Reclaiming the Classroom: Applying Sociological Interventions to Reduce Educational Inequality through Community Tutoring Networks in Semi-Urban India

How to Cite it

Kar, S. (2026). Reclaiming the Classroom: Applying Sociological Interventions to Reduce Educational Inequality through Community Tutoring Networks in Semi-Urban India. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 171–178. https://doi.org/10.26643/eduindex/ijr/2026/11

Dr. Sukanya Kar

Assistant Professor

Department of English (CDOE), Sikkim Manipal University

ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-5637-9095

Abstract

Educational inequality in India persists despite extensive policy reforms, owing to entrenched cultural hierarchies, linguistic divides, and uneven access to social capital. This paper presents an application-oriented sociological intervention—Learning Together—conducted in semi-urban West Bengal to address educational disparities among first-generation learners. The initiative mobilized community networks by engaging college students, retired teachers, and mothers’ collectives to co-create inclusive neighborhood tutoring spaces. Using Participatory Action Research (PAR), the study explored how social capital, cultural capital, and critical pedagogy intersect to improve learning motivation, attendance, and community cohesion. The project operationalised Pierre Bourdieu’s theories of habitus and cultural capital alongside Robert Putnam’s bonding and bridging social capital, integrating Paulo Freire’s critical pedagogy. The findings show that community-based interventions can foster emotional safety, gender inclusion, and learning engagement, thereby transforming educational participation from a passive process to a collective social act. The study argues that applied sociology, when enacted through participatory frameworks, can shift education from an institutional privilege to a shared social responsibility.

Keywords: applied sociology, educational inequality, participatory learning, cultural capital, social capital, community engagement, India

1. Introduction: Sociology Beyond Diagnosis

The field of sociology has long illuminated the structural dimensions of inequality—class, caste, gender, and language—that shape educational outcomes. However, sociology’s public role remains underutilized when it comes to transforming these insights into tangible change. In India, education remains one of the most visible sites of social reproduction (Bourdieu, 1986; Jeffrey, 2010). Semi-urban schools, often sandwiched between rural deprivation and urban privilege, exemplify this paradox: despite the promise of mobility, they reproduce marginality through curricular alienation, language barriers, and infrastructural scarcity.

The Learning Together project emerged from this sociological impasse, aspiring to convert theory into intervention. It asked: Can sociological knowledge—when directly applied—alter the lived experience of inequality? Rather than limiting itself to critique, the project sought to co-design solutions grounded in community knowledge and participatory engagement. This article thus contributes to the growing domain of applied and clinical sociology, where the goal is not only to understand but also to improve social conditions (Fritz, 2020). By focusing on the everyday struggles of first-generation learners, it demonstrates how sociology can become a tool of empowerment—bridging the gap between academic theory and social practice.

2. Context: The Semi-Urban Educational Landscape

Educational inequality in semi-urban India operates through intersecting material and symbolic dimensions. While infrastructure, teacher availability, and digital access are visible challenges, the deeper inequities lie in how education itself is socially valued, accessed, and experienced across lines of class, caste, language, and gender.

2.1 Structural Challenges: Semi-urban regions such as those surrounding Siliguri in North Bengal embody the duality of India’s development trajectory: expanding educational institutions coexist with persistent socio-economic precarity. Schools in these areas typically function with limited resources—insufficient classrooms, irregular electricity, and minimal teaching aids. Teachers, often commuting from urban centers, are overburdened with administrative duties that reduce actual teaching time.The digital divide compounds this structural inadequacy. According to the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER, 2022), only 38% of rural and semi-urban households in India possess smartphones accessible to children for learning. Thus, technological reforms, though well-intentioned, tend to reproduce inequality by privileging those already advantaged.

2.2 Symbolic and Relational Inequalities: Beyond these tangible constraints, inequality assumes a symbolic and relational form. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1991) argues that schools act as sites where “legitimate culture” is produced and reproduced through language and habitus. In semi-urban North Bengal, this plays out in the preference for English-medium education, which becomes a marker of social mobility rather than a tool of learning.Children who speak local dialects such as Rajbanshi, Nepali, or Bengali at home find themselves alienated in classrooms that valorize English or standardized Bengali. Their linguistic capital—though rich and expressive—carries little exchange value in the formal educational field. This symbolic exclusion erodes self-confidence and reinforces a sense of inferiority, especially among first-generation learners.

Gender further mediates these inequalities. Girls are often expected to help with domestic chores or sibling care, limiting study time. In some families, investment in girls’ education is still seen as secondary to marriage prospects. As one mother remarked during a focus group, “A boy’s education earns money; a girl’s education earns respect—but respect does not feed us.” Such statements reflect the complex intersection of economic and cultural capital that governs educational choices.

2.3 The Field Site: Two Neighborhoods near Siliguri: The field site comprises two semi-urban neighborhoods on the periphery of Siliguri, characterized by cultural hybridity and economic marginality. The population includes tea garden workers, daily-wage laborers, small shopkeepers, and low-income service employees. Most families are nuclear but socially interconnected through kinship and neighborhood networks. Children in these areas typically attend government or low-fee private schools. While parents express a deep desire for their children’s success, they often lack the cultural literacy or leisure time to assist with schoolwork. Homework is frequently left incomplete not from negligence, but from parents’ inability to understand the curriculum. As one father noted, “We can earn for the books, but we cannot read the books.”

2.4 Home as a Site of Contradiction: Home environments in these neighborhoods are culturally vibrant but educationally marginalized. Evenings are filled with community interactions—folk songs, local festivals, and storytelling traditions—but these forms of cultural capital remain unrecognized by formal education. The curriculum, dominated by urban middle-class values, fails to acknowledge the rich experiential knowledge embedded in local life. This disjuncture between home and school produces what Bernstein (1971) termed “codes of exclusion,” where children learn to internalize the feeling that their ways of speaking, dressing, or thinking are less legitimate. Consequently, the school becomes a site of both aspiration and anxiety—a place that promises mobility but often reproduces exclusion.

2.5 Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The COVID-19 pandemic intensified these pre-existing inequalities. When schools transitioned to online platforms, access became a matter of privilege. Many families shared a single smartphone, usually belonging to a working adult, which left children without devices during school hours. Internet connectivity was unstable, and digital literacy among parents was minimal.As one mother expressed during a focus group discussion:

“School moved into the phone, but the phone never came into our home.”

This poignant observation encapsulates the digital and emotional distance that widened during the lockdowns. While urban children navigated online classrooms, semi-urban learners were cut off from both formal education and peer interaction, leading to learning regression and emotional fatigue.

2.6 Conceptualizing a Sociological Intervention: It was against this backdrop that Learning Together was conceptualized as a sociological application rather than a charity-driven initiative. The aim was to reimagine education not merely as classroom instruction but as a social process rooted in community participation. By mobilizing existing social capital—retired teachers, college volunteers, mothers’ groups, and neighborhood spaces—the project sought to bridge the symbolic gap between the home and the school. Rather than imposing external pedagogical models, the intervention worked within the community’s own rhythms of life, using local idioms, songs, and storytelling to create familiarity and ownership.

In this sense, Learning Together did not attempt to replace the formal school but to reclaim learning as a communal act, challenging the notion that education must occur only within institutional walls. It demonstrated how applied sociology can function as a pragmatic and empathetic response to inequality, transforming local relationships into sites of social innovation.

3. Theoretical Framework: Sociology in Application

3.1 Bourdieu: Cultural Capital and Habitus: Pierre Bourdieu’s (1986) theory of cultural capital explains how education often legitimizes existing social hierarchies. Students from privileged backgrounds possess linguistic fluency, confidence, and cultural familiarity—the “invisible assets” that schools reward. Meanwhile, marginalized students, lacking such capital, are misrecognized as “less capable.”

This project sought to redistribute cultural capital by embedding learning in local idioms—folk songs, regional stories, and collaborative games—transforming community spaces into alternative classrooms. It aimed to reshape habitus—the internalized dispositions that regulate perception and aspiration—by fostering confidence, curiosity, and belonging.

3.2 Putnam: Social Capital and Collective Efficacy: Robert Putnam’s (2000) distinction between bonding and bridging social capital offers another analytic layer. Bonding networks create solidarity within communities, while bridging networks link them to external resources. The tutoring circles cultivated both. Neighborhood solidarity encouraged trust and mutual aid (bonding), while mentorship by college students and retired teachers created exposure to aspirational pathways (bridging). The interplay between these forms of capital became the intervention’s social engine.

3.3 Freire: Critical Pedagogy and Empowerment: Paulo Freire (1970) emphasized education as a dialogic act—where learners become co-creators of knowledge, not passive recipients. This philosophy underpinned the program’s design. Students were encouraged to question, express, and teach one another. Volunteers acted as facilitators, not authorities, aligning with Freire’s concept of “problem-posing education.” Through this method, learning became a means of consciousness-raising (conscientização), linking academic progress with social self-awareness.

4. Methodology: Participatory Action Research (PAR)

4.1 Research Design: The study employed the Participatory Action Research (PAR) model (Tandon, 2018; McIntyre, 2008), combining data collection with social intervention. PAR’s cyclical process—diagnosis, action, reflection, re-evaluation—allowed iterative adaptation based on community feedback. The project aimed to

i)Identify the social barriers that limit educational participation.

ii) Develop a community-based tutoring model rooted in sociological principles.

iii)Assess its social and educational impact.

4.2 Participants and Sampling: The project involved60 students (Grades 6–10),15 college volunteers (mentors trained in social science methods),8 retired teachers, and20 mothers, who hosted sessions and coordinated logistics.Participants were recruited through community meetings and school collaborations.

4.3 Data Collection: Data were collected through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs):

Monthly sessions recorded participants’ experiences and perceptions.

i) Field Diaries: Volunteers maintained reflective notes on student engagement and group dynamics.

ii) Observation and Photovoice: Visual documentation captured the learning spaces’ transformation over time.

iii) Post-Intervention Interviews: Conducted with parents, students, and mentors to assess perceived changes.

4.4 Analytical Framework: Data were coded thematically using NVivo, following grounded theory procedures. Emergent themes—confidence, collaboration, belonging, and reflexivity—were mapped against theoretical categories of capital, agency, and participation.

4.5 Ethical Considerations: The project followed AACS ethical guidelines: informed consent, anonymity, and participant co-ownership of data. Reflexive positionality was maintained throughout—acknowledging that the researcher was not a neutral observer but a co-participant in the intervention.

5. Implementation: Learning as Collective Practice

The Learning Together initiative was implemented through a series of interlinked micro-interventions that transformed community spaces into learning laboratories. The goal was not only to deliver academic support but also to reconstitute the social relations of learning—to make education a participatory, relational, and emotionally inclusive process. The implementation unfolded across four major components: community mapping, structuring of Learning Circles, mothers’ collectives, and volunteer reflexivity.

5.1 Community Mapping: Discovering Learning Ecologies: The first phase of implementation began with community mapping, an ethnographic exercise designed to identify organic spaces of gathering and everyday interaction. Rather than imposing an external venue or institutional structure, the team explored where children already congregated — courtyards, tea stalls, temple verandas, and community halls. These spaces were not pedagogical by design, but they carried deep social familiarity and emotional comfort, making them ideal for trust-based learning.

Through participatory discussions, residents helped select venues that were accessible and symbolically neutral — spaces not dominated by any caste, gender, or linguistic group. This ensured inclusivity and minimized the social intimidation often experienced in formal classrooms. Each of these spaces evolved into what we called “Learning Circles,” typically comprising 6–8 students and one mentor. These circles were intentionally small to maintain intimacy and individual attention. The goal was to create “safe micro-publics” of learning — informal, dialogic, and rooted in the community’s own rhythm.

Within these Learning Circles, sessions integrated academic reinforcement with creative engagement: storytelling, local song composition, debates, drawing, and games. Lessons often drew from students’ lived experiences — discussing tea garden life, monsoon rituals, or market dynamics — thereby validating local knowledge as part of the learning process. By anchoring the intervention in everyday spaces and familiar cultural idioms, Learning Together effectively dissolved the boundary between learning and living, fulfilling the sociological aim of making education a collective social act.

5.2 Structuring Learning Circles: Blurring the Line Between Study and Sociality: The pedagogical design of the Learning Circles was flexible yet structured, balancing routine with creativity. Each circle met three times a week for 90-minute sessions, with each day dedicated to a distinct learning dimension:

Mondays: Focused on academic reinforcement—reading comprehension, basic arithmetic, and homework assistance. Mentors used multilingual scaffolding (local dialects and English) to ensure conceptual clarity and confidence.

Wednesdays: Dedicated to collaborative learning through creative expression. Activities included role play, storytelling from local folklore, song writing, and art-based learning. This was designed to foster communication, cooperation, and imaginative thinking.

Saturdays: Functioned as reflection and sharing days. Students discussed what they had learned during the week, celebrated small achievements, and collectively planned the next week’s goals. This rhythmic pattern allowed children to perceive learning as an ongoing conversation rather than a one-way transmission. The deliberate blending of academic and expressive activities blurred the traditional dichotomy between study and play, creating what Lave and Wenger (1991) describe as a “community of practice.” Moreover, by situating these sessions outside formal institutions, the project disrupted hierarchies of age, class, and language that typically structure schooling. In these circles, knowledge circulated horizontally — between peers, between mentors and mothers, and even across generations — thus democratizing the act of learning.

5.3 Role of Mothers’ Collectives: Education as Shared Care: A defining innovation of the Learning Together model was the integration of mothers’ collectives into the learning process. In many semi-urban families, mothers are central to children’s emotional and moral upbringing but remain excluded from educational decision-making due to limited literacy or social confidence. The project sought to redefine educational labour as collective caregiving, validating the knowledge embedded in domestic experience. Mothers were trained in basic facilitation skills and took charge of attendance monitoring, safety, and participation of girls. They managed schedules, prepared learning corners, and encouraged reluctant children to attend sessions. Their visible leadership transformed community perceptions of women’s roles — from passive supporters to active educators. As one participant mother remarked during an interview:

“Before, only teachers taught; now we all teach a little.”

This statement captures the essence of feminist sociology’s understanding of reproductive labour and community care (Chakraborty, 2021; hooks, 1994). Education here became an extension of caregiving, reframing motherhood as a form of pedagogical agency. The mothers’ collectives also served as a bridge between domestic and public spheres, providing a platform for women to discuss social issues, share experiences, and build confidence. Over time, this nurtured new forms of gendered social capital, positioning women as key stakeholders in the educational ecosystem.

5.4 Volunteer Reflexivity and Peer Learning: Sociology in Action: The fourth component focused on developing reflexivity among volunteers, most of whom were undergraduate students of sociology and education. They participated not as detached researchers but as engaged facilitators in a living social environment. Biweekly reflection meetings were held to discuss experiences, dilemmas, and positionality. Volunteers reflected on their own assumptions about class, language, and “good education.” These sessions revealed a gradual shift in understanding: effective teaching depended less on technical expertise and more on empathy, listening, and relational trust.

One volunteer noted in her field journal:

“I came to teach English but ended up learning how inequality speaks in silence.”

This self-realization embodies the heart of applied sociology—where practitioners evolve alongside participants. Volunteers began identifying subtle forms of exclusion within their own practices, learning to translate sociological theory into ethical pedagogy. Additionally, peer learning among volunteers became a site of knowledge co-production. Experienced mentors shared locally adapted techniques, while newcomers contributed fresh perspectives. This recursive process created a reflexive learning network that paralleled the Learning Circles themselves. Ultimately, the volunteer experience transcended mere service—it became a transformative sociological apprenticeship, shaping a generation of socially conscious educators capable of translating theory into practice.

5.5 Summary: From Implementation to Transformation: The implementation of Learning Together demonstrated that when education is embedded in social relations rather than imposed through formal institutions, it fosters not only academic progress but also social cohesion. The convergence of children, mothers, and volunteers created a microcosm of participatory democracy, where knowledge was produced through interaction, empathy, and collective reflection. Through these interconnected practices, the initiative illustrated the possibility of reclaiming education as a community common, reaffirming the sociological insight that learning, at its best, is a shared human endeavour.

6. Findings: Transformations in Learning and Social Relations

The Learning Together initiative generated a series of observable transformations at both the individual and community levels. These findings were derived from continuous field observation, reflective journals of volunteers, and focus group discussions conducted over nine months.

6.1. Reframing of Learning as Collective Practice: Initially, most participants perceived learning as an individualized, school-bound task. Over time, however, the tutoring spaces evolved into community learning hubs where knowledge was collectively produced and shared. Children began bringing siblings and friends, while mothers who were initially passive observers gradually started assisting in reading aloud or helping with simple arithmetic. This shift demonstrates a sociological redefinition of “learning” — from a hierarchical transaction to a shared social process embedded in everyday interaction.

6.2. Development of Confidence and Voice: At the outset, learners displayed hesitancy

To engage, often responding in monosyllables or avoiding direct communication. By the fourth month, classroom discourse became participatory, characterized by storytelling, peer questioning and humor. Students who were earlier silent in formal schools began articulating opinions and even debating local issues. This transformation underscores the link between social inclusion and self-expression — a central tenet in Freire’s (1970) idea of dialogic pedagogy.

6.3. Shifts in Intergenerational Relations: The program also affected the parent–child dynamic. Interviews with mothers revealed that they began perceiving their children’s education as a shared family responsibility rather than a distant institutional obligation. Retired teachers in the neighborhood, initially skeptical, became emotionally invested in the children’s progress. This intergenerational collaboration fostered new forms of social capital (Putnam, 2000), as the act of teaching became intertwined with affective and moral dimensions of care.

6.4. Emergence of Peer Leadership: A striking development was the emergence of “peer leaders”—older students who spontaneously took responsibility for helping younger ones. This self-organized mentorship expanded the project’s reach without external intervention. Peer-led sessions proved more relatable for participants, demonstrating that empowerment can diffuse horizontally within social groups when trust and recognition are nurtured.

6.5. Gendered Shifts and Safe Spaces: The creation of informal and familiar learning spaces encouraged greater participation from adolescent girls, who were often restricted from traveling far or attending evening tuition classes. The project’s spatial flexibility—using courtyards, temples, or mothers’ clubs—allowed girls to negotiate their presence in public learning activities. Over time, mothers began organizing “study evenings” themselves, signaling a subtle but profound reconfiguration of gendered spatial norms.

6.6. Strengthening of Social Networks and Trust: Perhaps the most enduring outcome was the restoration of social trust. Families that previously competed for limited tuition resources began pooling materials and sharing food during group sessions. The transformation from competition to cooperation mirrored a collective realization that educational success could be a shared community good.

7. Reflexivity among Volunteers: College students who served as tutors reported significant changes in their own outlook. Many expressed that they had gained a “sociological imagination in practice,” understanding firsthand how structural inequalities manifest in everyday schooling. Their reflective journals indicate that they began to see themselves as agents of social change rather than mere facilitators. This reflexive awareness marks a vital pedagogical outcome of applied sociology — learning through engagement. In sum, the findings illustrate that the Learning Together intervention did not merely improve academic performance; it reconstituted the very social relations that shape the learning environment. Education, in this context, became a site of empowerment, empathy, and community building

7. Discussion: Sociology as Praxis

The Learning Together initiative validates the proposition that theories gain vitality when enacted. Each theoretical strand—Bourdieu’s capital, Putnam’s networks, Freire’s dialogue—was not merely cited but embodied in practice.

7.1 Theory in Action: Bourdieu’s framework helped identify invisible barriers; Putnam’s clarified how trust networks sustain motivation; Freire’s pedagogy transformed hierarchy into collaboration. When operationalized collectively, these frameworks produced measurable social transformation—improved attendance, self-efficacy, and intergenerational dialogue.

7.2 Emotional Infrastructure: Beyond metrics, the project built emotional infrastructure—trust, care, belonging—elements often overlooked in policy design. Learning improved not solely because of instruction but because children felt seen and valued. Sociology here acts as a therapeutic science of collective well-being.

7.3 Rethinking Educational Reform: Conventional reforms treat education as a technical system; applied sociology reframes it as a relational ecology. By recognizing community agencies, it shifts responsibility from institutions alone to networks of shared solidarity.

7.4 Knowledge Co-Production: The process exemplified co-production of knowledge—where community insights refine sociological understanding. For instance, the use of folk songs as mnemonic tools emerged organically from participants, later becoming a core learning strategy. This bottom-up creativity shows that communities are not research subjects but co-theorists.

8. Policy and Practical Implications

The Learning Together initiative offers not merely a localized solution to educational inequity but a replicable framework for policy innovation rooted in applied sociology. Its implications cut across educational planning, social welfare, and gender-inclusive community development. The following recommendations arise from both field-based insights and theoretical reflection.

8.1 Integrating Sociology into Teacher Training: Teacher education in India has traditionally focused on pedagogy and content delivery while neglecting the sociological dimensions of the classroom. To make learning environments more inclusive and empathetic, sociology should be embedded within teacher training curricula. Modules on social capital (Putnam, 2000), cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1986), and participatory engagement (Freire, 1970) can help educators understand that learning is mediated by social hierarchies and cultural codes. A teacher sensitized to these dimensions can better recognize why certain students remain silent or disengaged — not due to lack of ability, but due to alienation from dominant linguistic and cultural norms. By cultivating empathy-driven pedagogy, teachers can transform classrooms into dialogic spaces where every student’s background becomes an asset rather than a deficit. Policy frameworks like the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 already emphasize holistic learning; sociological training can operationalize that vision by grounding it in lived social realities.

8.2 Institutionalizing Community Learning Hubs: Formal schools often operate in isolation from the communities they serve. The Learning Together model demonstrates how neighbourhood-based tutoring circles can act as bridges between home and school, aligning informal learning with formal curricula. Partnerships among schools, local NGOs, and universities can institutionalize such learning hubs. College students studying sociology or education could earn credits through structured fieldwork, while retired teachers and mothers’ collectives can contribute local wisdom. This collaborative ecosystem transforms education from an institutional service into a community responsibility. Government programs like the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan could incorporate this model by allocating micro-grants to community learning spaces. The long-term impact would be a reduction in dropout rates and an increase in parental participation — crucial indicators of social capital growth in semi-urban India.

8.3 Recognition of Informal Learning: Current educational assessment systems overwhelmingly prioritize measurable academic outcomes — test scores, attendance, and grades — while overlooking affective, emotional, and cooperative competencies that are equally vital for social integration. The Learning Together initiative provides evidence that informal learning—through storytelling, peer mentoring, and collective play—significantly enhances self-confidence and communication skills among first-generation learners. Policymakers should therefore advocate for multi-dimensional assessment frameworks that value collaboration, empathy, and social engagement alongside academic metrics. Such recognition could reshape the very notion of success in education, validating community-based knowledge systems and everyday learning as legitimate pedagogical outcomes.

8.4 Women’s Participation: Women’s engagement emerged as a cornerstone of the project’s success. Mothers who were initially hesitant observers evolved into active collaborators, managing study groups and mentoring younger children. This transformation reveals the latent educational potential of caregiving labour and the need for gender-sensitive community frameworks that recognize it.

Policies that empower mothers as educational partners can bridge the domestic–public divide that often excludes women from decision-making spaces. Integrating women’s collectives—such as self-help groups (SHGs)—into local education governance could create sustainable structures of support. This aligns with feminist sociological theory (Chakraborty, 2021; hooks, 1994), which advocates for community-based empowerment and recognizes the home as a legitimate site of social transformation. Enabling women to co-own educational spaces not only enhances learning outcomes but also contributes to broader gender justice.

8.5 Low-Cost Replicability: A significant strength of the intervention lies in its economic simplicity. With minimal financial investment—basic learning materials, local spaces, and voluntary time—the initiative achieved measurable improvements in engagement and confidence. The underlying resource was social trust, which functioned as a currency more valuable than funding. This insight has profound policy implications: it suggests that educational reforms need not depend solely on large-scale infrastructural spending. Instead, by mobilizing existing human and social capital, small communities can generate significant educational transformation. Government and NGO partnerships can replicate this model in other regions by training local facilitators, offering micro-incentives, and using low-cost communication tools. The emphasis should be on contextual adaptation rather than uniform implementation, allowing each community to evolve its own sustainable learning culture.

8.6 Toward a Sociology-Informed Education Policy: Ultimately, the Learning Together initiative urges policymakers to integrate sociological insight into the very architecture of education reform. Recognizing education as a social process rather than a purely cognitive endeavor means valuing relationships, empathy, and participation as key learning outcomes. By embedding applied sociology within education policy, India can move closer to a truly democratic model of learning—one that not only transmits knowledge but also transforms social relations.

9. Limitations and Future Scope of Research

While the Learning Together initiative demonstrates the transformative potential of community-based sociological interventions, several limitations must be acknowledged. First, the study was geographically limited to semi-urban pockets of West Bengal, which restricts the generalizability of findings. The socio-cultural fabric of this region—marked by specific linguistic, caste, and gender dynamics—may differ significantly from other Indian contexts, such as tribal belts in central India or urban migrant clusters. Future research should thus employ comparative case studies across diverse cultural terrains to test the adaptability of the model. Second, the project’s reliance on voluntary participation created inconsistencies in engagement levels. While enthusiasm among college volunteers was initially high, sustainability beyond six months required structured incentives or institutional backing. Future interventions should explore hybrid models that combine community motivation with formal recognition—perhaps through credit-based service-learning programs or local government partnerships.

Third, while qualitative data through observation and interviews yielded rich insights, longitudinal quantitative tracking of academic performance was limited. Further studies could incorporate mixed methods—combining ethnography with statistical measurement of educational progress, confidence levels, and social capital indicators—to establish stronger causal relationships. Fourth, gender representation, though organically balanced, revealed nuanced challenges. Adolescent girls often faced domestic restrictions that limited participation during certain hours. Future research should pay closer attention to the intersection of gender, mobility, and informal education, using feminist participatory frameworks (Chakraborty, 2021; hooks, 1994) to ensure equitable access.

Finally, the pandemic and subsequent digital divide limited the project’s reach to offline spaces. Exploring how low-cost digital tools—community radio, WhatsApp learning circles, or solar-powered mobile libraries—can augment social learning offers fertile ground for future investigation. Overall, the Learning Together initiative opens pathways for future scholarship that reimagines applied sociology not just as a means of studying society, but as a collaborative tool for rebuilding it

10. Conclusion

The Learning Together project underscores that sociology’s true relevance lies not in detached critique but in applied compassion— in its ability to transform communities through collective reasoning and participation. Educational inequality, when approached sociologically, reveals itself as a problem of relationships, not just resources. By redistributing cultural and social capital through community cooperation, this initiative demonstrated that the classroom need not be confined to four walls—it can be the neighborhood itself. Applied sociology thus reclaims its founding purpose: to bridge the moral and the empirical, to turn understanding into transformation. In semi-urban India, where the distance between knowledge and opportunity remains vast, such praxis can convert sociology from an academic discipline into a living instrument of justice

References

Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood.

Chakraborty, T. (2021). Gender, care and community in India: Feminist interventions. Routledge.

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum.

Fritz, J. (2020). Applied sociology: Using sociological knowledge for social change. Springer.

Jeffrey, C. (2010). Timepass: Youth, class, and the politics of waiting in India. Stanford University Press.

McIntyre, A. (2008). Participatory action research. Sage.

Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.

Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford University Press.

Tandon, R. (2018). Participatory research and social change. PRIA.

Genetic Assessment of Fertilization, Hatchability and Survival Rate of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus; Burchell, 1822) Broodstock of River Donga Nigeria

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How to cite

Uruku, N. M., & Ameh, O. R. (2026). Genetic Assessment of Fertilization, Hatchability and Survival Rate of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus; Burchell, 1822) Broodstock of River Donga Nigeria. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 158–170. https://doi.org/10.26643/eduindex/ijr/2026/10

*¹Uruku, Ndekimbe Mamndeyati and ²Ameh, Oyibinga Rose

^1,2Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture, Federal University Wukari P.M.B 1020, Taraba State. Nigeria.

First Author – https://orcid.org/0009-0005-9645-8765

Second author – https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4244-8827

^*Correspondence: uruksme@gmail.com

Abstract

The study on Breeding supernova of Clarias gariepinus genetic groups from River Donga Nigeria was carried out from February 2020 – March 2021 to investigate reproductive supernova among the genetic population of C. gariepinus of river Donga. Thirty (30) fish samples were utilised for the molecular analysis. DNA specimens were prepared for sequencing following standard laboratory procedure. Fish samples of the genetic groups were injected with synthetic hormone, after latency period they fish were strip of its eggs according to their haplotype’s groups, fertilized and were assessed for reproductive success and survival in the genotypes inbred (Hap1 ♀D x Hap1 ♂D and Hap3 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D) and crossbred Hap1 ♀D x Hap3♂D and Hap1 ♂D x Hap3 ♀D). The result reveal fertilization of 68.90±3.40 which was recorded in inbred haplotypes 3 (Hap3 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D) while higher hatchability of 54.03±7.23 was also observed in the inbreed of haplotype 3 (Hap3 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D) and survival of 91.71% in inbred of haplotype 1 (Hap1 ♀B x Hap1 ♂B) was recorded. Water quality parameters show positive correlation with reproductive indices. Therefore, the haplotypes, crossing method used in this research can be utilized to manage genetic resources and boost aquaculture production.

Keywords: Breeding; Crossbred; Genetics; Haplotype; Inbred; River Donga

Introduction

Breeding supernova, particularly in the context of aquatic species like Clarias gariepinus (African catfish), involves creating superior strains with enhanced traits such as growth rate, disease resistance, and environmental adaptability (Solomon et al., 2021). Genetic groups often consider both inbreeding, example; selecting for specific phenotypic traits such as faster growth or improved survival rate while risking inbreeding depression and outbreeding strategies, which can significantly affect the genetics and overall health of the populations, example; crossing local strains with genetically distinct populations to introduce new alleles that confer advantageous traits (Uruku et al., 2021). Proper management of broodstock is essential to maintain genetic diversity variability and avoid inbreeding depression, can adversely affect the performance of the offspring (Olaoye et al., 2020).

Fertilization in C. gariepinus typically involved spawning, were female broodstock release egg which are then fertilize by male milt. Successful fertilization is contingent upon several factors, including gametes quality, environmental condition such as water temperature and quality, and the timing of spawning event (Olaniyi & Omitogun, 2017). Various genetic strains may exhibit differences in these factors, leading discrepancies in fertilization rate (Ezenwo & Ajiboye, 2019). Following fertilization, the hatchability of eggs is influence by both genetic and environmental parameters. Factors such as egg viability, incubation conditions and care can all contribute to the success of hatching. Usman & Balogun, (2021) have indicated that some strains of C. gariepinus demonstrate higher hatchability rate due to enhanced genetic traits, leading to more viable embryos and improved survival rate.

Genetic groups within C. gariepinus can vary based on geographic location and breeding history. Genetic variation among strains of C. gariepinus can significantly influence reproductive outcomes. Diyaware et al. (2023) conducted a study using strains from River Benue and Gubi Dam, and the findings highlight the genetic potential of River Benue strains when involved in hybrid crosses.

Maintaining high genetic diversity is crucial for breeding programs to prevent the negative consequences of inbreeding. Using molecular tools like microsatellite or SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) can help in identifying genetic variation and structuring breeding programs effectively (Olaoye et al., 2020). Genetic markers are used to track the performance and health of breeding lines. The relationship between genetic strains of C. gariepinus with fertilization and hatchability is a complex interplay that holds significant implication for aquaculture. Advancing our understanding of these dynamics through this targeted research will enable the development of more robust fish stocks, there by supporting sustainable aquaculture and food security initiatives. Understanding how these genetic differences impact fertilization and hatchability is crucial for aquaculture producers aiming to optimize yield and improved sustainability (Ajayi & Ajani, 2020). Therefore, this study is aim to investigate breeding supernova (success) of C. gariepinus in river Donga, Taraba State Nigeria.

Materials and Methods

Description of the Sampling Site (River Donga)

Donga river lies between latitude 7°43′00″N and longitude 10°03′00″E. It has an area of 3,121 km² and a population of 134,111 at the 2006 census, figure 1. The Donga River is a river in Nigeria and Cameroon. The river arises from the Mambilla Plateau in Eastern Nigeria, forms part of the international border between Nigeria and Cameroon, and flows northwest to eventually merge with the river Benue, Nigeria. The Donga watershed is 20,000 square kilometres (7,700 sq mi) in area. At its peak, near the Benue the river delivers 1,800 cubic metres (64,000 cu ft) of water per second. A lot of fishing activities go on in the River and thus fishing is an occupation in the area (Inger et al., 2005).

Figure 1: Map showing locations of sampling site, River Donga a Tributary of river Benue

Procurement of fish samples

A total of thirty (30) broodstock each of C. gariepinus (average weight of 1000-1500g) both males and females were bought from artisanal fishermen. Fish were caught with various fishing gears at the River Benue, Taraba State, Nigeria. Gross physical examination of the external features of the samples were undertaken for abnormalities at the main landing site and samples obtained from the two Rivers were transported in plastic troughs (60cm diameter × 30cm deep) to Kahzuh integrated farm which is a leading modern Technological driven farm which lies on latitude 8º5′ 2.472ʺ N and longitude 9º47’34.008ʺ E in Gindin Waya, Ibi LGA, Taraba State Nigeria. It is bounded in the south by Benue state, North by Gassol LGA, East by Wukari LGA and West by Ibi LGA. Gindin Waya agro – ecological zone is the southern guinea savanna and it characterized by tropical hot/wet with distinct rainy and dry seasons. The hormone (Ovulin) was procured from Agro-service Centre Jos, Plateau State.

Broodstock Selection

Mature gravid females were selected based on swollen, well distended soft abdomen, reddish vent and gentle extraction of few eggs by pressing the fish abdomen using the finger. Females with sharp golden colored eggs were selected. Matured males were also selected based on their reddish pointed genital papillae. Only 30 matured specimens were utilized for this study.

Transportation/Acclimation of Clarias gariepinus Broodstock

The selected C. gariepinus broodstocks (male and female)were acclimatized in mobile holding ponds for a period of eight (8) weeks before artificially induced breeding were carried out.

Molecular Diagnosis and Separation of specimens to Genotypes

During acclimation period, caudal fin clip of about 1g each were obtained from each of the thirty (30) specimens of C. gariepinus and sent to IITA, Ibadan for gene extraction and genotyping by sequencing (GBS), to ascertain genetic divergence in the population. These were inferred by 16S rRNA primers. In order to achieve this, standard laboratory procedures of DNA extraction, polymerase chain reaction, cloning and sequencing were utilized it was then followed by bio-informatics analysis.

Experimental design

Both the parental and the intra – specific crosses were repeated three times in complete randomized block design (CRBD) manner, having hatchlings each after taking the pool weight and both were collected and stored in the aerated bowls. The survival of fry in each bowl per treatment were taken after egg yolk absorption .

Hormone preparation

Ovaprim: it does not require any special preparation. It was used to aid spawning in the reproductively matured female Catfish. Ovaprim (Western Chemical Inc. Femdale, WA) is marketed in liquid form and administered at the dosage of 0.5ml per Kg of each test brooder.

Administration of spawning agent (hormones)

The weight and length of the gravid female and male brooders were measured and induced with the hormones ovaprim at a dosage 0.5 ml/ kg/body weight for female following Efeet al.(2015).

Stripping of eggs from female brooders

The body of the female brooders were mopped dry and pressure was applied gently on the abdomen of the female brooders injected with spawning agent (Ovaprim). Ovulated eggs from the genital opening was collected in a plastic bowls with labels: strain-wise and weighed separately.

Fertilization and hatchability rate were estimated following Lambert, (2008) formulae.

Artificial fertilization of eggs

Spermatozoa (milt) from the mature male haplotype was used to fertilize the eggs in the labeled bowls in the following cross combination replicated in triplicate:

Experimental crosses

The following generic combinations were carried out:

Design for the Reproductive characterization

Haplotypes Location

River Donga

Haplotype 1 Equal number, equal size, equal sex ratio across the two locations

Haplotype 2 2

Haplotype 3 Equal number, size, sex ratio across the two locations as in Haplotype 1

2x2x2 Factorial Design for Breeding

Location Generic Groups

Inbred hap 1- Gen1 Inbred hap3-Gen 2 Crossbred hap1xHap3-Gen3 Recip Crossbred hap1xHap3-gen-4

Donga Hap1 FD X hap1MD Hap3 FD X hap3MD Hap 1FD X Hap3MD Hap1MD X Hap3FD

Hap = haplotype; Gen = Generic group; Recip = Reciprocal; MD = Male of Donga; FD = Female of Donga

Incubation of fertilized eggs

Incubation of the fertilized eggs were carried out in circular plastic bowls of 90cm diameter and 45cm depth with a carrying capacity of 120 litres of water each. The incubating tanks were interconnected flow through system and the fertilized eggs were spread in single layers on a net that was suspended in the incubating tanks to avoid overlapping of the eggs which could result in clogging. Hatching was observed between 18 – 28 hours. Both the parental and the reciprocal crosses were repeated three times in a complete randomized block design (CRBD) manner.

Physicochemical Parameters

The water quality of the system of culture (hatchery unit) was monitored daily for: Temperature, pH, Dissolved oxygen, Ammonia (NH₃) and Electric Conductivity. The analysis was done immediately after water samples collection. The parameters were determined insitu using a multi parameter water checker from the various hatching tanks;

Statistical analysis

Data on production and reproductive indices was analyzed using Minitab 14 software for descriptive statistics and Genstat Discovery edition 4 for analysis of variance (ANOVA) with respect to inbreed and their reciprocal crosses. Post hoc test was carried out using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) to determine the differences between the means (P=0.05) using SPSS version 20.0.

Results

Reproductive Success in the Haplotypes of C. gariepinus from river Donga

Results of the percentage hatchability, fecundity and percentage survival (Day 3) of fry of the inbreed and crossbred C. gariepinus from river Donga haplotype were as shown in Table 1. Equal weight of eggs was obtained for all the crosses. The highest percentage fertilization (68.90%) was recorded in inbred (Hap3 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D) and the lowest (45.86%) in inbred (Hap1 ♀D x Hap1 ♂D) strain. The highest percentage hatchability (54.03%) was recorded in inbred (Hap3 ♂D x Hap3 ♀D), followed by crossbred Hap1 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D (49.11%), and the least percentage hatchability of 39.51% was recorded in (Hap1 ♀D x Hap1 ♂D). The highest survival value of 91.71% was recorded in inbred Hap1 ♀D x Hap1 ♂D followed by crossbred Hap1 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D (90.53%), and the least percentage survival rate of 87.91% was recorded in Hap3 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D.

Table 1: Determination of Fertilization, Hatchability and Survival Rate of River Donga Haplotype

Hap1 ♀D x Hap1 ♂D Hap3 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D Hap1 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D Hap1 ♂D x Hap3 ♀D

Weight of eggs(g) 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00

Estimated No of eggs 3000.00±0.00 3000.00±0.00 3000.00±0.00 3000.00±0.00

No. of fertilized eggs 1375.67±172.79 2067.00±110.94 1556.67±313.79 1940.00±184.29

No. of hatchlings 532.00±192.17 1112.00±94.00 768.670±195.68 922.33±164.20

%Fertilization 45.86±5.76 68.90±3.40 51.89±10.46 64.39±6.14

%Hatchability 39.51±15.82 54.03±7.23 49.11±3.40 48.38±13.35

Survival at Day 3 492.33±197.89 974.33±24.70 706.67±247.32 807.67±103.55

% Survival 91.71±3.58 87.91±5.23 90.53±8.35 88.07±4.84

Inbreed = (Hap1 ♀D x Hap1 ♂D – Haplotype 1 female crossed with Haplotype 1 male and Hap3 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D – Haplotype 3 female crossed with Haplotype 3 male).

Crossbreed = (Hap1 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D – Haplotype 1 female crossed with Haplotype 3 male and Hap1 ♂D x Hap3 ♀D – Haplotype 1 male crossed with Haplotype 3 female)

Table 2shows that among the water quality parameters of river Donga haplotype,temperature positively correlated strongly with only percentage survival at Day 3 at r = 0.79 and negatively correlated with number of fertilized eggs, number of hatchlings, percentage fertilization, percentage hatchability and survival at Day 3 at r = – 0.84, – 0.76, – 0.84, – 0.53 and – 0.73 respectively. pH shows positive correlation with number of fertilized eggs, number of hatchlings, percentage fertilization, percentage hatchability and survival at Day 3 at r = 0.89, 0.79, 0.89, 0.64 and 0.77 respectively and negatively correlated strongly with only percentage survival at r = – 0.94. Dissolved Oxygen correlated positively with number of fertilized eggs, number of hatchlings, percentage fertilization, percentage hatchability and survival at Day 3 at r = 0.51, 0.69, 0.51, 0.89 and 0.73 respectively and negatively correlated with only percentage survival at r = – 0.49. Ammonia strongly correlated positively with number of fertilized eggs, number of hatchlings, percentage fertilization, percentage hatchability and survival at Day 3 at r = 0.80, 0.90, 0.80, 0.98 and 0.92 respectively and negatively correlated strongly with only percentage survival at r = – 0.80. while electrical conductivity weakly correlated positively with all the water parameters.

Table 2: Correlations (r values) of Water Quality Parameters and Reproduction indices of Studied River Donga Population

Temperature (O^C) pH D.0(mg/L) NH₃(mg/L) Electrical Conductivity

No of fertilized egg -0.84 0.89 0.51 0.80 0.06

No of hatchlings -0.76 0.79 0.69 0.90 0.17

% Fertilization -0.84 0.89 0.51 0.80 0.06

% Hatchability -0.53 0.64 0.89 0.98 0.17

Survival at Day 3 -0.73 0.77 0.73 0.92 0.18

% Survival 0.79 –0.94 -0.49 -0.80 0.07

* Indicates that correlation is significant (P> 0.05).

Discussion

Breeding supernova of C. gariepinus

Breeding supernova in fish is a key focus in aquaculture as it directly affects productivity. The feasibility of crosses among the haplotype of C. gariepinus and its reciprocal cross-breeding was demonstrated in the present study. Fertilization and hatchability in this study is higher in value but similar in trend to the observations of Olaniyi & Akinbola, (2013) for C. gariepinus induced with Ovaprim (46.3%). The high hatching percentage observed in inbreed haplotype (Hap3 ♀D x Hap3 ♂D) 54.03% of river Donga C. gariepinus might be attributed to the genetic improvement through molecular diagnosis. The phenomenon of higher fertilization and hatchability in inbred versus crossbred C. gariepinus is complex and may be attributed to several factors, including genetics, reproductive biology and environmental adaptation (Yu et al., 2020).

Inbred population can sometimes exhibit greater genetic compatibility, especially if they have been selectively bred for desirable traits. This can lead to a higher rate of fertilization as gametes may be better suited to combine effectively (Fitzsimmons, 2000). Eknarth & Acosta, (1998) ascertained that inbred tend to have a more uniform genetic background, which can reduce the occurrence of incompatible gene interactions during fertilization and embryonic development. If the alleles controlling fertility traits are more consistent in inbred groups, this can result in higher fertilization rate.

Yu et al. (2020) revealed that where the genetic makeup of the female influences the success of fertilization and embryonic development can be more pronounced in inbred lines, leading to improved hatchability. If the inbred group have been adapted to specific farming conditions (such as water quality, temperature, or feeding regime), they may demonstrate better reproductive performance in those environments compared to crossbred haplotypes, which may be more variable in their response to environmental factors (Ajayi & Adesola, 2012).

It is however important to acknowledge that differences that arise from breeding history, age and water quality can affect hatching rates. Variations in seasons can also lead to differences in hatching rates, as rightly observed by de Graaf et al. (1995). So as long as fecundity does not drop, hatching rates and survival rates of larvae remain the key to viable and economically beneficial production of catfish fry and fingerlings.

The high survival rate of crossbreed haplotype of C. gariepinus during day 3 of rearing may be related to its hardiness and adaptation to environment. This is in agreement with Olufeagba and Okomoda (2015); Omeji et al., (2013) who reported high survival rate of local C. gariepinus reared under a medium stocking density for a short duration in protected tanks. Crossbreeding is used to achieve improved traits (heterosis), minimize inbreeding and obtain better hybrids (Jothilakshmanan & Karal Marx, 2013). Akankali et al. (2011) reported that apart from being able to obtain quality seed, the artificial propagation technique can also be used to develop strains superior to their ancestors by the methods of selective breeding, hybridization and molecular characterization.

Various factors related to water quality can influence reproductive success, growth and survival rates of aquatic species. Understanding the correlation between water quality and reproductive indices is essential for the management and conservation of aquatic ecosystems. Mean water parameters recorded shows positive correlation with the reproductive indices during the experimental period, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) and ammonia were within the range of optimal levels for good growth and survival of C. gariepinus seeds.

Conclusion

Developing a breeding supernova for C. gariepinus combines aspect of genetics, aquaculture practices, and environmental consideration. Therefore, careful planning, selection, and management of genetic diversity can produce robust strains that will contribute to sustainable aquaculture production.

References

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Multisystem Toxicological Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Exposure in Chickens: A Sex- And Duration-Dependent Analysis

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How to Cite

Harrison, E. O., & Melford, C. M. (2026). Multisystem Toxicological Effects of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Exposure in Chickens: A Sex- And Duration-Dependent Analysis. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.26643/eduindex/ijr/2026/9

Authors:
Eruotor Ogheneochuko Harrison¹* and Chinwebudu M. Melford²

¹ Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9415-2993
² Department of Medical Technology, College of Allied Medical Sciences, Cebu Doctors’ University, Mandaue City, Cebu, Philippines

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0654-5479

Corresponding Author (post-publication):
Eruotor Ogheneochuko Harrison
Email: harrisoneruotor2014@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

Petroleum hydrocarbon contamination remains a persistent environmental challenge in regions with sustained oil exploration and production, where chronic exposure frequently occurs alongside heavy metal co-pollution. Unlike acute toxicity, long-term environmental exposure may induce progressive and interconnected disturbances across multiple physiological systems. This study evaluated the multisystem toxicological effects of chronic petroleum hydrocarbon exposure in chickens using an integrated analytical framework. Chickens exposed to a petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated environment for 6 and 12 months were compared with unexposed controls, with analyses stratified by sex and exposure duration. Endocrine, hepatic, renal, cardiovascular, hematological, oxidative stress, inflammatory, and heavy metal parameters were jointly assessed to characterize systemic toxicity. Chronic exposure was associated with coordinated disturbances across all evaluated systems, including endocrine dysregulation, hepatorenal impairment, cardiovascular injury, hematological abnormalities, antioxidant depletion, lipid peroxidation, inflammatory activation, and accumulation of chromium, lead, and zinc. Oxidative stress and inflammation emerged as central mechanisms linking multisystem dysfunction, while heavy metal burden further amplified toxicological effects. Sex-dependent differences were evident, with females exhibiting greater endocrine, oxidative, and inflammatory disturbances and males showing more pronounced cardiovascular injury and metal accumulation. Toxicological severity increased with exposure duration, indicating cumulative effects of prolonged environmental contamination. This integrated multisystem evaluation demonstrates that petroleum hydrocarbons induce systemic toxicity through interacting biological pathways rather than isolated organ-specific mechanisms. The findings highlight chickens as sensitive sentinel species and underscore the ecological, food safety, and public health implications of chronic petroleum hydrocarbon contamination.

Keywords: Petroleum hydrocarbons, Multisystem toxicity, Oxidative stress, Inflammation, Heavy metals, Chickens, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION

Petroleum hydrocarbon contamination remains a major environmental and public health concern in regions with sustained oil exploration, production, and transportation activities. Chronic release of petroleum-derived compounds into soil and water ecosystems results in prolonged exposure of resident organisms to complex mixtures of hydrocarbons and associated co-pollutants, including heavy metals. Unlike acute toxic exposure, chronic environmental contamination exerts its effects gradually, often through subtle but cumulative disruptions across multiple physiological systems, leading to long-term biological consequences that may not be immediately apparent (Cleveland Clinic, 2025; Harvey, Sharp, & Phillips, 1982).

Emerging evidence indicates that petroleum hydrocarbons do not target isolated organs but instead induce multisystem toxicity involving coordinated dysfunction of endocrine regulation, metabolic processes, cardiovascular integrity, hematopoietic function, immune responses, and redox balance. These effects are mediated through interconnected mechanisms such as oxidative stress, inflammatory activation, endocrine disruption, and bioaccumulation of toxic metals. As these pathways interact, injury in one physiological system may exacerbate dysfunction in others, resulting in compounded biological consequences over time and progressive loss of homeostatic control (Dey et al., 2015;Liu et al., 2025).

Sex-related differences further complicate the toxicological impact of petroleum hydrocarbon exposure. Variations in hormonal regulation, antioxidant capacity, immune responsiveness, and metal metabolism between males and females may influence susceptibility, adaptive responses, and severity of toxic effects. In addition, duration of exposure plays a critical role in determining toxicological outcomes, as prolonged exposure permits cumulative tissue damage, persistent inflammation, endocrine imbalance, and sustained oxidative stress, thereby amplifying systemic dysfunction (Oleforuh‑Okoleh et al., 2023; Fowles et al., 2016).

Avian species, particularly chickens, represent valuable sentinel organisms for assessing multisystem environmental toxicity. Their close interaction with contaminated soil, water, and feed, combined with physiological sensitivity to endocrine, oxidative, cardiovascular, and inflammatory disturbances, makes them suitable models for evaluating integrated toxicological effects. Moreover, because chickens are directly linked to human food systems, multisystem toxicity observed in these animals may serve as an early warning indicator of broader ecological and public health risks associated with petroleum hydrocarbon pollution.

While previous studies have largely focused on individual toxicological endpoints, such as reproductive dysfunction, hepatic injury, oxidative stress, immune alterations, or cardiovascular effects, there remains a paucity of studies adopting an integrated multisystem approach that simultaneously evaluates endocrine, hepatorenal, cardiovascular, hematological, oxidative, inflammatory, and heavy metal–related effects within the same exposed population. Such an approach is essential for capturing the full biological burden of chronic petroleum hydrocarbon exposure and for identifying sex- and duration-dependent vulnerability patterns that may otherwise remain obscured when systems are examined in isolation.

Against this background, the present study was designed to evaluate the multisystem toxicological effects of chronic petroleum hydrocarbon exposure in chickens by integrating endocrine, hepatic, renal, cardiovascular, hematological, oxidative stress, inflammatory, and heavy metal parameters within a single analytical framework. The study sought to characterize how prolonged exposure to a petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated environment disrupts physiological homeostasis across multiple organ systems and biological pathways, and to determine whether the magnitude and pattern of multisystem toxicity vary according to sex and duration of exposure (6 months versus 12 months). It was anticipated that chronic petroleum hydrocarbon exposure would result in concurrent endocrine disruption, hepatorenal impairment, cardiovascular injury, hematological dysregulation, oxidative stress, inflammatory activation, and heavy metal accumulation in exposed chickens when compared with unexposed controls. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that these toxicological effects would be significantly modulated by sex and exposure duration, with prolonged exposure and sex-specific physiological differences contributing to increased vulnerability and severity of multisystem dysfunction. Through this integrative approach, the study aimed to provide a comprehensive assessment of systemic toxicity and to advance understanding of the complex biological consequences of long-term exposure to petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated environments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study adopted an integrated comparative experimental design to evaluate the multisystem toxicological effects of chronic exposure to a petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated environment in chickens. The analysis synthesized endocrine, hepatorenal, cardiovascular, hematological, oxidative stress, inflammatory, and heavy metal parameters to provide a comprehensive assessment of systemic toxicity. Exposed chickens were compared with unexposed controls, with stratification by sex and duration of exposure (6 months and 12 months) to evaluate sex-dependent susceptibility and cumulative toxicological effects.

Chickens in the exposed group were obtained from an environment with sustained petroleum hydrocarbon contamination resulting from prolonged hydrocarbon-related activities, while control chickens were sourced from a comparable environment without documented petroleum hydrocarbon pollution. All birds were maintained under similar husbandry conditions, including access to feed and water, to minimize confounding influences unrelated to environmental exposure. A total of eighteen chickens were included in the study, comprising twelve exposed birds and six controls. The exposed group consisted of chickens exposed for 6 months (male, n = 3; female, n = 3) and 12 months (male, n = 3; female, n = 3), while the control group included chickens maintained for 6 months (male, n = 2; female, n = 2) and 12 months (male, n = 1; female, n = 1).

Blood samples were collected aseptically from each chicken via venipuncture under standard laboratory conditions. Samples were processed to obtain serum and whole-blood fractions as required for biochemical, immunological, hematological, and heavy metal analyses. All samples were handled, stored, and analyzed according to established laboratory protocols to preserve analytical accuracy and integrity.

Multisystem assessment incorporated validated biomarkers across seven physiological domains. Endocrine evaluation included reproductive and thyroid hormones to assess hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal and hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis function. Hepatic and renal function were evaluated using standard liver enzyme activities, protein indices, bilirubin fractions, renal electrolyte concentrations, and nitrogenous waste markers. Cardiovascular integrity was assessed using cardiac injury and stress biomarkers alongside hematological indices reflecting oxygen-carrying capacity, immune status, and hemostatic balance. Oxidative stress status was determined through antioxidant enzyme activities and lipid peroxidation indices, while inflammatory responses were evaluated using cytokines, acute-phase proteins, and nitric oxide levels. Heavy metal burden was assessed by measuring serum concentrations of chromium, lead, and zinc as representative co-pollutants commonly associated with petroleum hydrocarbon contamination.

For the purposes of this multisystem analysis, individual biomarker results were evaluated both independently and collectively to identify convergent patterns of toxicity. Parameters were interpreted within and across physiological systems to assess interactions among endocrine disruption, organ dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation, and metal accumulation. Emphasis was placed on sex- and duration-specific comparisons to identify differential vulnerability and cumulative toxicological effects.

Data were analyzed using appropriate statistical software. Descriptive statistics were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Inferential analyses included independent-sample t-tests to compare exposed and control groups and one-way analysis of variance to evaluate differences based on sex and duration of exposure, with post-hoc testing applied where appropriate. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. To avoid redundancy and ensure publication integrity, this multisystem analysis emphasized integrative interpretation and pattern synthesis rather than repetition of system-specific statistical outcomes reported in companion papers.

All experimental procedures involving animals were conducted in accordance with internationally accepted ethical guidelines for the care and use of experimental animals, and all efforts were made to minimize animal stress and discomfort throughout the study.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Chronic exposure of chickens to a petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated environment produced coordinated toxicological disturbances across multiple physiological systems, demonstrating true multisystem toxicity rather than isolated organ-specific effects. Endocrine disruption, hepatorenal impairment, cardiovascular injury, hematological dysregulation, oxidative stress, inflammatory activation, and heavy metal accumulation occurred concurrently, reflecting interconnected pathogenic mechanisms driven by prolonged environmental exposure. The convergence of these alterations underscores the systemic biological burden imposed by petroleum hydrocarbons and associated co-pollutants.

Endocrine disturbances observed in exposed chickens, including altered reproductive and thyroid hormone profiles, appeared closely linked to oxidative and inflammatory stress. Disruption of gonadotropin secretion, sex steroid balance, and thyroid regulation suggests impaired hypothalamic–pituitary control. Oxidative stress is known to interfere with hormone synthesis, transport, and receptor signaling, while pro-inflammatory cytokines can suppress endocrine gland function, indicating that redox imbalance and immune activation likely amplified endocrine toxicity in exposed birds (Movahedinia et al., 2018; Dey et al., 2015; Huang et al., 2017).

Hepatic and renal dysfunction further contributed to systemic toxicity. Elevated liver enzymes, altered protein indices, increased bilirubin fractions, and deranged renal electrolytes and nitrogenous waste markers reflect compromised detoxification and excretory capacity. Impairment of these organs may exacerbate endocrine and cardiovascular toxicity by reducing clearance of petroleum hydrocarbons, hormones, and inflammatory mediators. Such dysfunction facilitates bioaccumulation of toxic metabolites and heavy metals, reinforcing a cycle of cumulative toxicity (Thomas et al., 2021; Lala, Zubair, & Minter, 2023).

Cardiovascular injury was evident through elevations in cardiac troponin I, creatine kinase-MB, and natriuretic peptides, indicating myocardial injury and hemodynamic stress. These changes were accompanied by hematological abnormalities, including anemia, leukocytosis, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and platelet alterations. Hematological dysregulation may worsen tissue hypoxia and inflammatory burden, thereby increasing cardiac strain. The parallel occurrence of cardiovascular and hematological disturbances suggests that altered blood composition and immune activation contribute to hydrocarbon-induced cardiac injury (Lawal et al., 2019; Miller, 2022).

Oxidative stress and inflammation emerged as central mechanistic pathways linking multisystem toxicity. Depletion of antioxidant enzymes, increased lipid peroxidation, and elevated inflammatory mediators collectively indicate persistent redox imbalance and immune activation. These processes disrupt cellular membranes, impair enzyme function, and alter gene expression, thereby affecting endocrine glands, liver, kidneys, heart, and hematopoietic tissues simultaneously. Chronic inflammation likely potentiated oxidative injury, establishing a self-perpetuating toxicological cascade (Altanam, Darwish, & Bakillah, 2025; Bellanti et al., 2025).

Heavy metal accumulation further intensified multisystem toxicity. Elevated concentrations of chromium, lead, and zinc in exposed chickens reflect environmental bioavailability and biological uptake from contaminated ecosystems. Heavy metals can directly generate reactive oxygen species, inhibit antioxidant enzymes, and modulate immune responses, thereby amplifying oxidative and inflammatory damage initiated by petroleum hydrocarbons. The coexistence of hydrocarbon exposure and heavy metal burden therefore represents a compounded toxicological threat under chronic exposure conditions (Javed et al., 2025; Aljohani, 2023).

Sex-dependent differences were evident across multiple systems. Female chickens generally exhibited greater endocrine disruption, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses following prolonged exposure, whereas males demonstrated relatively higher heavy metal accumulation and more pronounced cardiovascular markers. These differences may be attributed to sex-specific hormonal regulation, metabolic capacity, antioxidant defenses, and metal handling pathways. Such findings highlight the importance of sex-stratified analyses in environmental toxicology to avoid masking vulnerable subpopulations (Hao, Xie, & Li, 2025; Ebrahimi, Ebrahimi, & Shakeri, 2023).

Duration of exposure emerged as a critical determinant of toxicity severity. Chickens exposed for 12 months consistently demonstrated more pronounced multisystem alterations than those exposed for 6 months, emphasizing the cumulative nature of petroleum hydrocarbon toxicity. Prolonged exposure permits progressive oxidative damage, persistent inflammation, endocrine exhaustion, and organ dysfunction, ultimately resulting in systemic failure rather than adaptive compensation.

Overall, these findings demonstrate that petroleum hydrocarbon exposure induces integrated multisystem toxicological effects in chickens, mediated through interacting pathways involving oxidative stress, inflammation, endocrine disruption, organ dysfunction, and heavy metal accumulation. The observed sex- and duration-dependent patterns provide important insight into vulnerability dynamics and reinforce the value of chickens as sentinel species for assessing complex environmental toxicity.

CONCLUSION

This study provides compelling evidence that chronic exposure to petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated environments induces profound multisystem toxicological effects in chickens. Integrated assessment revealed concurrent disruption of endocrine regulation, hepatic and renal function, cardiovascular integrity, hematological homeostasis, redox balance, immune responses, and heavy metal accumulation. The simultaneous occurrence of these alterations confirms that petroleum hydrocarbons exert systemic toxicity through interconnected biological pathways rather than isolated organ-specific mechanisms.

Oxidative stress and inflammatory activation emerged as central mediators linking multisystem dysfunction. Depletion of antioxidant defenses, increased lipid peroxidation, and sustained elevation of inflammatory biomarkers likely contributed to endocrine disruption, organ injury, cardiovascular damage, and hematological abnormalities. Heavy metal accumulation further intensified toxicity by amplifying oxidative and inflammatory pathways and impairing detoxification capacity, resulting in a cumulative toxicological burden that worsened with prolonged exposure.

Sex- and duration-dependent differences highlight differential vulnerability to petroleum hydrocarbon toxicity. Female chickens showed greater endocrine, oxidative, and inflammatory disturbances with prolonged exposure, whereas males exhibited more pronounced cardiovascular and metal-related alterations. Collectively, these findings underscore the importance of incorporating sex-specific and temporal analyses in environmental toxicology and highlight chickens as sensitive sentinel species for assessing ecological, food safety, and public health risks in petroleum-impacted regions.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Despite the robustness of the multisystem findings, certain limitations should be acknowledged. The relatively small sample size may limit broad generalization, although the consistency of toxicological patterns across multiple physiological systems supports the biological relevance of the results. Environmental exposure conditions did not permit precise characterization of individual petroleum hydrocarbon fractions or metal speciation, which may influence toxicity profiles. In addition, the absence of histopathological and molecular analyses limited confirmation of mechanistic pathways at the tissue and cellular levels.

Future studies should incorporate larger sample sizes, controlled exposure models, and detailed chemical characterization of environmental contaminants. Histopathological evaluation of endocrine glands, liver, kidney, heart, and hematopoietic tissues would strengthen mechanistic interpretation, while molecular analyses of oxidative, inflammatory, and endocrine signaling pathways would further elucidate cross-system interactions. Longitudinal investigations assessing reversibility of toxicity following environmental remediation would also provide valuable insight into recovery potential and long-term health outcomes.

Funding Statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Lala, V., Zubair, M., & Minter, D. A. (2023). Liver function tests. In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482489/

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DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The datasets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U): A Comprehensive Review of Progress, Implementation Challenges, and Future Directions for Affordable Housing in India

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If you could un-invent something, what would it be?

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How to Cite it

Singh, M., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana–Urban (PMAY-U): A Comprehensive Review of Progress, Implementation Challenges, and Future Directions for Affordable Housing in India. Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 11(11), 29–50. https://doi.org/10.26643/jsmap/2026/1

The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana-Urban (PMAY-U), launched in 2015, is one of India’s largest national missions aimed at achieving inclusive urban development through affordable housing for all. This review paper synthesizes existing research, policy documents, government progress reports, and evaluation studies to assess the mission’s performance across its four verticals-Beneficiary-Led Construction (BLC), Affordable Housing in Partnership (AHP), Credit-Linked Subsidy Scheme (CLSS), and In-Situ Slum Redevelopment (ISSR). The analysis highlights PMAY-U’s achievements in expanding homeownership among economically weaker sections (EWS) and low-income groups (LIG), promoting formal housing finance access, and leveraging public-private partnerships for housing delivery. At the same time, the review identifies persistent challenges such as delays in construction, land availability constraints, financial bottlenecks, quality of construction, institutional fragmentation, and limited uptake of certain verticals such as ISSR. The paper also discusses the social and economic impacts of PMAY-U, including improved living conditions, tenure security, gender empowerment through joint ownership mandates, and incremental effects on local economies. Based on emerging evidence, the review outlines future policy directions, emphasizing integrated urban planning, strengthening governance capacity, technology-driven monitoring, sustainable construction practices, and targeted support for vulnerable populations. The findings contribute to an improved understanding of the mission’s role in shaping India’s affordable housing landscape and provide insights for enhancing the next phase of urban housing policy.

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Strategies and Opportunities for Urban Finance for the Mass Rapid Transit System

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Can you share a positive example of where you’ve felt loved?

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Lodhi, A. S., Jaiswal, A., Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Strategies and Opportunities for Urban Finance for the Mass Rapid Transit System. Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 11(8), 51–71. https://doi.org/10.26643/jsmap/2025/1

Arjun Singh Lodhi; Anuj Jaiswal; Shashikant Nishant Sharma; Kavita Dehalwar

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, MP, India

Abstract

Sustainable urban finance is a critical component in developing mass rapid transit systems in urban areas. This paper presents an overview of sustainable urban finance and its role in supporting mass rapid transit development. It explores the different sources of financing available for transit development, including public and private sector funding, as well as innovative financing mechanisms such as green bonds, transit-oriented development, and public-private partnerships. The paper also examines the benefits of sustainable urban finance, including improved environmental and social outcomes, increased economic development, and reduced financial risk. Finally, the paper discusses key challenges in implementing sustainable urban finance strategies for mass rapid transit development, such as political and regulatory barriers, lack of public awareness and support, and the need for coordinated planning and financing across different levels of government and stakeholders. Overall, the paper highlights the importance of sustainable urban finance as a key tool for achieving sustainable and equitable urban development through mass rapid transit systems.

Keywords

Mass Rapid Transit System, Sustainable Finance, Financing Infrastructure, Public-Private Partnership, Transit Development

1. Introduction

The rapid urbanization of cities worldwide has put significant pressure on transportation systems, resulting in traffic congestion, air pollution, and environmental degradation. Mass rapid transit (MRT) systems are seen as a promising solution to address these challenges by providing efficient and sustainable transportation options (Joshi et al., 2018). However, financing the development of MRT systems remains a significant challenge for many cities. Sustainable urban finance has emerged as a critical approach to address this issue by promoting financial mechanisms that support the development of sustainable and resilient urban infrastructure. This paper provides an overview of sustainable urban finance and its role in financing MRT development. It explores the different sources of financing available for MRT systems, including public and private sector funding, as well as innovative financing mechanisms such as green bonds and public-private partnerships. The paper also discusses the benefits of sustainable urban finance, including improved environmental and social outcomes, increased economic development, and reduced financial risk. Additionally, the paper examines the challenges of implementing sustainable urban finance strategies for MRT development, including political and regulatory barriers and the need for coordinated planning and financing across different levels of government and stakeholders (Suzuki et al., 2015). By highlighting the importance of sustainable urban finance in supporting MRT development, this paper aims to contribute to the ongoing efforts to create sustainable and livable cities. The objective of this research is to examine the role of sustainable urban finance in financing the development of mass rapid transit (MRT) systems in urban areas.

The central question is: How can sustainable urban finance mechanisms be used to support the development of MRT systems in a way that promotes environmental sustainability, social equity, and financial feasibility?

The problem addressed is the need for effective financing mechanisms to support the development of sustainable transportation infrastructure in urban areas, particularly in light of the challenges posed by climate change, population growth, and urbanization. The research aims to identify key financing strategies and mechanisms that can support the development of MRT systems while promoting sustainable and equitable urban development. A sustainable and efficient mass rapid transit (MRT) system is crucial for addressing the transportation challenges faced by rapidly growing urban areas.

The framework for sustainable urban finance for MRT development provides a strategic approach to funding and financing MRT projects in a way that aligns with the principles of economic viability, social equity, and environmental responsibility. It considers the unique characteristics and challenges of each urban context while promoting financial sustainability, efficient resource allocation, and equitable access to transportation services (Sharma & Dehalwar, 2025). The assessment helps identify the financial risks and opportunities associated with the project (Akintoye et al., 2008). A diverse range of funding sources and mechanisms can be considered to finance MRT development. These may include government budget allocations, public-private partnerships, development funds, grants, loans, and innovative financing instruments (Hakim et al., 2022). The framework identifies strategies for maximizing revenue generation while ensuring affordability and accessibility for different segments of the population (Fourance et al., 2003). Cost efficiency measures help minimize the financial burden on both the implementing agency and the users of the MRT system (González-Gil et al., 2014). This framework addresses the mitigation of environmental impacts, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting energy efficiency (Chirieleison et al., 2020).

Governance and institutional arrangements: Effective governance and institutional arrangements are critical for the successful implementation of the sustainable urban finance framework. This includes establishing clear roles and responsibilities, ensuring transparency and accountability, and promoting stakeholder engagement throughout the decision-making process (Gijre & Gupata, 2020). By adopting a framework for sustainable urban finance, cities can overcome the financial challenges associated with MRT development while ensuring long-term viability, affordability, and accessibility.

2. Methodology

The research and data collection methods used in a study on climate-responsive, inclusive, and equitable community planning will depend on the research questions, objectives, and context of the study. However, some common methods that may be used include:

Literature review: Conducting a comprehensive review of existing literature on climate-responsive, inclusive, and equitable community planning can provide a solid foundation for the study. This can involve reviewing academic articles, policy documents, and reports from government and non-governmental organizations.

Based on your search term “Urban Finance for Mass Rapid Transit Development,” the results have been filtered according to several criteria. Here is a breakdown of the filtering process:

Based on the Search term used: 2,497 results were initially retrieved based on the search term you provided. Filtered by Year ‘2019 to 2023’: Out of the initial results, 736 papers were filtered based on their publication year, specifically focusing on papers published between 2019 and 2023. This ensures that the information obtained is recent and up-to-date. Filtered based on Research Papers: From the 736 papers, 474 were filtered based on the type of publication, specifically research papers. This filtering criterion helps to narrow down the results to scholarly articles that are likely to provide in-depth analysis and information. Based on Open Access: Among the 474 research papers, 128 were filtered based on whether they are available as open access. Open access papers are freely accessible to the public, making them more widely available for reading and reference. Based on Abstract Reading: Out of the 128 open access research papers, 62 were selected based on reading the abstracts. Abstracts provide a concise summary of the paper’s content, helping to assess its relevance to your topic. Detailed study based on relevance: Finally, from the 62 papers selected based on abstract reading, 51 were chosen for a detailed study based on their relevance to your search term. This step involves a thorough examination of the selected papers to extract the most pertinent information related to urban finance for mass rapid transit development. By applying these filtering criteria, the search results have been refined to ensure that the obtained information is recent, scholarly, accessible, and relevant to your topic of interest.

Case studies: Examining case studies of communities that have successfully implemented climate-responsive, inclusive, and equitable community planning approaches can provide valuable insights into effective practices and strategies.

3. 3. Findings and Discussion

3.1. Case Study of Delhi Metro

In the fiscal year 2021-22 the total revenue generated amounted to 4677.01 crore, which included income from Traffic Operations, Real Estate, Consultancy, and External Projects. However, the total expenditure incurred during the same period was 5108.05 crore, resulting in a loss of 431.04 crore before considering Finance Cost, Depreciation & Amortization Expenses, and Tax. After accounting for Finance Cost of 447.45 crore, Depreciation & Amortization Expenses of 2463.46 crore, and exceptional items related to net expenditure on the Airport Line of 1373.66 crore, the loss before tax reached 4715.61 crore. Further, considering the impact of Deferred Tax amounting to 900.51 crore and other Comprehensive Income of 6.47 crore, the net loss for the year was 3808.63 crore (Delhi Metro Rail Corporation., 2022, September 21).

Map 1: Delhi metro expanded routes connecting nearby towns.

Under the business division of ‘Traffic Operations,’ the company earned 1975.99 crore during the year. However, the incurred expenses amounted to 3226.91 crore, resulting in an operating loss of 1250.92 crore. This represents an increase in revenue from Traffic Operations compared to the previous year, with a growth of 1099.01 crore, or a 125.32% increase (Delhi Metro Rail Corporation., 2022, September 21).

Regarding the ‘Consultancy’ business division, earnings amounted to 40.13 crore, a decrease from the previous year’s 46.53 crore. In the ‘Real Estate’ business division, earnings amounted to 115.44 crore, showing an increase from the previous year’s 86.07 crore. Additionally, the company executed External Project Works amounting to 2002.38 crore during the year, an increase from 1492.72 crore in the previous year (Delhi Metro Rail Corporation., 2022, September 21). During the year 2021-22,, equity share capital totaling 1,690.62 crore was allocated to both stakeholders, the Government of India (GOI) and the Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi (GNCTD), in equal proportions. As of March 31, 2022, the paid-up equity share capital of the company stood at 21,566.87 crore (Delhi Metro Rail Corporation., 2022, September 21). A loan of 292.70 crore was received from the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) during the year. Furthermore, loan repayments to the Government of India (GoI) including the front-end fee refund amounted to 51.19 crore, and the interest payment reached 88.95 crore. Up until the end of the fiscal year 2021-2022, the company fulfilled repayment obligations of JICA loan totaling 8209.64 crore, including 4197.11 crore for the loan amount and 4012.53 crore for interest. As of March 31, 2022, the total amount of JICA Loan outstanding was 30582.24 crore, excluding the principal and interest due but not paid to GoI during the financial year 2021-22, which amounted to 943.44 crore and `400.18 crore, respectively (Delhi Metro Rail Corporation., 2022, September 21). During the year, the company received Subordinate Debts amounting to 41.405 crore from GOI and 150.00 crore from GNCTD, related to central taxes. Additionally, Subordinate Debts of 762.595 crore from GOI were received for land, and 200.00 crore from GNCTD were received for state taxes. As of March 31, 2022, the total contribution against Subordinate Debts from GOI, GNCTD, Haryana Urban Development Authority (HUDA), and New Okhla Industrial Development Authority (NOIDA) reached `12748.43 crore (Delhi Metro Rail Corporation., 2022, September 21).

Furthermore, the company received a grant of 252.00 crore from India International Convention and Exhibition Centre Ltd (IICCL) for extending the Airport Express Line to ECC Centre Dwarka Sector-25. Additionally, a grant of 130.00 crore was received from the Delhi Development Authority (DDA) for Phase IV of Delhi MRTS, specifically for three priority corridors (Delhi Metro Rail Corporation., 2022, September 21).

3.2. Case Study of Bengaluru Metro

The Bengaluru Metro, also known as Namma Metro, has become a significant mode of transportation in the bustling city of Bengaluru, India. This financial case study examines the financial performance and sustainability of the Bengaluru Metro, exploring its revenue generation, operational expenses, funding sources, and future prospects.

Revenue Generation:

The Bengaluru Metro has experienced substantial revenue generation since its inception. It has become a preferred mode of transportation for thousands of commuters, resulting in significant ticket sales. Additionally, the metro system has actively engaged in commercial ventures, such as leasing commercial spaces within metro stations, advertising, and brand partnerships, further contributing to its revenue streams. The consistent growth in revenue indicates the metro’s popularity and its ability to generate income from various sources.

Operational Expenses:

While revenue has been strong, the Bengaluru Metro also incurs significant operational expenses. These expenses primarily include staff salaries, maintenance costs, electricity charges, and administrative overheads. The metro system’s efficient management of its operations and maintenance contributes to its ability to cover these expenses effectively.

Funding Sources:

The construction and expansion of the Bengaluru Metro have required substantial capital investments. The project has been funded through a combination of sources, including loans from financial institutions, contributions from the state and central governments, and public-private partnerships. The utilization of multiple funding sources has allowed for the steady progress of the project without burdening a single entity excessively.

Financial Viability and Sustainability:

The financial viability and sustainability of the Bengaluru Metro are evident through its ability to cover operational expenses and generate surplus revenue. The operational surplus indicates that the metro system is not only self-sustaining but also capable of investing in its expansion and improvement. This financial strength ensures the metro’s ability to continue providing reliable and efficient transportation services to the public.

Table 1: Highlights of Financial year 2020-21 and 2021-22

Source: 16th Annual Report of Banagalore Metro Rail Corporation Limited. (2022, September 26).

Gross Income: The gross income for the financial year 2021-22 increased significantly to ₹207.29 crore compared to ₹86.78 crore in 2020-21. This indicates a substantial improvement in revenue generation during the specified period.

Profit before Interest & Depreciation: The profit before interest and depreciation for the financial year 2021-22 improved to a loss of ₹138.31 crore, showing an improvement from the loss of ₹207.43 crore in 2020-21. This indicates a reduction in losses and a potential move towards profitability.

Finance Cost: The finance cost for the financial year 2021-22 decreased to ₹96.08 crore compared to ₹106.92 crore in 2020-21. This implies a reduction in the cost of financing, which could contribute to improved financial performance.

Profit before Depreciation: The loss before depreciation for the financial year 2021-22 decreased to ₹234.39 crore compared to ₹314.35 crore in 2020-21. This indicates a positive trend in reducing losses before accounting for depreciation expenses.

Depreciation: The depreciation expense for the financial year 2021-22 decreased to ₹380.26 crore from ₹584.71 crore in 2020-21. This implies a reduction in the rate at which the value of assets is being depleted, which could contribute to improved profitability.

Net Profit I (Loss) before Tax: The net loss before tax for the financial year 2021-22 decreased to ₹614.65 crore compared to ₹899.06 crore in 2020-21. This indicates a significant improvement in the financial performance before considering tax expenses.

Tax Expenses: The tax expenses for the financial year 2021-22 decreased to a negative amount of ₹137.73 crore compared to a positive amount of ₹10.73 crore in 2020-21. This suggests a tax benefit or credit received during the specified period.

Net Profit /(Loss) after Tax: The net loss after tax for the financial year 2021-22 decreased to ₹476.92 crore from ₹909.79 crore in 2020-21. This signifies an improvement in the overall financial performance after considering tax expenses.

The inferences from the given financial data indicate a positive trend with improvements in revenue generation, reduced losses, and potential movement towards profitability. The decrease in finance costs, depreciation expenses, and tax expenses contribute to this positive trend. However, it is important to note that the company still incurred a net loss, indicating the need for continued financial management and improvement strategies in the future.

Map 2: Showing the transport network of Bengaluru, India (Source: Asian Development Bank, 2023)

These figures demonstrate the commendable financial performance of the metro system, showcasing its ability to efficiently manage its operations and generate surplus revenue. The fact that the metro system not only covered its operational expenses but also generated a surplus indicates its sustainability and financial viability. The revenue earned by the metro system highlights its popularity and utilization among the public, reflecting the trust and reliance placed in this mode of transportation. The revenue generated is a testament to the large number of commuters who choose the metro as their preferred means of travel due to its reliability, convenience, and affordability.

The Bengaluru Metro holds promising prospects for the future. As the city continues to grow and face transportation challenges, the metro system is expected to play a vital role in mitigating congestion and improving connectivity. With ongoing expansions and new lines planned, the revenue generation potential of the metro is likely to increase significantly. Furthermore, the metro’s integration with other modes of transportation, such as bus networks and ride-sharing services, presents opportunities for additional revenue streams and enhanced efficiency. The financial case study of the Bengaluru Metro demonstrates its successful revenue generation, effective management of operational expenses, and sustainable funding sources.

3.3. Project feasibility assessment

Project feasibility assessment plays a crucial role in the sustainable urban finance framework for Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) development (Yosoff et al., 2022). It involves conducting a comprehensive evaluation to determine the financial viability and potential risks and benefits associated with the MRT project. Here are the key elements of a project feasibility assessment:

Demand assessment: The assessment begins by analyzing the existing transportation infrastructure, travel patterns, and projected population growth in the urban area. This helps estimate the demand for MRT services and identify potential passenger volumes. Factors such as population density, employment centers, residential areas, and traffic congestion are taken into account to gauge the level of demand and the feasibility of the MRT project (Walter & Fellendorf, 2015)..

Economic viability: The economic viability of the MRT project is assessed by considering the projected costs and benefits over the project’s lifecycle. The assessment includes estimating construction costs, operational and maintenance expenses, and potential revenue streams. Economic indicators such as the net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and payback period are calculated to evaluate the financial feasibility and attractiveness of the project (Polzin & Baltes, 2002).

Financial risks and opportunities: The assessment identifies and evaluates the financial risks associated with MRT development. These risks may include cost overruns, fluctuations in exchange rates, changes in interest rates, and potential revenue shortfalls. Mitigation strategies and risk management measures are formulated to address these risks. Additionally, the assessment explores potential opportunities for cost savings, revenue generation, and value capture through land development and other means.

Compatibility with urban development plans: The MRT project’s alignment with existing urban development plans and strategies is assessed. This includes considering urban zoning regulations, land use patterns, and connectivity with other modes of transportation. The project’s integration with existing infrastructure and its ability to support urban growth and development goals are evaluated (Pulido et al., 2018).

By conducting a robust project feasibility assessment, decision-makers can gauge the financial viability, risks, and benefits of MRT development. This assessment provides a foundation for developing appropriate funding and financing strategies, identifying potential revenue streams, and formulating sustainable financial models. It helps ensure that MRT projects are economically sound, align with urban development plans, and contribute to the overall sustainability and livability of urban areas.

3.4. Funding sources and mechanisms

Funding sources and mechanisms play a crucial role in the sustainable financing of Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) projects. To ensure the successful implementation and long-term financial viability of MRT systems, a diverse range of funding options and mechanisms can be explored. Here are some common funding sources and mechanisms for MRT projects:

Government budget allocations: Governments at various levels, such as national, regional, and local authorities, can allocate funds from their budgets to finance MRT projects. These budget allocations can be derived from general revenues, taxes, or specific infrastructure development funds. Government funding provides a stable and reliable source of financing, especially for large-scale MRT projects (Kundu & Samanta, 2011).

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): PPPs involve collaborations between public sector entities and private investors or companies. Under this arrangement, private entities can contribute financing, technical expertise, and operational capabilities in exchange for a share in project ownership or revenue. PPPs can diversify funding sources, attract private investment, and provide innovative financing and management models for MRT projects (Sarkar & Sheth, 2023).

Development funds: National or regional development funds, such as infrastructure development banks or specialized funds for urban transportation, can be tapped to provide financial resources for MRT projects. These funds are specifically dedicated to supporting infrastructure development and can offer favorable financing terms and longer repayment periods (Sunio & Mendejar, 2022).

Grants and subsidies: Governments or international organizations may provide grants and subsidies to support MRT projects, particularly in cases where the projects have high social or environmental benefits. Grants and subsidies can help reduce the financial burden on the implementing agency and improve the affordability of MRT services for users (Acharya et al., 2013).

Loans and financing from multilateral institutions: Multilateral development banks, such as the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, or regional development banks, offer loans and financing facilities for infrastructure projects, including MRT development. These institutions provide long-term loans, technical assistance, and favorable financing terms to promote sustainable and inclusive urban transportation (Anguelov, 2023).

Value capture mechanisms: Value capture mechanisms involve capturing a portion of the increased property value resulting from MRT development to fund the project. This can be achieved through land development around MRT stations, levies on land transactions, or tax increment financing. Value capture mechanisms help generate additional revenue streams and finance the MRT project while ensuring that the benefits of increased property values are shared (Medda, 2012).

Innovative financing instruments: Innovative financing instruments, such as green bonds, infrastructure bonds, or transit-oriented development (TOD) financing, can be explored to raise capital for MRT projects. These instruments attract investment from institutional investors or the public, leveraging private sector participation and mobilizing funds for sustainable infrastructure development (Keohane, 2016).

Farebox revenue: Farebox revenue refers to the revenue generated from ticket sales and passenger fares. A well-designed fare structure that balances affordability with revenue generation can contribute significantly to the financial sustainability of the MRT system. Farebox revenue can be supplemented with revenue from ancillary services, such as retail spaces, advertising, or station naming rights (Smith, 2009).

It is important to note that the choice of funding sources and mechanisms should align with the specific context, financial capacity, and regulatory framework of the city or region. A combination of these funding sources and mechanisms can be employed to optimize financial sustainability, diversify risk, and ensure the affordability and accessibility of MRT services.

3.5. Revenue generation strategies

Table 1: Levers to Increase Node, Place, and Market Potential Values

Source: Salat & Ollivier, 2017

Revenue generation strategies play a critical role in ensuring the financial sustainability of Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) systems. These strategies aim to generate income that can contribute to the operational and maintenance costs of the MRT infrastructure. Here are some common revenue generation strategies for MRT projects:

Fig 3: Synchronization of Node, Place, and Market Potential Values (Source: Salat & Ollivier, 2017)

Sr. No.	Revenue Geration Technique	Brief	Reference
1	Farebox revenue	Revenue collected from ticket sales contributes to covering the operating costs	(Smith, 2009).
2	Advertising and sponsorship	Advertising can be sold to businesses and brands, generating revenue from advertisers	(Hakino et al., 2018)
3	Retail spaces	Retail spaces, such as shops, kiosks, or food outlets can be leased to vendors, generating rental income	(Ibrahim & Leng, 2003)
4	Station naming rights	Station naming rights offer an opportunity for revenue generation	(Narayanaswami, 2017)
5	Property development	Property development and value appreciation in their vicinity	Weinberger, 2001)
6	Ancillary services	Parking facilities at MRT stations, bike-sharing or scooter-sharing services, car rental services, or parcel delivery services	Smith & Gihring, 2006
7	Non-farebox revenue	Such as licensing fees, concession fees, or access charges for third-party services like Cell tower within the MRT system	Looi & Tan, 2009
8	Value capture mechanisms	Land value capture strategies, such as levies on land transactions, development charges, or tax increment financing	Gihring, 2009

Successful revenue generation strategies require careful market analysis, understanding of customer preferences, and effective partnerships with advertisers, retailers, and property developers. The pricing of fares, advertising rates, and rental fees should be market-driven while considering the affordability and accessibility for the target users.

3.6. Cost optimization and efficiency measures

Cost optimization and efficiency measures are crucial for the successful implementation and long-term financial sustainability of Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) projects. By optimizing costs and enhancing operational efficiency, MRT systems can reduce financial burdens and improve the overall effectiveness of their services. Here are some key cost optimization and efficiency measures for MRT projects:

Sr. No.	Optimisation and Efficieny Measures	Brief	Reference
1	Robust project planning and design	Feasibility studies, considering alternative alignment options, and selecting appropriate technology and construction methods	Thong et al., 2005
2	Value engineering	Savings in construction materials, design modifications, or operational efficiencies	Phang, 2007
3	Lifecycle cost analysis	Long-term costs associated with the MRT project	Zoeteman, 2001
4	Procurement and tendering strategies	Competitive bidding	Phang, 2007
4	Sustainable materials and technologies	Using energy-efficient systems, renewable energy sources, and recycled or locally sourced materials can reduce energy consumption and minimize resource costs	Zoeteman, 2001
5	Operational efficiency measures	maximize passenger loads, efficient ticketing and fare collection systems	Johnson & Lee, 2012
6	Energy management and conservation	Energy-efficient lighting, regenerative braking systems, and smart grid technologies,	Thong et al., 2005
7	Training and capacity building	enhance operational efficiency and reduce costs	Johnson & Lee, 2012
8	Asset management	Regular inspections, condition monitoring, and timely maintenance activities	Van der Westhuizen, 2012

Implementing these cost optimization and efficiency measures requires a collaborative approach among stakeholders, including MRT operators, engineers, designers, and maintenance teams. Continuous monitoring and evaluation of costs, performance, and efficiency indicators are essential to identify areas for improvement and implement necessary adjustments.

3.7. Social and environmental considerations

Social and environmental considerations play a significant role in securing funding for Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) projects. Funding institutions and investors increasingly prioritize projects that demonstrate a commitment to social well-being, environmental sustainability, and the overall enhancement of the urban fabric. Here are some key social and environmental considerations that can influence funding decisions for MRT projects:

Social equity and inclusivity: MRT projects should aim to enhance social equity and inclusivity by providing affordable, accessible, and reliable transportation options for all segments of society. Funding institutions look for projects that prioritize the needs of underserved communities, improve connectivity to areas with limited transportation options, and address social disparities in mobility (Lee et al., 2023).

Community engagement and participation: Meaningful community engagement and participation are vital for securing funding for MRT projects. Demonstrating a transparent and participatory planning process, conducting public consultations, and incorporating community feedback into the project design and implementation are crucial. Funding institutions value projects that have actively involved stakeholders and considered their concerns and aspirations.

Fig 4. TOD as a sustainable development. Source: (Uddin et al., 2023) & (Li & Lai, 2009)

Environmental sustainability: MRT projects that prioritize environmental sustainability are more likely to attract funding. This includes minimizing greenhouse gas emissions, reducing energy consumption, promoting the use of renewable energy sources, and integrating green infrastructure into the project design. Environmental impact assessments, mitigation measures, and sustainability certifications contribute to the credibility and attractiveness of the project for funding.

Climate change resilience: Funding institutions increasingly consider climate change resilience as a key criterion for funding decisions. MRT projects should demonstrate strategies to adapt to climate change impacts and mitigate their contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. This can include incorporating climate-resilient design features, integrating flood management measures, and promoting low-carbon transportation modes in conjunction with the MRT system (Barnett, 2003).

Resettlement and displacement: MRT projects may require land acquisition and, in some cases, resettlement of affected communities. Funding institutions expect projects to adhere to international standards and guidelines for involuntary resettlement, ensuring fair compensation, livelihood restoration, and community support. Projects that demonstrate a commitment to minimizing displacement and providing adequate support to affected communities are more likely to receive funding (Modi, 2009).

3.8. Governance and institutional arrangements

Governance and institutional arrangements play a crucial role in securing funding for Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) projects. Funding institutions and investors often assess the governance structure and institutional arrangements to ensure effective project management, financial accountability, and long-term sustainability. Here are some key aspects of governance and institutional arrangements that influence funding decisions for MRT projects:

Clear governance structure: A well-defined governance structure is essential for efficient decision-making and accountability. This includes clearly delineating the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders, such as government agencies, transit authorities, private sector partners, and regulatory bodies. Funding institutions prefer projects that have a transparent governance structure with clearly identified decision-making processes.

Regulatory framework: An effective regulatory framework provides clarity and stability to MRT projects. It establishes rules and standards for operations, safety, fare structures, and other key aspects. Funding institutions look for projects that operate within a supportive regulatory environment, ensuring compliance with applicable laws and regulations. A robust regulatory framework helps instill confidence in investors and lenders (Jong et al., 2010).

Institutional capacity: Funding institutions assess the institutional capacity of project proponents to effectively plan, implement, and manage MRT projects. This includes evaluating the technical expertise, project management capabilities, and financial management systems of the implementing agency. Demonstrating a track record of successfully delivering infrastructure projects and having qualified personnel enhances the project’s attractiveness for funding (Acharya et al., 2013). Effective collaboration between public and private partners and a clear delineation of responsibilities are essential for successful funding outcomes (Navalersuph & Charoenngam, 2021). Demonstrating a participatory approach, incorporating stakeholder feedback, and addressing social and environmental concerns positively impact funding decisions (Alade et al., 2022).

Legal and contractual frameworks: Clarity and enforceability of legal and contractual frameworks are important considerations for funding institutions. Well-drafted agreements, such as concession agreements, construction contracts, and operational contracts, provide the necessary legal certainty and protect the interests of all parties involved. Funding institutions assess the adequacy and effectiveness of legal and contractual frameworks to mitigate risks and ensure project viability.

Performance monitoring and reporting: Effective performance monitoring and reporting mechanisms enable transparency, accountability, and timely decision-making. Funding institutions expect MRT projects to have robust systems for monitoring key performance indicators, financial performance, and compliance with project milestones. Regular reporting on project progress, financial performance, and social and environmental impacts enhances the project’s credibility and supports funding efforts. Projects that show a commitment to long-term financial and operational sustainability are more likely to attract funding (Cervero & Dai, 2014).

4. Conclusion

One approach to advance climate-responsive, inclusive, and equitable community planning is to adopt a “Green New Deal” framework that integrates climate action, economic justice, and social equity goals. This approach seeks to address the intersecting challenges of climate change, economic inequality, and systemic injustice by promoting policies and programs that create green jobs, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote social equity. Some actionable planning methods and approaches that can be used to advance this framework include: Engaging with community members and stakeholders in the planning process can ensure that the needs and priorities of marginalized communities are considered. This can include community-led design charrettes, participatory budgeting, and other forms of collaborative planning. Planning for green infrastructure and sustainable transportation can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve air quality, and enhance community resilience to climate impacts. This can include promoting active transportation options such as walking and cycling, and investing in public transit and infrastructure such as green roofs, rain gardens, and urban forests. Incorporating a climate justice and equity lens into planning can help ensure that the benefits and costs of climate action are distributed fairly across communities. This can include prioritizing investments in low-income and marginalized communities, promoting affordable housing and energy efficiency programs, and supporting local businesses and cooperatives. Exploring innovative financing mechanisms such as green bonds, social impact bonds, and community investment funds can provide new sources of funding for climate-responsive and equitable community planning projects. By adopting these planning methods and approaches, communities can advance climate-responsive, inclusive, and equitable community planning outcomes that benefit all members of society. Tangible outcomes can include reduced greenhouse gas emissions, improved community health and resilience, and enhanced economic opportunities for marginalized communities.

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Keywords: Petroleum hydrocarbons, Multisystem toxicity, Oxidative stress, Inflammation, Heavy metals, Chickens, Nigeria

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

CONCLUSION

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Funding Statement

The datasets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Abstract

Keywords

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

3. 3. Findings and Discussion

3.1. Case Study of Delhi Metro

3.2. Case Study of Bengaluru Metro

3.3. Project feasibility assessment

3.4. Funding sources and mechanisms

3.5. Revenue generation strategies

3.6. Cost optimization and efficiency measures

3.7. Social and environmental considerations

3.8. Governance and institutional arrangements

4. Conclusion

5. References

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