narrative’s unique use of these elements, this paper sheds light on the complexities of post-war trauma and the ways in which literature can articulate the often invisible yet pervasive nature of historical suffering. This approach offers new insights into the representation of trauma in contemporary literature, emphasizing how Kaminsky’s novel contributes to the understanding of the intergenerational transmission of grief.

Keywords: Spectral figures, Memory objects, Intergenerational trauma, Historical haunting, The Waiting Room

Trauma leaves a mark far deeper than the physical scars of war, violence, or personal loss. It permeates the psyche, shaping the individual’s relationship with themselves, their family, and the broader world. While the wounds may be invisible, they linger across generations, embedding themselves in objects, memories, and familial bonds. Leah Kaminsky’s novel, The Waiting Room (2015), provides a profound exploration of how trauma transcends time, geography, and even life itself. Set in Israel, where the echoes of past wars reverberate alongside present conflicts, The Waiting Room delves into the life of Dr. Dina Ronen, a woman haunted by her mother’s death during the Holocaust, and her overwhelming fear of passing on that trauma to her son, Shlomi. Trauma fiction has long served as a crucial avenue for exploring not only the psychological aftermath of traumatic events but also their socio-political dimensions. Vickroy (2002) highlights the significance of trauma literature as a vital lens through which readers can access the lived experiences of individuals shaped by ideology and public policy. Through a sociocultural critical analysis, trauma literature provides a deeper understanding of how people navigate oppressive systems and historical contexts that have profoundly impacted their lives. The blending of literary narratives with research from fields such as psychology and history not only enriches our understanding of trauma but also supplements other fields of study, offering a multi-dimensional perspective on the psychological and social aftermath of traumatic events. Horvitz (2000) reinforces this idea, asserting that trauma fiction serves as a means of unmasking the very ideologies and sociopolitical conditions that give rise to traumatic incidents. By exposing these oppressive forces, trauma fiction becomes a powerful tool for both critiquing and challenging systems that produce or legitimize suffering. The combination of these perspectives underscores the power of trauma literature not only to document individual and collective experiences but also to critique the broader forces that shape and sustain those experiences, contributing to a richer and more comprehensive understanding of trauma. In Kaminsky’s The Waiting Room, these ideas are embodied in Dina’s internal and external struggles as she navigates the overwhelming burden of intergenerational trauma. Cathy Caruth, one of the foremost scholars in the field, suggests that “the story of trauma, then, as the narrative of a belated experience, far from telling of an escape from reality—the escape from a death, or from its referential force—rather attests to its endless impact on a life” (1996, p. 7). It implies that trauma does not always manifest immediately after a distressing or violent event. In many cases, people do not fully process or understand what has happened to them until much later. This is why trauma is often described as belated—its emotional, psychological, and sometimes even physical impact can emerge long after the initial event. In this sense, trauma is not just about the past event itself but about how that event continues to affect the person over time. Trauma narratives do not offer an escape from the painful reality of the event; instead, they highlight how the traumatic experience continues to linger and shape the individual’s reality. The traumatic event is not something that the person simply gets over or leaves behind, but rather something that they carry with them, sometimes unconsciously. This further refers to the idea that even if someone survives a traumatic event, the psychological consequences of that event continue to impact the survivor. In other words, while the person may have physically escaped death, they have not escaped the emotional or mental toll it takes. This emphasizes the enduring nature of trauma. The traumatic event keeps surfacing in a person’s life—through flashbacks, nightmares, emotional triggers, or unconscious behaviours—demonstrating that its impact is never fully left behind. Trauma has a ripple effect, shaping the person’s future experiences, relationships, and emotional state in ways that can feel endless. Caruth’s seminal work, Unclaimed Experience (1996), offers a framework for understanding how trauma operates in fiction, particularly through its disruptive effect on narrative temporality. In Kaminsky’s The Waiting Room, this disruption is evident in Dina’s oscillation between past and present, with her mother’s ghost serving as the embodiment of unresolved trauma.

Freud’s theories of trauma provide a compelling lens to understand Dina’s behaviour in The Waiting Room. Freud (1924) posits that trauma victims, in response to memory loss or repressed memories, unconsciously repeat the traumatic event, not as a recollection but as an action. This phenomenon, known as “acting out,” occurs because the victim is unable to process the memory properly, leading them to relive the trauma in various ways without recognizing the repetition. Victims of trauma are often unable to articulate their memories of the traumatic event and instead re-enact the trauma unconsciously. In The Waiting Room, Dina’s constant interaction with objects tied to her mother’s memory, as well as her obsessive anxiety over Shlomi’s safety, can be understood as manifestations of this repetition compulsion. She is trapped in an endless cycle of reliving her mother’s death, unable to break free from the shadow of the Holocaust. In The Waiting Room, Kaminsky engages with Israel’s ongoing history of war and conflict, as well as the cultural weight of the Holocaust. Dina’s personal trauma is deeply intertwined with the collective trauma of the Jewish people, suggesting that her inability to escape her mother’s ghost is symbolic of a larger societal struggle to come to terms with historical atrocities. The novel reveals Dina’s deep-seated anxiety, foreshadowing the persistent presence of trauma in her life. As Kaminsky writes, “…a past she carried along with her everywhere she went; a heavy sack filled with the dead, permanently hoisted over her shoulder” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 32) This encapsulates the key idea that trauma, particularly Holocaust-related trauma, is never truly forgotten; instead, it lingers, reemerging in spectral figures and memory objects that continuously shape Dina’s perception of the present. In The Waiting Room, Dina is a second-generation Holocaust survivor. Although she was not alive during the Holocaust, her mother’s death in a concentration camp casts a long shadow over her life. Dina’s obsessive need to protect Shlomi from the dangers of the world, her inability to let go of objects tied to her mother’s memory, and her constant fear of loss can all be seen as manifestations of intergenerational trauma. This concept is central to Kaminsky’s exploration of how trauma is inherited and how the past continues to shape the present.

In The Waiting Room, the ghost of Dina’s mother looms large, serving as both a literal and metaphorical representation of the trauma that haunts Dina’s life. Kaminsky uses the spectral figure to explore the idea that trauma is not confined to the past but continues to haunt the present, often in ways that are difficult to articulate or understand. Freud’s theory of melancholia, which suggests that individuals who are unable to properly mourn their losses become trapped in a state of perpetual mourning, is particularly relevant here (Freud’s Mourning & Melancholia). Dina’s inability to let go of her mother’s memory mirrors this process of melancholia, as she is unable to move forward and is instead trapped in the cycle of reliving her mother’s death. “In each room of memory lies a corner reserved for her mother’s dead; the family lost in the war” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 83). This line encapsulates the idea that Dina’s mother is not simply a memory but an omnipresent force in her life. The physical spaces Dina inhabits are marked by her mother’s absence, suggesting that the trauma of loss has infiltrated every aspect of her existence. Dina’s mother’s ghost is not just a figure from the past; she is a constant presence, reminding Dina of the trauma she cannot escape. Cultural trauma refers to the collective experience of a traumatic event that affects an entire community or nation. The Holocaust is perhaps the most well-known example of cultural trauma, and it plays a significant role in The Waiting Room. Dina’s trauma is not only personal but also collective, as it is tied to the larger history of Jewish persecution and survival. Dina’s inability to let go of her mother’s memory is symbolic of the larger struggle within Jewish communities to come to terms with the trauma of genocide.  Scholars such as Michael Rothberg (2009) have explored how cultural trauma is represented in literature, particularly in relation to memory and identity. Kaminsky’s novel engages with this idea by situating Dina’s personal trauma within the broader context of collective history. Dina’s fear for Shlomi’s safety is not only a reflection of her personal trauma but also of the collective anxiety that permeates in the society. This is particularly evident in Dina’s relationship with Shlomi, as she fears that her trauma will be passed down to him, just as it was passed down to her. “No child deserves to be born with the handicap of having to endure its parent’s pain, carry the madness of a history that belongs to someone else, become infected with the white-hot touch of other people’s wounds” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 131). This line speaks to the overwhelming burden of intergenerational trauma and Dina’s desperate attempts to protect Shlomi from inheriting her suffering. The novel, therefore, serves as both a personal and political commentary on the long-lasting effects of cultural trauma.

In The Waiting Room, objects play a significant role in preserving and transmitting trauma. Dina’s relationship with objects, particularly those tied to her mother, serves as a powerful metaphor for the way trauma is stored in the material world. Objects, in this context, become repositories of memory, carrying the weight of the past and acting as conduits for the transmission of trauma across generations. “Dina lives her life surrounded by cardboard boxes, filled with objects she cannot give away… She hoards. She keeps stuff, collects stuff, is unable to let go of stuff. Boxes she shipped from Melbourne, filled with her parents’ junk that she could never bring herself to throw out…” (Kaminsky, 2015, pp. 28-29). This behaviour is a clear manifestation of Dina’s inability to let go of the past, as she clings to objects that remind her of her mother and the trauma she endured. Freud’s theory of “repetition compulsion” (1924) provides insight into this behaviour, as Dina’s hoarding can be seen as a form of unconscious repetition, a way of keeping her mother’s memory alive while simultaneously preventing herself from moving forward. This is further reflected in the lines, “She has never really unpacked; she lives neither here, nor there. The boxes float above her bed as she sleeps, ready to be filled with dreams and instantly locked away” (Kaminsky, 2015, pg. 29). This suggests that Dina is living in a state of limbo, not fully grounded in her present life nor entirely disconnected from her past. The act of unpacking is often symbolic of settling down and becoming comfortable in a new place, but Dina has not done this. Her failure to unpack indicates her emotional and psychological displacement—she cannot fully commit to her present life because her mind is still tied to unresolved trauma from her past. This liminal space signifies how she is psychologically stuck. The “boxes” (p. 29) symbolize the memories, unresolved emotions, and traumas that she keeps locked away but that still loom over her, even in sleep. They are not grounded or stored somewhere—they hover above her, indicating that they are always present in her subconscious, ready to intrude on her peace. Even when she tries to rest or escape into sleep, the weight of these memories threatens to come crashing down. This line reveals how Dina manages her trauma—she may experience dreams or memories that connect to her unresolved past, but she quickly represses them, locking them away in the metaphorical boxes. This suggests a coping mechanism where she avoids confronting or unpacking her trauma fully. Instead of processing these painful memories, she tucks them away to avoid dealing with them head-on, though they still exist in her psyche, ready to resurface at any moment. This adds to the broader narrative of how past trauma, especially related to war and displacement, continues to affect survivors long after the actual events have ended, shaping their present existence.

The significance of objects in The Waiting Room is further emphasized by the way Dina interacts with them. “She glances at the reflection of a wedding photo hanging on the wall behind her” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 24). The wedding photo symbolizes a moment of joy and stability in Dina’s life. Yet, the fact that she only sees it through a reflection rather than directly signals a disconnect between her present happiness and the burdens of her past. The act of Dina circling her husband during the wedding symbolizes protection and tradition, yet this protection is overshadowed by the historical trauma she has inherited. Her marriage and her present life are haunted by the unresolved legacy of her family’s past. Dina’s understanding of wartime Poland is shaped entirely by the stories her mother told her, yet those stories are so powerful and traumatic that they have created a mental image in Dina’s mind as if she had lived through them herself, which is reflected when Dina says, “…people, buildings and landscapes only appear in varying tints of black and grey, often tinged with a wash of red taken from the bloody palette of her mother’s stories. Dina keeps returning there, even though she’s never set foot near the place” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 24). The black and grey shades reflect a world devoid of life and hope, echoing the Holocaust’s overwhelming darkness, destruction, and death. This colour imagery signifies how the trauma of war has erased all vibrancy from these memories and landscapes, turning everything into a shadowy, mournful world in Dina’s mind. The monochromatic view suggests that Dina’s perception of this place is entirely shaped by tragedy and loss, as conveyed through her mother’s stories. The red symbolizes blood, violence, and death, underscoring the horrifying nature of her mother’s experiences. The “bloody palette” (p. 24) represents the physical and emotional brutality of the Holocaust. This visual description conveys that while Dina never experienced these events, the emotional intensity of her mother’s stories has coloured her imagination with the same fear, pain, and loss that her mother lived through. The red “wash” (p. 24) further emphasizes the inescapable presence of violence in these memories, as if blood has stained the very landscape of her imagination. These memories haunt her, even though they are not technically her own. This reflects Marianne Hirsch’s concept of postmemory, where the second generation inherits the traumatic memories of the first generation and internalizes them so deeply that they feel as though they belong to them (2008).

Storytelling is also portrayed as a haunting element in the novel. It is reflected in the scene when “Dina digs inside her bag trying to find her phone, searching for a lifeline out from the shoemaker’s past. The threads of his story are wrapping around her chest. She takes several slow breaths, trying to connect again to the here-and-now. The screen of her phone is blank…” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 122). Dina’s attempt to find her phone symbolizes her desperate need to escape from the heavy emotional burden that the shoemaker’s story brings. The phone, a tool of modern communication and connection to the present, represents a way for Dina to ground herself in the “here-and-now” (p. 122) and escape from the overwhelming emotions triggered by the shoemaker’s traumatic narrative. The “lifeline” (p. 122) metaphor suggests that she feels trapped and needs a means to pull herself out of the entanglement created by the story. This metaphor vividly captures the suffocating impact that the shoemaker’s story is having on Dina. The “threads” (p. 122) of the story symbolize how trauma—whether experienced directly or through others—can weave itself into one’s mind and emotions, making it difficult to disentangle from it. The physical sensation of the story “wrapping around her chest” (p. 122) suggests emotional constriction, anxiety, and suffocation. It highlights how listening to stories of trauma can evoke a visceral, almost physical reaction in the listener, especially someone like Dina, who is already carrying her own burdens of inherited trauma. The practice of slow breathing suggests mindfulness or grounding, a common technique used to combat anxiety or panic attacks. Dina is actively trying to resist being pulled too deeply into the past and the trauma it represents, attempting to restore her focus on the present. However, this action also shows how difficult it is to remain detached from traumatic stories once they start to pull at emotional threads. The blank phone screen is symbolic of Dina’s current state of disconnection, both from the present and from the people or things that might help her find grounding. Recording memories of the traumatic events in the survivor’s mind has also been studied by Dominic (2001), according to whom trauma survivors continuously carry remnants of their past, describing this as a persistent presence that haunts their minds. He explains that when survivors recount their traumatic experiences, they are mentally transported back to the original event, becoming trapped in that moment once again. In doing so, they do not simply recall the event but are emotionally and mentally re-immersed in the trauma, effectively reenacting the situation as if they are still living through it.

In The Waiting Room, one of the central tensions Dina grapples with is the fear of passing on her trauma to her son, Shlomi. In Dina’s case, her inherited trauma from her parents—survivors of the Holocaust—continues to exert a profound influence on her, and she is deeply fearful that this legacy of suffering will affect her child. This dynamic is particularly evident in Dina’s obsessive anxiety over Shlomi’s safety, as she goes to great lengths to protect him from the dangers of the world. Dina’s protective instincts—rooted in her own unresolved trauma—lead her to create scenarios in her mind where her worst fears, such as Shlomi’s death, come true. This constant state of fear is not only harming Dina but also potentially affecting her relationship with her son, which is reflected in the statement, “She is losing him. For too long she has grasped him tight, trying to keep him safe. But she has been playing out her false tragedies at her son’s expense” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 139), Dina acknowledges that her attempts to keep Shlomi safe have, in some ways, become harmful. The phrase “false tragedies” (p. 139) suggests that Dina is aware she is projecting her traumatic past onto her son, imagining worst-case scenarios that may never occur. However, this realization does not alleviate her anxiety. Instead, it reveals the depth of her trauma, as her efforts to protect Shlomi from danger are shaped by the unresolved fears and insecurities that stem from her own experiences. “She somehow feels Shlomi’s school is the place where her worst fears are about to come true” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 129), Dina’s irrational fear transfers to everyday spaces, like Shlomi’s school. Schools, which should be places of safety and growth, become in Dina’s mind sites of potential catastrophe. This anxiety is an extension of her trauma—she sees danger where there may be none because her traumatic memories are deeply intertwined with fear and loss. The school becomes a metaphor for her inability to escape the past, as Dina sees even the most mundane environments as threatening. This sense of perpetual danger aligns with the theory of hypervigilance, which is typically associated with high levels of anxiety (state and trait) and has been conceptualized to represent a bias in information processing aimed at increasing the chances of survival (Craske et al. 2009; Beck and Clark 1997; Richards et al. 2014). With disordered anxiety/fear, the perception of threat has been shown to be overestimated in comparison to the needs of the environment (Beck and Clark 1997; Rosen and Schulkin 1998). Dina’s fear is no longer bound to the traumatic events of the past but seeps into the present, affecting how she views her son’s future. Her belief that Shlomi’s school is a place where her worst fears will come true shows how trauma reshapes reality, creating constant fear even in ordinary situations. The vivid imagery of birth—of him being jettisoned into the world—conveys Dina’s sense of helplessness. From the very beginning, she associates his birth with danger, and this fear has persisted throughout his life. The term “bloated jellyfish” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 47) suggests that Dina views both the process of childbirth and the world outside the womb as vulnerable and precarious. Her trauma, inherited from her mother’s Holocaust experiences, has made her hyper-aware of the fragility of life.

In The Waiting Room, Leah Kaminsky masterfully portrays the long-lasting and pervasive effects of trauma, particularly Holocaust trauma, and its deep psychological impact on individuals and families. Dina’s life is defined by her inherited trauma, the echoes of her mother’s Holocaust experiences, and her own struggles to break free from these memories. The novel demonstrates how trauma is not confined to the past—it is an ongoing presence, resurfacing in various forms and influencing not only the survivor but also their children, as seen in Dina’s overwhelming fear for her son, Shlomi. The narrative underscores the cyclical nature of trauma, illustrating how unprocessed and unacknowledged pain can transcend generations. Dina’s anxious attempts to protect her son from an uncertain future stem from the unresolved grief and loss she inherited. This persistent trauma creates a psychosocial crisis—one that is deeply internal, silent, and potentially more destructive than any physical danger, much like a pandemic of the mind and spirit. Such a crisis, left unaddressed, could be as harmful as the global pandemic, if not more so, because it seeps into the very fabric of family life, quietly eroding emotional resilience and well-being. Kaminsky’s portrayal of Dina’s fractured existence, living between the shadows of her mother’s past and the fears for her son’s future, emphasizes the urgent need for addressing trauma before it escalates into a generational psychosocial crisis. The novel calls attention to the dangers of suppressing or ignoring trauma, highlighting the importance of acknowledging and processing these experiences to prevent them from overwhelming individuals and societies. In a world increasingly grappling with the psychological fallout of war, violence, and displacement, Kaminsky’s work serves as a reminder that unresolved trauma can have widespread and devastating consequences, much like an invisible pandemic. Ultimately, The Waiting Room offers a message of both caution and hope. It emphasizes that while trauma may not be entirely escapable, healing is possible through awareness, self-reflection, and, most importantly, through the conscious effort to live in the present. By facing the ghosts of the past, Dina—and by extension, all trauma survivors—can begin to reclaim their future and protect the next generation from carrying the same burdens. Kaminsky’s novel is a powerful testament to the resilience of the human spirit and the necessity of addressing trauma to avoid the silent, pervasive dangers of a psychosocial crisis.

References

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