Patil, A. U. (2026). Incorporation of Culture and Gender in Selected Novels of Chetan Bhagat. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 116–121. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/12Style
APA
Dr. Amol Uttamrao Patil
S.S.V.P’s Bhausaheb N. S. Patil Arts &
M.F.M.A. Commerce College, Deopur, Dhule.
Tal & Dist. Dhule (Maharashtra – India)
Abstract
Chetan Bhagat’s novels intricately explore the themes of culture and gender, which are essential for analyzing the behavior and relationships of his characters within the socio-political context of contemporary urban India. Culture encompasses the customs, beliefs, and values that shape societal identities, reflecting a historical evolution and guiding present-day social conduct. Bhagat’s work portrays the intersection of traditional values with modernity, highlighting issues such as inter-caste marriage and generational conflict. Gender, defined by social and cultural roles rather than biological differences, is also central to his narratives. While earlier works often depict women in traditional roles, later novels like One Indian Girl challenge patriarchal norms and reveal gender biases, showing the evolving consciousness around masculinity and femininity in Indian society. Together, these themes offer insights into how popular literature mirrors and influences societal values in modern India.
The terms “culture” and “gender” play a central role in understanding the thematic depth of Chetan Bhagat’s novels. Culture, in a broad sense, refers to the collective customs, beliefs, values, traditions, language, and social behaviors that define and shape the identity of a particular society or community. It is both a reflection of historical evolution and a guide to present-day social conduct. In literary studies, culture serves as a lens through which readers can analyze the behavior, choices, and relationships of characters within their socio-political context. In the case of Chetan Bhagat, culture is often portrayed through the lens of contemporary urban Indian society, where traditional values intersect with the pressures of modernity, globalization, and individual ambition. His characters navigate issues such as inter-caste marriage, family honor, generational conflict, educational aspirations, and regional diversity—elements that reveal the cultural fabric of 21st-century India. Through relatable characters and familiar settings, Bhagat captures the complexities of middle-class Indian life, offering insights into how culture informs personal and collective identities.
Equally significant is the concept of gender, which refers not to biological differences but to the social and cultural constructions of roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male, female, or non-binary in a given society. Gender, unlike sex, is fluid and dynamic; it is shaped by societal norms, historical context, and power structures. In literary analysis, gender helps unpack the representation of masculinity, femininity, gender roles, and power dynamics within texts. Chetan Bhagat’s novels often present a nuanced exploration of gender, especially in terms of how societal expectations affect men and women differently. While some of his earlier works depict women in supportive or traditional roles, his later novels, such as One Indian Girl, provide a feminist narrative that challenges patriarchal norms and highlights issues like gender bias in professional spaces and personal relationships. His male protagonists, too, are often caught between traditional masculine ideals and modern emotional sensibilities, reflecting the evolving gender consciousness in Indian society. Thus, an examination of culture and gender in Bhagat’s work allows for a deeper understanding of how popular literature both reflects and shapes societal values in contemporary India.
Relevance of Literature in Reflecting Social Realities
Literature has always been a powerful medium through which societies understand, critique, and reflect upon themselves. It acts as a mirror that captures the complexities of human experience and societal structures, providing insight into the prevailing ideologies, conflicts, customs, and transitions of a particular time and place. Writers often draw inspiration from real-life events, cultural practices, political movements, and social issues, thereby making literature a living document of its era. Whether through realism, satire, allegory, or fiction, literary works allow readers to engage with social realities such as poverty, gender inequality, caste discrimination, political corruption, and generational change. In the context of Indian English literature, authors like Chetan Bhagat bring to light the aspirations, struggles, and contradictions of modern Indian society, particularly among the youth and the urban middle class. Through relatable narratives and everyday characters, literature such as Bhagat’s not only entertains but also encourages critical reflection on cultural norms, gender dynamics, and the impact of globalization. Therefore, literature holds immense relevance in not just portraying social realities, but also in challenging them, inspiring change, and giving voice to the marginalized and the misunderstood.
The Growing Intersection of Literature, Culture, and Gender Studies
In recent decades, there has been a significant shift in literary studies towards interdisciplinary approaches, particularly the integration of cultural and gender studies into literary analysis. This intersection has broadened the scope of literature beyond aesthetic appreciation to include critical engagement with issues of identity, power, representation, and social justice. Literature is no longer viewed solely as a reflection of artistic expression but also as a cultural artifact that embodies and interrogates the norms and values of its time. Cultural studies examine how literature reflects and constructs ideologies, traditions, and collective experiences, while gender studies focus on the representation of gender identities, roles, and relations within texts. Together, these disciplines allow scholars to explore how literature both reflects and challenges societal expectations related to class, caste, religion, ethnicity, and gender. In the Indian context, where tradition and modernity often coexist in tension, this intersection becomes especially important. Authors like Chetan Bhagat use fiction as a platform to depict and question cultural conventions and gender norms, making their work rich material for such interdisciplinary study. Bhagat’s narratives, which often involve youth navigating social expectations, love, ambition, and identity, illustrate how literature can serve as a site for examining the evolving dynamics of gender and culture in contemporary India.
Literature as a Mirror of Evolving Cultural Values and Gender Roles in India
Literature has long served as a reflection of societal evolution, capturing the dynamic shifts in cultural values and gender roles over time. In the Indian context, where tradition and modernity often collide, literary narratives provide an important lens to observe these transitions. From the classical epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana to modern Indian English fiction, literature has documented the changing ethos of Indian society. In recent decades, rapid urbanization, globalization, education, and the rise of digital media have contributed to significant transformations in how gender roles and cultural expectations are perceived and practiced. Contemporary literature, particularly popular fiction, engages with themes such as love across caste and religion, female autonomy, intergenerational conflict, and the redefining of masculinity. Authors like Chetan Bhagat portray protagonists who struggle between familial expectations and personal desires, reflecting the ongoing negotiation between traditional Indian values and emerging modern identities. His novels highlight the complexities of arranged marriages, gender-based discrimination, career aspirations, and emotional vulnerability, all within the framework of a culturally diverse yet changing India. Thus, literature becomes a vital medium not just for storytelling, but for documenting and questioning the shifting boundaries of gender and cultural norms in contemporary Indian society.
Importance of Analyzing Popular Fiction for Cultural and Gender Perspectives
Popular fiction holds a unique position in contemporary society as both a reflection and a shaper of cultural values and social norms. Unlike academic or elite literature, popular fiction reaches a wide and diverse audience, influencing public perceptions and everyday attitudes, especially among youth and the middle class. Analyzing popular fiction through cultural and gender perspectives is crucial because it reveals how societal constructs like identity, tradition, and power dynamics are represented, challenged, or reinforced in mainstream narratives. Such an analysis helps uncover implicit biases, stereotypes, and the reinforcement of hegemonic ideologies related to culture and gender roles. Moreover, popular fiction often serves as a site where contested ideas about modernity, tradition, masculinity, femininity, and social change are negotiated. By critically examining works like those of Chetan Bhagat, scholars can better understand the role of literature in shaping collective consciousness, fostering social awareness, and potentially driving progressive change in cultural and gender relations.
Bhagat’s Accessibility and Its Influence Among Indian Youth
One of the key factors behind Chetan Bhagat’s widespread influence among Indian youth is the remarkable accessibility of his writing style. Bhagat employs simple, conversational English, often infused with colloquial expressions and relatable cultural references, which makes his novels approachable even for readers who are not fluent in complex English. This linguistic accessibility breaks down barriers often associated with English literature in India, which is frequently viewed as elitist or inaccessible to the common reader. Moreover, Bhagat’s stories focus on the everyday lives, aspirations, and challenges faced by middle-class and aspiring young Indians, ranging from educational pressures to love and career dilemmas. By mirroring their lived experiences in an honest and engaging way, Bhagat resonates deeply with his audience. His ability to connect with young readers through familiar contexts and straightforward language has made his work not only popular but also culturally significant. This accessibility has contributed to rekindling interest in reading among the youth, while also fostering dialogues on issues such as cultural identity, gender roles, and social mobility.
The Role of Academic Inquiry in Evaluating Social Progressiveness in Bhagat’s Novels
An academic inquiry into Chetan Bhagat’s novels is essential to critically assess the extent to which his works are socially progressive or regressive, especially regarding cultural and gender issues. While Bhagat’s popularity among Indian youth is undeniable, it is important to move beyond commercial success and popular appeal to examine the deeper social implications of his narratives. Such scholarly analysis can reveal whether his portrayal of characters, relationships, and social realities challenges prevailing stereotypes and promotes inclusive, egalitarian values, or whether it inadvertently reinforces traditional norms and biases. Academic scrutiny provides a structured and nuanced understanding of how Bhagat’s storytelling influences readers’ perceptions of gender roles, caste dynamics, and cultural identities. Furthermore, it enables a balanced evaluation that acknowledges both the empowering and problematic aspects of his work, thereby contributing to broader discussions on the role of popular literature in social transformation.
Scope to Understand Modern Indian Middle-Class Values Through Chetan Bhagat’s Writing
Chetan Bhagat’s novels offer a valuable lens through which to explore and understand the evolving values, aspirations, and dilemmas of India’s modern middle class. His stories frequently center around young protagonists from middle-class backgrounds who grapple with issues such as education, career ambitions, romantic relationships, family expectations, and social mobility. By portraying the everyday struggles and triumphs of this demographic, Bhagat’s work reflects the changing cultural landscape shaped by globalization, economic liberalization, and technological advancements. His novels capture the tensions between tradition and modernity, highlighting how middle-class.
Conclusion-
Indians negotiate identity, gender roles, and cultural norms in a rapidly transforming society. Therefore, studying Bhagat’s narratives provides important insights into the hopes, anxieties, and contradictions that define the contemporary Indian middle class, making his work a rich resource for understanding broader social and cultural trends.
References-
Bhagat, C. (2004). “Five Point Someone: What Not To Do at IIT.” Rupa Publications.
Bhagat, C. (2005). “One Night @ the Call Center.” Rupa Publications.
Bhagat, C. (2006). “Three Mistakes of My Life: A Contemporary Indian Novel.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science.
Bhagat, C. (2008). “The 3 Mistakes of My Life.” Rupa Publications.
Hemalatha.K, “Chetan Bhagat and Aravind Adiga: New voices of New India.” The Vedic Path 83.3 and 4 (July-Dec 2009).
Ingle, A. (2026). English as a Global Language: Cultural Implications and Challenges. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 108–115. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/11Style
English has become a global language used for communication in education, business, science, and international relations. It helps people from different countries to connect and share their ideas. However, the global spread of English also creates challenges for many reasons. Local languages and cultures may be weakened, and non-native speakers may face inequality or discrimination. While English promotes global understanding, it is important to protect linguistic diversity and respect cultural identities. The present research paper focuses on the cultural implications and challenges of English as a global language. It also tries highlighting the need to balance global communication with the protection of cultural diversity.
Key Words: Cultural identity, Globalization,Linguistic diversity,Communication
Introduction
Language plays a central role in shaping human identity, culture, and social interaction. In the contemporary world, English has emerged as the most influential global language, functioning as a primary medium of communication across national, cultural, and linguistic boundaries. English is widely used in international business, diplomacy, science, technology, education, and popular culture. The global spread of English is largely the result of historical factors such as British colonial expansion and the political, economic, and technological dominance of the United States in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. While English as a global language has facilitated cross-cultural communication and global connectivity, it has also raised significant cultural, social, and linguistic concerns. This paper examines the rise of English as a global language and explores its cultural implications and challenges. It argues that although English promotes international communication and access to global opportunities, it also contributes to cultural homogenization, linguistic inequality, and the marginalization of local languages. By analyzing both the advantages and drawbacks of the global dominance of English, this research paper highlights the need for a balanced approach that recognizes linguistic diversity while acknowledging the practical benefits of a shared global language.
The Rise of English as a Global Language
The rise of English as a global language is the result of historical, political, economic, and cultural factors rather than linguistic superiority. One of the earliest reasons for the spread of English was British colonial expansion during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. English was introduced in many parts of Asia, Africa, and the Americas as the language of administration, education, and governance. As a result, English became firmly rooted in several regions of the world (Crystal, 2003).After the decline of the British Empire, the economic and political dominance of the United States played a major role in strengthening the global status of English. In the 20th century, the United States emerged as a world leader in science, technology, trade, and military power. English became the main language of international diplomacy, global business, and academic research (Graddol, 1997). Another important factor in the rise of English is globalization. The growth of international trade, multinational companies, and global media has increased the demand for a common language. English is widely used on the internet, in social media, and in digital communication, making it the dominant language of the modern globalized world (Crystal, 2003). Today, most scientific journals, international conferences, and higher education institutions use English as their primary language.
The global status of English did not emerge naturally but was shaped by political and economic forces. According to David Crystal, a global language is one that achieves a special role recognized in every country, either as an official language or as a widely studied foreign language (Crystal 3). English gained this status primarily through British colonialism, which spread the language to regions in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Later, the economic and technological influence of the United States further strengthened the global presence of English. In the modern era, globalization has accelerated the spread of English. It is the dominant language of international organizations, academic publishing, the internet, and digital media. Phillipson notes that English has become deeply embedded in global power structures, often associated with economic progress and social mobility (Phillipson 47). As a result, proficiency in English is frequently viewed as a prerequisite for success in the globalized world.
Cultural Implications of English as a Global Language
English and Cultural Identity
The global spread of English has significant cultural implications across societies worldwide. As English functions as a common medium of communication, it facilitates cross-cultural interaction, knowledge exchange, and international cooperation. At the same time, its dominance raises concerns about cultural imbalance, identity loss, and linguistic inequality. One major cultural implication of English as a global language is cultural exchange and globalization. English enables people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds to share ideas, traditions, and values. Through education, media, literature, and digital platforms, English promotes global awareness and intercultural understanding. It has become the primary language of international academia, popular culture, and global media, allowing cultures to interact more closely than ever before (Crystal). The global dominance of English has also led to cultural homogenization.
The widespread use of English often promotes Western cultural values, lifestyles, and ideologies, sometimes at the expense of local traditions. Global media content such as films, music, and advertising largely produced in English-speaking countries, can overshadow indigenous cultural expressions. This process may lead to the weakening of local customs and cultural practices (Graddol). Another important implication is the issue of linguistic imperialism. Phillipson argues that the global promotion of English is closely connected to historical and political power structures. English often enjoys higher prestige than local languages, which can result in unequal power relations between native and non-native speakers. In many post-colonial societies, English is associated with education, social status, and economic opportunity, while indigenous languages are marginalized (Phillipson). The spread of English also affects cultural and personal identity. Language is a key carrier of culture, history, and collective memory. When English replaces or dominates local languages, speakers may experience identity conflicts, especially among younger generations.
While English offers global mobility and access to opportunities, excessive dependence on it can weaken emotional and cultural ties to one’s mother tongue (Kachru). At the same time, English has adapted to local cultures, giving rise to World English. In many regions, English has been localized and blended with native languages and cultural norms. These new varieties reflect local identities and challenge the idea that English belongs only to native speakers. The cultural implications of English as a global language are complex and multidimensional. While English promotes global communication and cultural exchange, it also raises serious concerns about cultural dominance, identity loss, and linguistic inequality. A balanced approach that values multilingualism and cultural diversity is essential to ensure that the global use of English remains inclusive and culturally respectful. One of the most significant cultural implications of the global spread of English is its impact on cultural identity.
Language is closely linked to traditions, values, and worldviews. When English becomes dominant, local languages and cultural expressions may be devalued. Speakers of minority languages may feel pressure to abandon their linguistic heritage in favor of English, leading to a gradual loss of cultural identity. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o argues that language carries culture and that the dominance of colonial languages can alienate individuals from their indigenous cultures (Thiong’o 16). In many postcolonial societies, English continues to hold prestige, while native languages are often confined to informal or domestic contexts. This imbalance reinforces cultural hierarchies and perpetuates colonial legacies.
Cultural Homogenization
The global dominance of English also contributes to cultural homogenization. English-language media, including films, music, and digital content, often promote Western values and lifestyles. As these cultural products circulate globally, they may overshadow local traditions and narratives. This process can result in a standardized global culture that prioritizes Western norms over diverse cultural practices. While cultural exchange can be enriching, the unequal power dynamics involved in the global spread of English raise concerns about cultural imperialism. Phillipson describes this phenomenon as “linguistic imperialism,” in which the dominance of English supports broader systems of cultural and economic control (Phillipson 52). English language become worldwide spread in different culture and location.
Challenges of English as a Global Language
Linguistic Inequality
One major challenge associated with English as a global language is linguistic inequality. Native speakers of English often have an advantage in international academic and professional settings, while non-native speakers must invest significant time and resources to achieve proficiency. This inequality can affect access to education, employment, and global participation. In academic contexts, English dominates scholarly publishing, making it difficult for researchers who are not fluent in English to share their work internationally. This situation limits the diversity of perspectives in global knowledge production and reinforces the dominance of English-speaking institutions.
Threat to Linguistic Diversity
The expansion of English poses a serious threat to linguistic diversity. UNESCO estimates that many of the world’s languages are endangered, with some disappearing entirely as younger generations shift to dominant global languages like English. When a language disappears, unique cultural knowledge, oral traditions, and ways of understanding the world are lost. Crystal emphasizes that linguistic diversity is as important as biological diversity, arguing that the loss of languages weakens humanity’s cultural richness (Crystal 14). The global preference for English often accelerates language shift, particularly in multilingual societies.
Educational Challenges
The role of English in education presents additional challenges. In many countries, English is used as the medium of instruction, even when it is not the students’ first language. While this approach may improve English proficiency, it can negatively affect comprehension and learning outcomes. Students may struggle to grasp complex concepts when taught in a second language, leading to educational inequality. Moreover, the emphasis on English can marginalize local languages within educational systems, reducing their status and limiting their development in academic and professional domains.
Another serious challenge is the decline and loss of indigenous languages. The increasing use of English in education, administration, and media can marginalize local languages. When younger generations prioritize English over their mother tongues, native languages may gradually lose speakers, leading to language endangerment or extinction. Since language is a carrier of culture, traditions, and history, the loss of a language also means the loss of cultural heritage (Crystal). Cultural dominance and linguistic imperialism also pose significant challenges. Phillipson argues that the global spread of English reinforces Western cultural and ideological dominance.
English is often associated with modernity, progress, and success, while local languages are viewed as less valuable. This perception can undermine cultural confidence and contribute to the erosion of local identities (Phillipson). Another challenge is the native versus non-native speaker divide. Native speakers of English often enjoy advantages in global communication, academia, and international employment. Non-native speakers may face discrimination based on accent, pronunciation, or grammatical variation, even when communication is effective. This creates unfair standards and reinforces linguistic hierarchies (Kachru).The dominance of English in education and academia presents additional difficulties. Most academic journals, textbooks, and research publications are in English, which can disadvantage scholars from non-English-speaking backgrounds.
Balancing Global Communication and Cultural Diversity
Although English functions as a powerful tool for international communication, its global dominance presents several social, cultural, educational, and linguistic challenges. These challenges affect individuals, communities, and nations, particularly in non-English-speaking and post-colonial contexts. One major challenge is language inequality. English often enjoys higher status than local languages, creating unequal power relationships between English speakers and non-English speakers. Access to quality education, employment, and global opportunities is frequently linked to English proficiency. As a result, individuals who lack access to English education may face social and economic disadvantages (Graddol). This inequality is especially visible in developing countries where English-medium education is limited to elite groups. The global use of English can lead to miscommunication and cultural misunderstanding. Language is closely connected to culture, and using English across diverse cultural contexts may result in misunderstandings, loss of meaning, or inappropriate communication. Without cultural awareness, English as a global language may fail to achieve effective intercultural communication..
Conclusion
English as a global language has transformed the way people communicate in an interconnected world. Its widespread use has facilitated international exchange, economic development, and access to global knowledge. However, the cultural implications and challenges associated with its dominance cannot be ignored. The global spread of English has contributed to linguistic inequality, cultural homogenization, and the erosion of linguistic diversity. A balanced and inclusive language policy can ensure that English functions as a bridge between cultures rather than a barrier. Only through such an approach can the benefits of English as a global language be fully realized without compromising linguistic and cultural heritage. Addressing these challenges requires promoting multilingualism, respecting linguistic diversity, and ensuring equitable access to language education. A more inclusive approach can help balance global communication with cultural preservation
Works Cited (MLA 9th Edition)
rystal, David. English as a Global Language. 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Graddol, David. The Future of English? British Council, 1997.
Kachru, Braj B. “Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle.” English in the World: Teaching and Learning the Language and Literatures, edited by Randolph Quirk and H. G. Widdowson, Cambridge University Press, 1985
Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. Decolonizing the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Heinemann, 1986.
Phillipson, Robert. Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford University Press, 1992.
Pawar, H. S., & Nandre, S. J. (2026). Comparison of Growth and Characteristic Properties of Barium Oxalate and Cobalt Oxalate Single Crystals. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 101–107. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/10
Comparison of Growth and Characteristic Properties of Barium Oxalate and Cobalt Oxalate Single Crystals
H. S. Pawar1, S. J. Nandre2
1V.J.N.T. Late Dalpatbhau Rathod Arts and Science College, Mordadtanda (Dhule) M.S
Email ID: pawar.hs1188@gmail.com
2Department of Physics, Uttamrao Patil Arts and Science College, Dahiwel (Dhule) M.S
Abstract:
The barium oxalate and cobalt oxalate single crystals were grown in agar-agar using gel method. Then compared the growth parameters. The XRD, FTIR, TGA/DTA analysis of the grown crystals confirmed the crystals crystalline. Morphology of the crystals studied from the photography while the structures of the crystals were studied from XRD. Thermal analysis reveals the decomposing temperature of the crystals.
Keywords: Barium oxalate, Crystal growth and Cobalt oxalate.
Introduction
Crystal growth is the basis of numerous technology improvements. The gel growth method is the most efficient and simple process of crystal growth. It is considered more useful at ambient temperature and has an inexpensive process. The contribution of gel method in crystallization has been significant. This method has been successfully developed as one promising way of growing single crystals and gives many interesting results, from simple metals salts to complex compounds. Single crystals are the backbone of the modern technology of logical revolution [1-3]. The impact of single crystal, is clearly visible in industries like semiconductors, optics etc. Growth and characterization of oxalate single crystals have attracted many researchers single crystals of oxalate single crystal have been grown and reported. Now a day great attention has been devoted on the growth and characterization of oxalate crystal with the aim of identifying new materials for practical purposes. It is well established that there are extensive study on oxalate based crystal grown by gel technique; however, we have found that there are few reports on the barium and cobalt oxalate based crystal because of their chemical properties. Therefore, in the present study, we have investigated the growth mechanism of barium oxalate and cobalt oxalate crystals. All both types of crystals were grown by gel method by using single diffusion techniques [4].
Experimental
In the present work, barium oxalate and cobalt oxalate single crystals were grown by single diffusion technique. The growth of barium oxalate crystals was carried out in agar-agar gel by adopting the similar technique as reported (Dalal and Saraf 2009) [6]. Barium chloride (BaCl2, 99.9%), Cobalt chloride (CoCl2, 99.9%) Oxalic acid (H2C2O4, 99%), Agar-Agar powder (C14 H24 O9) were used as the starting materials. All chemicals were AR grade. The borosilicate glass tube was used as crystallization apparatus. The glass tubes used for single diffusion were of 25cm length and 2.5cm outer diameter. The solution of different (0.5, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 2M) were prepared and store in clean glassware. Agar-Agar gel was prepared by mixing (0.5 to 2.0gm) of agar powder in 100ml double distilled water at boiling temperature. Barium chloride and Cobalt chloride of concentration 0.5 to 2 M and oxalic acid of concentration 0.5 to 2M were used as reactants [5]. The prepared solution of oxalic acid were then transfer into the test tube, after that appropriate volume of agar gel poured in this test tube and the mouth of test tube closed by the cotton plug and then kept undisturbed for aging period of few days. Usually with 24 to 36 hours the gel was found to set which depends on the environmental temperature. Room temperature and atmospheric effect also plays an important role on gelation, aging that is evaporation of water molecules from on surface of gel. It was observed that the mixture in glass tube was initially transparent and slowly turn milky white. After insuring firm gel setting it was kept for aging for 2 to 3 days. Aging makes the gel harder and reduces the diameter of capillaries present in the gel. After setting and aging over the set gel solution of second reactant (supernatants) of desire volume and molarity was poured gently along the wall and allowed to diffuse into the gel medium. The open end of test tube was closed with cotton plug to prevent evaporation and contamination of the exposed surface by dust particles and impurities of atmosphere and was kept undisturbed [6].The following chemical reactions were employed for the growth
BaCl2 + H2C2O4 BaC2O4 + 2HCl……(Barium Oxalate)
CoCl2 + H2C2O4 CoC2O4 + 2HCl….(Cobalt Oxalate)
Results and Discussions
Fig.1 a) shows Lieseggang rings and the grown crystals, b) shows working reaction during crystal growth in test tube. c) shows Harvested crystals of cobalt oxalate and d) barium oxalate single crystals
Figure 1 a) Figure 1 b)
Figure 1 c) Figure 1 d)
The characterization of the pure and doped crystals were carried using XRD, FTIR, thermal analysis, UV absorption spectrum and scanning electron micrographs and their characteristics are compared.
X-Ray diffraction: The X-ray diffraction pattern of barium oxalate and cobalt oxalate crystals are shown in Fig. 2. The patterns of these two samples were taken at room temperature in order to study the structure of the materials. Both materials were found to be single crystalline. From the XRD pattern it is noticed that the peaks obtained at 23.83, 29.44, 39.37, 44.79, 46.71, and 59.020 are corresponds to the (002), (102), (301), (020), (120) and (-104) lattice planes of the barium oxalate crystals and for the cobalt oxalate the peaks are observed at 18.75, 30.23, 34.96, 43.28,51.19, 56.09 and 60.730 are corresponding to the (111), (220), (311), (021), (314), (422) and (511) lattice planes [3].The lattice parameters of barium oxalate a= 8.2425Å, b = 4.0457Å and c = 6.4707 Å, volume of unit cell, V = 215.61 Å3 and of cobalt oxalate a = 5.39820 Å, b = 5.03100 Å, c = 5.73590Å, volume of unit cell, V=155.77 Å3. From the calculated (hkl) and ‘d’ values, it is found that the both oxalate crystals crystalize in the monoclinic system. Table 1. Comparison of Lattice parameters.
FTIR: Thermo- Nicolet, Avatar 370 spectrophotometer is used for the study of FTIR spectrum of both samples. KBr is used as the beam splitter and also as detector. The peaks are identified in comparison with earlier reports. The broad peak at 3600-3400 cm-1 due to anti symmetric O-H
stretching suggest the presence of water of crystallization in both crystals. All the functional groups are observed in both types of crystals and obtained data is summarized in Table 2 [7].
Table 1. Comparison of Lattice parameters
Material
Chemical formula
System
Lattice parametersa, b, c, α, β, γ
Volume(Å)3
Barium Oxalate
BaC2O4
Monoclinic
a = 8.2425Å b = 4.0457Å c = 6.4707 Å
215.61 Å3
Cobalt Oxalate
CoC2O4
Monoclinic
a = 5.39820 Å b = 5.03100 Å c = 5.73590Å
155.77 Å3
Table 2 Summary of vibrational infrared frequencies of different bonds found in the grown crystals
Fundamental frequencies
Barium oxalate
Cobalt oxalate
O-H Stretching and water of crystallization
3566
3366
Metal oxygen bonding
590
487
C = O stretching
51652
1621
Fig. 2 X-ray diffraction pattern of a) Cobalt oxalate b) barium Oxalate
Fig. 4.13 TGA of Barium oxalate crystal grown by agar-agar gel
Fig. 3 TGA of Barium oxalate and cobalt oxalate crystal grown by agar-agar gel
Fig. 5.13 TGA of Cobalt oxalate crystal grown by agar-agar gel
From the TG diagram, barium oxalate crystal showed four stages of weight loss. Thus the curve shows a gradual mass loss. From this graph, the weight loss starts at around 500C and steps at 172oC in which weight loss of 5.17%. It is observed that the material is stable up to 50oC. The second stage of decomposition is from 1720C to 277oC in which weight loss of 25.68%. In the third stage of decomposition is from 2770C to 4350C in which weight loss of 36.68%. In last stage of decomposition is from 4350C to 4780C in which weight loss 13.45%. The residue at the end is at 4780C. The TG thermo gram cobalt oxalate reveals that decomposition starts at 300C and steps at 1770C in which weight loss 17.46%. In the second stage of decomposition in the temperature range 2000C to 2470C, the total weight loss 3.411%. In the third stage of decomposition total weight loss 36.88% was observed in the temperature range 2470C to 2600C and last stage in the temperature range 8920C to 9300C total weight loss of 2.538% was obtained. The residue at the end is at 9300C. [8-11]
Acknowledgment
The author are grateful to research guide Dr. S. J. Nandre, Uttamro Patil Arts and Science college, Dahiwel (Dhule) M.S. also thankful to Prof. Mukesh Padvi, Department of Physics, Shivaji University, Kolhapur and Mr. Rushikesh P. Dhavale, Department of material Science and Engineering,Yensei University, Seoul Republic of Korea for providing characterization facilities.
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Wankhade, A. M., & Kale, G. B. (2026). Preliminary Survey of Roadkill Cases of Some Animals in Buldhana District of Maharashtra, India. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 92–100. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/9
Aniket M. Wankhade¹*, G. B. Kale² ¹Research Student, ²Professor and Head, Department of Zoology, G. S. Science, Arts and Commerce College, Khamgaon, District Buldhana Maharashtra, India *Corresponding author: Aniket M. Wankhade (aniketw1095@gmail.com)
Abstract :
Roadkill is an increasing threat to wildlife due to expanding road networks and rising traffic intensity. The present study reviews and assesses roadkill incidents in Buldhana District of Maharashtra, India, an area that includes important wildlife habitats such as Lonar, Dnyanganga, and Amba Barwa Wildlife Sanctuaries. Roadkill surveys were conducted weekly over a three-month period from November 2025 to January 2026 along with 412 km of road network. Surveys were carried out during morning hours using field observations and photographic documentation. A total 42 road-killed animals belonging to 12 species and 12 families were recorded. The study highlights that roads significantly impact mammals, birds, and reptiles in the district. Species with ground-dwelling behaviour and frequent road crossings were found to be more vulnerable. The findings emphasize the need for basic mitigation measures such as speed regulation, warning signage, and road-planning strategies near forested areas to reduce wildlife mortality. This study provides baseline data that can support future conservation and road-safety planning in Buldhana District.
Road-kill animals are wild or domestic animals that are killed or injured due to collision with vehicles on roads and highways while crossing, feeding, or moving along road corridors, roads, power lines, and water channels are examples of linear infrastructures that shown to affect wildlife in a number of ways, including population decline, biodiversity loss and disturb wildlife habitat.
As of March 31, 2025, India’s total road infrastructure spans an extensive network of approximately 6,345,462 kilometres, solidifying its position as the second-largest road network in the world. This vast infrastructure is composed of: National Highways: 1,46,204 km, serving as the primary arterial network and representing a growth of nearly 60% since 2014.State Highways: 1,79,535 km, which connect major industrial and district centres within individual states. Other Roads: 6,019,723 km, a broad category encompassing rural roads (primarily under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana), district roads, and urban municipal corridors.
Recent studies on roadkill indicate it is a significant, growing threat to global biodiversity, with millions of vertebrates killed annually due to increasing traffic volumes and habitat fragmentation. A 2025 study in the Western Ghats (India) estimated 5,490 animal deaths along a 50 km stretch annually, while a global dataset published in 2025 compiles over 200,000 records across 54 countries, identifying 126 threatened species at risk (Mongabay India Simrin Sirur, 2025). Roadkill studies worldwide have demonstrated their importance in identifying ecological corridors, vulnerable species, and mitigation priorities (Grilo et al., 2020). Wildlife mortality along National Highway corridors has also been reported in transit ecosystems of Maharashtra (Tayade, 2022). Despite such findings, Buldhana district remains under-studied, prompting the present investigation.
To observe and record roadkill animals in Buldhana District over a three‑month period (November to January). The purpose of this study is to generate preliminary data that can assist in wildlife conservation and road safety planning in Buldhana district because in Buldhana district have forest like Amba Barwa Wildlife Sanctuary, Dnyanganga wildlife Sanctuary and Satpura Range link to road highways.
Study Area :
The Buldhana district, located in Maharashtra, India, is approximately positioned between 19.51° to 21.17° N latitude and 75.57° to 76.59° E longitude, in the Western Vidarbha area. This district is a major tourist attraction owing to the ancient Lonar crater (Third largest in the world), declared a world heritage. National Highway 53 (formerly NH-6) passes through Khamgaon, Nandura, and Malkapur towns in the district. The total road network of Buldhana district includes approximately 86 km of National Highways, about 1,351 km of State Highways, nearly 1,168 km of Main District Highways, and over 2,700 km of other district and rural roads.
In Buldhana district, Lonar, Dnyanganga, and Amba Barwa Wildlife Sanctuaries support rich Biodiversity forests like flora and fauna.
Fig.No.1. Geographical Map of Study area
Methodology :
Roadkill surveys were carried out weekly over a three-month period from November 2025 to January 2026 using a motorcycle during morning hours (07:00–10:00 AM and 04:00 to 06:00 PM in the evening ). This survey method was followed by various researchers and found satisfactory in evaluating the road kills. (Das 2007; Baskaran 2010; Selvan 2012; Betleja et al. 2020). All dead animals observed on road surfaces and along road edges were documented, identified, and classified, and their conservation status was assessed using the IUCN Red List.
Photographs of road-killed animals were taken by mobile camera, and the specimens were identified and classified; however, some species could not be identified due to poor condition like- carrion. Field surveys, photographic collections, news paper documentation, and statistical methods were used during the assessment of roadkill animals.
Observations :
Table No. 1. Preliminary survey of roadkills in Buldhana District Observed during November-2025 to January-2026.
Fig. No.1. Species Wise Distribution of Roadkills Animals Observed during November-2025 to January-2026.
Fig. No.2. Family Wise Distribution of Roadkills of different Animals Observed during November-2025 to January-2026.
Dumetia hyperythra (Indian Golden Jackal )
Centropus sinensis (Greater Coucal)
Merops orientalis (Asian green bee-eater)
Amaurornis phoenicurus (White-breasted waterhen)
Ovis aries (Deccani sheep)
Funambulus palmarum (Indian palm squirrels)
Urva edwardsii (Indian grey mongoose)
Canis aureus (Indian Golden Jackal)
Plate No.2. Photograph Some Roadkills of Buldhana District During
November-2025 to January-2026
Plate No.3. News Paper cutting related some Roadkills in Buldhana District.
Results :
A total of 42 road-killed animals belonging to 12 species and 12 families were recorded during the study period. Among mammals, the Indian golden jackal (Canis aureus) was the most frequently recorded species, with 8 road-killed individuals, followed by the Deccani sheep (Ovis aries), jungle cat (Felis chaus), and Indian hare (Lepus nigricollis), each represented by 2 individuals. The Indian grey mongoose (Urva edwardsii) was recorded with 3 individuals, while the Indian palm squirrel (Funambulus palmarum) and brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) were each represented by a single road-killed individual.
Among birds, the greater coucal (Centropus sinensis) was the most affected species, with 18 individuals recorded across Akola, Botha, and Nandura roads. The tawny-bellied babbler (Dumetia hyperythra) was recorded with 2 individuals, whereas the white-breasted waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) and Asian green bee-eater (Merops orientalis) were each represented by 1 individual.
Reptiles were represented by a single species, the brown rat snake (Coelognathus erythrurus manillensis), with 1 road-killed individual recorded during the study period.
Discussion :
The study shows that roads cause the death of different types of animals, including mammals, birds, and reptiles. The Greater Coucal had the highest number of roadkill cases, which may be because it spends a lot of time on the ground and flies slowly. The Indian Golden Jackal also showed higher road mortality, possibly due to frequent movement across roads in search of food.
Most other species were recorded only once or twice, but their presence still shows that roads affect many kinds of wildlife. These results suggest that road traffic is a serious threat to animals in the study area, and simple measures such as reducing vehicle speed and placing warning signs could help in decreasing wildlife deaths.
Conclusion :
The findings of this study demonstrate that road traffic has a significant impact on wildlife, affecting mammals, birds, and reptiles. The higher number of roadkill incidents involving the Greater Coucal and Indian Golden Jackal indicates that species with ground-dwelling habits and frequent road crossings are more vulnerable to vehicle collisions. Although most species were recorded in low numbers, their occurrence highlights the widespread effect of roads on wildlife diversity. The study emphasizes the need for effective mitigation measures, such as speed regulation and warning signage, to reduce wildlife mortality and promote conservation in the study area.
Grilo, C., Bissonette, J. A., and Santos-Reis, M. (2020). The value of monitoring wildlife Roadkill, European Journal of Wildlife Research.
Hatti, S. S., & Mubeen, H. (2019). Roadkill of Animals on the road passing from Kalaburagi to Chincholi, Karnataka,India, Journal of Threatened Taxa, 11(7).
Pawgi, M., Joshi, Y., Deshmukh, S., Purohit, A., Pawgi, K., and Yosef, P. R. (2024). Monitoring Roadkill in Amravati, India: A citizen science project. European Journal of Ecology,10 (2).
Rawankar, A. S., and Wagh, G. A. (2022). Assessment of Avian Road kill Mortality in the state Highway Passing through Agricultural Landscape (Amravati–Paratwada, Maharashtra), Bioscience Biotechnology Research Communications, 15(2).
Simrin Sirur (2025) Mongabay India article.
Sushanth, S., Praphul, G., and Ganesh, S. R., (2025). Impact of Linear Infrastructure and Landscape Characteristics on Wildlife Roadkill in the Nelliyampathy Hills, Western Ghats, India, Scientific Reports, 15, 25333.
Tayade, S. N. (2022). Wildlife Mortalities on NH-161 Passing through Transit Ecosystem, International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 4(2), 100–102.
Khairnar, D., & Patil, V. (2026). A Brief Review of Schiff Bases of Pyridine Derivatives as Chemosensors. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 74–91. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/8
A Brief Review of Schiff Bases of Pyridine Derivatives as Chemosensors
Dinesh Khairnar1, 2,*, Dr. Vikas Patil1,*
1University Institute of Chemical Technology, Kavyitri Bahinabai Chaudhari North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon, M.S., India
2Department of Chemistry, VVM’s S. G. Patil Arts, Science and Commerce College, Sakri, Dhule, M.S., India
There is a growing need to accurately detect pollutants like toxins and metal ions, especially in health and environmental fields. Current detection methods, such as flame atomic absorption spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, are effective but often expensive, time-consuming, and not very sensitive.To address these issues, researchers are exploring optical chemosensors, particularly those based on Schiff bases, for detecting metal ions. Schiff bases are useful in chemistry, especially for binding and detecting metal ions. Schiff base complexes with transition metals exhibit properties like catalytic activity, fluorescence, and magnetic features.Pyridine-based Schiff bases, formed from pyridine derivatives, are especially notable for their strong binding abilities and bioactivity. These Schiff bases are valuable in medicinal and analytical chemistry due to their ability to selectively detect metal ions. This review focuses on the development of fluorescence probes using pyridine-based Schiff bases over the last decade, highlighting their usefulness in detecting specific ions across environmental, biological, and industrial fields.
The demand for precise and highly sensitive identification of pollutant species such as toxins and metal ions is on the rise, particularly in fields related to health and the environment. Industrial and agricultural activities have led to an increase in the release of cations and anionic pollutants, posing significant threats to human health and ecological balance. Presently, various methods including flame atomic absorption spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, stripping voltammetry, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry are utilized for metal ion detection.1,2 However, many of these techniques are expensive, time-consuming (especially during sample preparation), and exhibit limited sensitivity.In response to these challenges, researchers have explored different optical chemosensors for the detection of metal ions, aiming to overcome the drawbacks associated with conventional methods.3
Among these alternatives, Schiff base-based structures have shown remarkable potential for metal ion determination. Schiff base ligands have attracted considerable attention from researchers due to their facile synthesis and their ability to form complexes with a wide range of metals.4 Schiff bases represent a category of organic compounds distinguished by the presence of an imine (-C=N-) functional group formed through the reaction between an amine amino group and either an aldehyde or a ketone carbonyl group.5 This imine functionality bestows Schiff bases with significant chemical and biological characteristics, facilitating their wide-ranging applications across various branches of chemistry, particularly in coordinating and complexing with metal ions. By virtue of the imine group, Schiff base compounds can serve as ligands, forming complexes with transition metals known as transition metal Schiff base complexes.6,7 These complexes often possess desirable traits such as catalytic activity, fluorescence, and magnetic properties.8,9
Pyridine derivatives containing formyl or amino groups readily undergo Schiff base condensation reactions with suitable substrates under optimal conditions. Schiff bases derived from pyridine are considered superior ligands compared to pyridine itself due to their stronger binding capabilities, structural flexibility, and enhanced bioactivity. These Schiff bases, originating from pyridine derivatives, hold significant interest in medicinal chemistry for their role as bioactive ligands, demonstrating physiological effects akin to pyridoxal-amino acid systems crucial in numerous metabolic reactions. Moreover, pyridine-based Schiff bases play a vital role in analytical chemistry. Given their robust binding affinities toward various cations and anions, along with their structural adaptability and distinctive photophysical properties, they find utility in ion recognition. Consequently, they are extensively employed in the development of diverse chemosensors tailored for the selective detection of specific ions across environmental, biological, industrial, and agricultural domains.This review outlines the straightforward fluorescence probes based on Pyridine-based Schiff bases created over the past decade.1
Fluorescent probes based on Pyridine-based Schiff bases for diverse metal ions, anions, and small chemical entities are discuss below.
Bawa et al.synthesized a new pyridine-dicarboxylate based hydrazone Schiff base probe 1 (referred to as DAS) and demonstrated to function as a colorimetric chemosensor for detecting Ni2+ ions. It exhibited rapid and specific detection of Ni2+ ions even in the presence of other coexisting metal ions in MeOH/PBS (5/1, v/v) solution at pH 7.4. The formation of a 2:1 complex between Ni2+ions and DAS, with a binding constant (Ka) of 3.07×103M−2, was confirmed through Job’s plot and Benesi–Hildebrand plot analysis. Additionally, single crystal X-ray diffraction further supported the formation of the 2:1 complex between DAS and Ni2+. The detection limit of DAS for Ni2+ions was determined to be 0.14×10-6M. Furthermore, the DAS- Ni2+ ensemble exhibited selective detection of pyrophosphate with a binding constant of 8.86 × 103 M−1 and a detection limit of 0.33×10-6M.11
Fig. 1: Structure of Probe 1
Mohanasundaram et al.tested how well the Schiff base receptor probe 2 (at a concentration of 5×10-5 M) can detect different metal ions in a mixture of CH3CN/H2O (7:3, v/v). When Cu2+ions were present, the color of the receptor solution changed from colorless to yellow and cyan under visible and UV light. This receptor probe 2 also offers an easy way to detect copper using just the naked eye, without needing any special equipment. UV–visible and fluorescence spectra show that the receptor probe 2 binds to copper in a 1:1 ratio, with a binding strength of 7.59×104 M-1. The lowest amount of copper that the receptor can detect is as small as 0.25×10-6M, and it doesn’t get interfere by other metal ions.12
Fig. 2: Structure of Probe 2
Yan et al.synthesised the fluorescence probe 3 that can detect Ce3+ and F− in a recyclable manner, switching “ON-OFF-ON” in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) buffer having concentration 10×10−3 M and pH 7.4. The detection limits for Ce3+ and F− were found to be 4.48×10−6 M and 11.58×10−6M, respectively, within concentration ranges of 0-50 μM and 0-150 μM. UV–visible and fluorescence spectra show that the receptor probe 3 binds to Ce3+ in a 1:1 ratio, with a binding strength of 1.78×104 M-1. Using DFT, the spatial structure, electron density distributions, binding mode, and sensing mechanism of probe 3 with Ce3+ were investigated. Probe 3 was tested for real-time qualitative detection of Ce3+ and F− in actual water samples and Poly vinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane. This probe 3is highly soluble in water, biocompatible, and suitable for bioimaging in Vascular Mesenchymal Stem Cells (VSMCs).13
Fig. 3: Structure of Probe 3
Xu et al.developed Schiff base chemosensors derived from 2,2’:6’,2”-terpyridines, named 2,2’:6’,2”-terpyridine salicylidene Schiff bases (TPySSB) and 2,2’:6’,2”-terpyridine Schiff bases (TPySB) probe 4, were investigated for their ability to selectively detect Al3+ ions in ethanol(1×10−5 M). The sensing capabilities of TPySSB and TPySB were examined using UV-Vis, fluorescence, FTIR, and 1H NMR experiments. Upon the introduction of metal ions, TPySSB exhibited significant fluorescence enhancement specifically for Al3+ ions. Furthermore, it demonstrated exceptional selectivity towards Al3+ ions with a 1:2 binding mode as indicated by Job’s plot analysis and confirmed through 1H NMR analysis. The binding constant of TPySSB with Al3+ ions is 6.8×105 M−1.These findings suggest that the combination of the 2,2’:6’,2”-terpyridine unit and salicylidene unit holds promise for the development of highly selective chemosensors.14
Fig. 4: Structure of Probe 4
Hossain et al.synthesized a novel fluorescent chemosensor probe 5 that was extensively studied for its ability to detect Cu2+ ions. This chemosensor demonstrated efficient functioning in aqueous solution of H2O/MeCN (8/2, v/v) at neutral pH levels, and its low toxicity was confirmed by a high IC50 value of approximately 35 mM. Furthermore, it demonstrated exceptional selectivity towards Cu2+ ions with a 1:1 binding mode as indicated by Job’s plot analysis and confirmed through 1H NMR analysis. The detection limit of probe 5 for Cu2+ ions was found to be 0.66×10−6 M. Encouraged by these findings, researchers conducted further experiments using confocal fluorescence microscopy for bioimaging, which produced a green fluorescent image in Vero cell line tests. Detailed analysis of the X-ray structure of the hexanuclear Cu2+: probe 5 complex, known as metal–organic macrocycle, provided valuable information about the sensor’s precise mechanism of interacting with the metal ion.15
Fig. 5: Structure of Probe 5
Sahu et. al.synthesised a chemosensor probe 6, which is based on thiosemicarbazide and can detect Cu2+ ions through a color change and Ag+ ions through both color change and fluorescence in MeOH/H2O solvent mixture (1:1 v/v). The sensor is highly efficient at identifying these ions even when they are mixed with other ions in water. Studies have shown that probe 6 binds with Cu2+ ions in a 2:1 ratio and with Ag+ ions in a 1:2 ratio, which was confirmed through tests like absorption titration and mass spectrometry. The sensor is highly sensitive, capable of detecting concentrations as low as 1.7×10−6M for Cu2+ ions and 2.2×10−6M for Ag+ ions through color change and 1.6×10−6M for Ag+ ions through fluorescence. It functions effectively in wide range of pH levels and can be used to test water samples for Cu2+and Ag+ ions in the environment. Based on these findings, probe6 could be a significant step in the development of a single sensor that can detect multiple substances.16
Fig. 6: Structure of Probe 6
Mukherjee et. al.synthesised pyridine based novel luminescent compoundprobe 7and studied as a sensor that detect both Cr3+and Al3+ in DMSO solvent. The metal salts were prepared in DMSO/H2O mixture (2:1). The binding stoichiometry of probe 7 with both Al3+ and Cr3+ ions is in 2:1 ratio which is determined by Job’s plot. The values of limit of detection and association constant for both Cr3+ and Al3+ are in range of 10−11 M and 105 M−1 respectively. They also used a technique called first derivative synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy to measure the amounts of Al3+ and Cr3+ in a mixture without having to separate them first, which turned out to be more effective than traditional methods like liquid-liquid extraction.17
Fig. 7: Structure of Probe 7
Singh et. al.synthesised two receptors, R1 and R2 which are denoted as probe 8. The ability to detect anions was investigated using various methods including visual observation, UV-vis spectroscopy, 1H-NMR titration, and electrochemical and computational analyses. R1 was found to be highly selective for fluoride ions (F–), while R2 could effectively distinguish between fluoride and acetate ions (AcO–) by changing color from pale yellow to aqua and green in the presence of different competitive anions in DMSO. UV-vis titration studies revealed strong binding of fluoride ions with receptors R1 and R2, with binding constants of 2.3×104 M−2 and 8.57×104 M−2, respectively. Additionally, 1H-NMR titration and mass spectral data indicated a 1:2 binding ratio between receptors R1 and R2 and fluoride ions, confirming the involvement of a deprotonation process in the binding mechanism. Both receptors bound to carbonate ions () in a 2:1 stoichiometric ratio, leading to a rapid color change from yellow to aqua, with significant shifts in absorbance spectra. The receptors R1 and R2 offered several advantages for carbonate ion detection, including simple synthesis via Schiff base condensation reaction, high selectivity over other competing ions in aqueous DMSO:H2O (9:1 v/v), and practical application using test strips. Therefore, receptors R1 and R2 served as simple and cost-effective chemosensors for detecting carbonate ions in aqueous DMSO: H2O (9:1 v/v). Additionally, density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT) studies supported the experimental data and proposed sensing mechanism.18
Fig. 8: Structure of Probe 8
Peng et. al.synthesized two pyridine-based Schiff-bases, HL1 and HL2 which are refered as probe 9, which act as sensors for detecting aluminum ions (Al3+) using a mechanism involving photoinduced electron transfer (PET) and excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT). Both HL1 and HL2 quickly emitted fluorescence when exposed to Al3+ions in a solution of DMF/H2O (1/9 v/v). The binding stoichiometry of both HL1 and HL2 with Al3+ ions was found to be 1:1. The binding constant of HL1 and HL2 with Al3+ ion was 3.38×103 and 2.07×103 respectively which determined from Bensi-Hildebrand equation. The detection limit of HL1 and HL2 for Al3+ ion was 3.2×10−9 M and 2.9×10−8 M respectively. These results showed good selectivity and sensitivity to Al3+, changing color from clear to aquamarine even in the presence of other metal ions. Furthermore, HL1 and HL2 effectively detected Al3+ ions in real water samples.19
Fig. 9: Structure of Probe 9 HL1 and HL2
Kumar et. al.synthesised pyridine dicarbohydrazide based chemosensor that can detect both positive and negative ions by changing color. In tests with positive ions, probe 10 senses specifically to Cu2+, showing a strong color change. It was very sensitive to Cu2+, detecting concentrations as low as 0.12×10−6M. When tested with negative ions, probe 10 could also bind to Adenosine monophosphate ion (AMP2−), F−, and AcO−. However, it showed the strongest binding to AMP2−among all other negative ions, with a binding strength measured by the association constant (Ka) value of 1.47×105 M−1 and a detection limit of 0.08×10−6 M. Using computer simulations, they found that Cu2+ bind to specific sites of probe 10, while negative ions like F−, and AcO− bind to different sites through hydrogen bonding. Probe 10 was able to distinguish between AMP2−, ADP2−, and ATP2− by color changes. They also tested the practical use of probe 10 by detecting fluoride ions in commercially available toothpaste. Probe 10 has the potential to be used to detect both the metal ion Cu2+ and important biological ions like AMP2−, F−, and AcO−.20
Fig. 10: Structure of Probe 10
Wang et. al. synthesized Schiff base chemosensors which can act as a fluorescent switch for Zn2+ion and a color-changing indicator for Cu2+ ion at the same time. They found that probe 11 could detect concentrations as low as 0.35×10−6 M and 0.18×10−6M for Cu2+ and Zn2+ respectively. Probe 11forms stable complex with Zn2+ and Cu2+. Probe 11 forms a 1:1 binding stoichiometry when it complexes with Cu2+/Zn2+. The association constants (Ka) for Cu2+ and Zn2+ were approximately 9.67×104 M−1 and 1.25×104 M−1 respectively. This indicated that probe 11 has a higher coordination affinity for Cu2+ than for Zn2+. The Cu2+ complex that was formed subsequently functioned as a colorimetric sensor for PPi by disrupting the 1+Cu2+ complex.In addition, the utilization of fluorescent probe 11 for biological imaging was exhibited.21
Fig. 11: Structure of Probe 11
Gao et. al. synthesised Schiff base photochromic fluorescent probe 12 for Cu2+ion based on the diarylethene combined with a benzo[1,2,5]oxadiazol-4-ylamine. The probe 12 has been thoroughly examined for its photochromic and fluorescent behaviors through the use of light, acid, base and metal ion solution in acetonitrile.The fluorescence changed from dark red to bright red when Cu2+ ions were added. The intensity of light released increased by 90 times, and the emission wavelength was shifted 56 nm toward the blue end of the spectrum. This indicates that probe 12 acts as good chemosensors for Cu2+ even in low concentration solution. The complex ratio between probe 12 and Cu2+ was 1:2 in acetonitrile. For Cu2+, the association constant (Ka) was determined to be 4×104 M−1. The detection limit of probe 12 for Cu2+ was determined as 1.49×10−6M. Moreover, probe 12 exhibited varying responses to light, acidity or alkalinity, and Cu2+ ions, enabling the design and construction of two logic circuits.22
Fig. 12: Structure of Probe 12
Maity et. al.synthesized a new fluorescent sensor probe 13 based on 2H-pyrrolo[3,4-c]pyridine-1,3,6(5H)-trione. Compared to other common ions, probe 13 is exceptionally good at detecting iron ions (Fe3+/Fe2+) in DMSO/H2O (1:9, v/v) solution. The Job’s plot, ESI-mass spectroscopy, and the Benesi Hildebrand equation demonstrated that probe 13 forms a 1:1 complex with the iron metal ion.The probe 13 has binding constant in the range of 105 M−1 and detection limit in the range 10−7 M. They have used EDTA as a coordinating agent to release the ligand from its complex form, which then binds with the metal ion in a 1:1 ratio. Additionally, they conducted experiments with fluorescent cell imaging and found that this sensor is biocompatible and has low toxicity, making it suitable for detecting Fe3+ ions in biological samples.23
Fig. 13: Structure of Probe 13
Yu et. al.have synthesised fluorescent chemosensor probe 14 to detect biological thiols. The probe 14 is capable of fast, sensitive, and selective ratiometric fluorescence detection for GSH. Its copper complex can identify Cys in a mildly acidic PBS buffer solution (pH 7.4) for a range of analytes, including homocysteine (Hcy) and glutathione (GSH). It is also possible to effectively use probe 14 and its copper complex (probe 14:Cu2+) for GSH and Cys fluorescence imaging in HeLa cells, respectively.For Cys, the probe 14:Cu2+ complex detection limits in PBS buffer solution are 0.3×10−6 M for absorbance and 6.4×10−4 µM for fluorescence, respectively.24
Fig. 14: Structure of Probe 14
Wang et. al. have synthesised fluorescent sensors probe 15 using 5,5’-methylenebis(salicylaldehyde) for detecting Al3+ ionswith high selectivity and sensitivity. In a H2O/DMSO (19:1, v/v) solution, the sensitivity of the Al3+and probe 15 complexes at various pH values were investigated. The stoichiometry of Al3+ and probe 15 complex is 1:1, as established by Job’s plot analysis, LC–MS data, and 1H NMR study.The binding constants of sensors R1 and R2 were determined as 2.01×104 and 5.46×105 respectively from Benesi-Hildebrand equation. The detection limits for Al3+ are as low as 10−8M, significantly below the World Health Organization’s guideline for drinking water (7.4×10−6M).25
Fig. 15: Structure of Probe 15
Ghorai et. al. developed and synthesized a fluorescent colorimetric chemosensor probe 16, capable of detectingAl3+ ions in MeOH:H2O solution with a ratio of 2:1 (v/v).The Job plot analysis indicated that the probe 16 and Al3+ formed 1:2 stoichiometric complexes.By using a Hill plot, the association constant was found to be 1.26×105 M−1 based on the fluorescence titration profiles.Probe 16 demonstrates outstanding selectivity and sensitivity towards Al3+, manifesting as enhanced fluorescent intensity and a rapid color change from yellow to colorless in the presence of HSO3−. The detection limit of probe 16 for Al3+ was 0.903×10−6 M significantly surpasses the WHO guidelines (7.41×10−6 M). Furthermore, probe 16 operates effectively across a wide pH range and can be successfully utilized in biological samples for Al3+ detection and bisulfite measurement in food samples. 26
Fig. 16: Structure of Probe 16
Annaraj et. al.development and synthesised water-soluble pyridine-based chemosensor probe 17 designed for the visual detection of Ag+ions in a fully aqueous environment (pH 7.3). This sensor exhibits selectivity for detecting Ag+ ions in aqueous solutions containing various metal ions. The detection limit for Ag+ ions is remarkably low at 4.18×10−6M in aqueous solution, without any interference from other metal ions. A 1:1 complex was formed between probe 17 and Ag+ ions, according to the results of the ESI-MS spectra and the Job plot analysis. Using the Benesi–Hildebrand plot, the binding constant of probe 17 with Ag+ was determined to be 4.95×104 M−1. The predicted binding mode between probe 17 and the Ag+ ion, as well as the probe 17 fluorescence behaviours with Ag+ ion, are validated by computational calculations.27
Fig. 17: Structure of Probe 17
Tayade et. al., synthesized fluorescent receptor probe 18, which exhibits selectivity and sensitivity towards the Pb2+ ion in DMF/H2O (9:1, v/v) medium. The presence of Pb2+ ions leads to a distinctive enhancement in fluorescence and induces a color change easily observable by the naked eye under UV light. Moreover, interference from other ions in the detection of Pb2+ with probe 18 was found to be negligible. From Job’s plot, the stoichiometry between probe 18 and the Pb2+ ion is found to be 1:1. The association constant (Ka) values obtained from fluorescence and UV titration data using the Benesi-Hildebrand plot were found to be in agreement, with Ka values of 5.142×103 M−1 and 5.213×103 M−1, respectively.28
Fig. 18: Structure of Probe 18
Zhang et. al., synthesised a highly efficient “off-on” chemosensor probe 19, for detecting Cu2+. This investigation demonstrated that probe 19 exhibits exceptional selectivity and sensitivity towards Cu2+ in EtOH/H2O (3:2, v/v) solution having pH 7.4 and offering significant promise for environmental sensing applications. From Job’s plot, the stoichiometry between probe 19 and the Cu2+ ion is found to be 1:1. For Cu2+, the association constant (Ka) was determined to be 6.2×105 M−1. These findings present novel opportunities for developing similar “off-on” probes targeting other metal ions.29
Fig. 19: Structure of Probe 19
Conclusion
Pyridine-derived Schiff bases have emerged as a powerful class of fluorescent chemosensors owing to their structural simplicity, strong coordination ability, and tunable photophysical behavior. The cooperative interaction between the pyridine nitrogen and the azomethine (–C=N–) unit provides an efficient binding framework, while strategic substitution enables precise modulation of fluorescence responses. As discussed in this review, these systems operate through diverse mechanisms including photoinduced electron transfer (PET), intramolecular charge transfer (ICT), excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT), chelation-enhanced fluorescence (CHEF), chelation-enhanced quenching (CHEQ), and aggregation-induced emission (AIE). Such versatility has enabled the sensitive and selective detection of environmentally and biologically relevant metal ions, often with detection limits in the micromolar to nanomolar range.Despite significant progress, several challenges limit broader applicability. Many reported fluorescent probes exhibit reduced performance in aqueous media, interference from competing ions, or insufficient validation in real samples and live-cell systems. Additionally, quantitative structure–fluorescence relationships remain underexplored, and mechanistic interpretations are sometimes inferred without comprehensive spectroscopic or theoretical support.
Future developments should prioritize the design of water-compatible, ratiometric, and near-infrared (NIR) emissive probes to enable real-time imaging and in vivo applications. Integration into solid-state platforms, test strips, and portable fluorescence devices will further enhance practical utility. Coupling rational molecular engineering with computational modeling and time-resolved spectroscopic studies is expected to accelerate the development of highly efficient and application-oriented fluorescent sensors. Overall, pyridine-based Schiff base frameworks continue to offer a promising and adaptable foundation for next-generation fluorescence sensing technologies.
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Nagarale, D. V., Khairnar, B. J., & Girase, P. S. (2026). Antimicrobial Investigation of Knoevenagel Products of Quinoline Derivatives. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 68–73. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/7
1Deepak Vasant Nagarale, 2Bhikan J. Khairnar, 3Pravinsing S. Girase*
1*Department of Chemistry, VVM’s S. G. Patil College, Sakri, Dhule
2S. S. V. P. S’s. L. K. Dr. P. R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule
We have described anti-microbial screening of synthesized compounds. All these compounds screened giant’s standard antibacterial and antifungal agents. The detail of biological activity of these active compounds were discussed and results are moderate to high the zone of inhibition obtained.
Kay Words: Antibacterial, Antifungal agents, dicarbaldehydes, Microorganism.
Introduction:-
Involvement in biological procedures makes particular molecular unit uniquely important and interesting [1]. However, the very importance of biological processes has fostered piecemeal approaches to the description of functional relationships between biological activities and the chemical substances that express them. The biological activity of a organic compound is given by A=cf, where A is the activity, c is the concentration of substance and f is a parameter designated as ‘‘inherent activity.’’ The type of activity, catalytic (katal) or binding (mol-1 L) determines units and dimensions[2].Biological activity provides both biologically information and that enables development of the quantitative dimensions needed to exploit the new knowledge [3].
8.2 Biological Activities:-
In this paper we have described anti-microbial screening of synthesized compounds. All these compounds screened giants standard antibacterial and antifungal agents. The detail of biological activity of these active compounds were discussed and the results are given in TablesThe evaluation done for various derivatives for antibacterial activity and literature procedure shows agar diffusion method by finding the zone of inhibition of the drug sample against the standard drugs.
Procedure-I: Stock solutions of test compounds and standard drug:-
Compounds were taken as test samples along with a standard drug samples. 10 mg of each test compound dissolved in 1 ml of DMSO for preparing stock solution of standard drugs.
Organisms used for experiment:-
The organisms employed in the in vitro testing of the compounds were Staphylococcus aureus (Gram positive), Bacillus subtilies (Gram positive), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (gram negative), Escherichia coli (gram-negative) bacterias and Candida albicans (gram-negative) fungi. All the cultures maintained on nutrient agar (Microbiology grade, Hi Media) medium by periodic sub culturing.
Preparation of inoculum:
Procedure for the preparation of inoculums for all the organisms was same. The inoculum was prepared within 24 hrs. From old growth of organism on nutrient agar slant with the help of sterile nichrome wire loop. The growth of the organism on slant especially transferred to a tube containing sterile distilled water.
Medium:
Nutrient agar (1.5 g, Microbiology grade, Hi Media) dissolved in sterile distilled water (100 ml) and Poloxomer 182 (3 g)added as a surfactant to the media to prevent the drug precipitation. 20 ml of this stock solution taken to each Petri dish.
Test Mechanism:-
Petri dish containing approximately 20 ml of disinfected nutrient agar, 0.1 ml of reliable culture of test organisms spread. The stock solution added from four bore wells having 5-20 µl[4,5].This matches to concentration range of 30 µg/ml of the test compound. The tests carried out in duplicate. To one side from placing the controls of standard drug (Ciprofloxacin), controls with dimethyl sulphoxide (Positive control) and without dimethyl sulphoxide (Negative control) were also contained within in the test[6].
Incubation:-
Incubation period for microorganism growth was 37°C for 24 hours under dark conditions. Zone of inhibition were determined at the end of incubation period [7].
8.3 Results and Discussion:-
Section-I: Antimicrobial Study of Knoevenagel Products of Quinoline:-
We have synthesized biologically active Knoevenagel products of 2-chloro-3-formyl quinolines with active methylene compounds, which shown in Tableand results of their microbial screening shown in table.
Table 1: Synthesized Knoevenagel Products of Quinoline
3a-r 3a-r
Sr. No.
Compound No.
R-
3a
-H
3b
-H
3c
-H
3d
-H
3e
-H
3f
6-Cl, 8-NO2
3g
6-Cl, 8-NO2
3h
6-Me
3i
6-Me
3j
6-Me
3k
6-Cl
3l
6-Cl
3m
6-Cl
3n
7-OMe
3o
7-OMe
3p
7-OMe
3q
7-OMe
3r
7-OMe
Table 2: Antimicrobial Screening of Knoevenagel Products of Quinoline
Compound No.
Inhibition Zone Diameter (mm)
Sample code
S.aureus
B.subtilis
P. aureginosa
E. coli
C. albicans
3a
Pm33
–
–
–
–
8.24
3b
Pm34
7.34
7.12
–
–
7.53
3c
Pm35
–
–
–
–
–
3d
Pm36
–
–
–
–
–
3e
Pm37
–
–
–
–
–
3f
Pm38
10.26
10.58
–
–
11.28
3g
Pm39
–
–
–
–
10.60
3h
Pm40
–
–
–
–
6.90
3i
Pm41
–
–
–
–
7.10
3j
Pm42
–
–
–
–
–
3k
Pm43
–
–
–
–
9.27
3l
Pm44
–
–
–
–
8.96
3m
Pm46
–
–
–
–
–
3n
Pm47
–
–
–
–
–
3o
Pm48
–
–
–
–
–
3p
Pm49
–
–
–
–
–
3q
Pm50
–
–
–
–
–
3r
Pm51
–
–
–
–
–
Chloramphenicol
–
24.58
24.55
25.22
25.44
–
Amphotericin B
–
–
–
–
–
12.58
“ – ” Zone of Inhibition
Figure 1: Line graph of Antimicrobial Screening of Knoevenagel Products of Quinoline
Antibacterial Study:-
Compounds 3b, 3f showed moderate activity against S. aureus, and B.subtilisr respectively when compared to the standard drug Chloramphenicol at tested concentration.
Antifungal Study:-
Among the screened compounds 3f, 3g showed significant and 3a,3b, 3h, 3i, 3k and 3l showed moderate activity against C. albicans when compared to the standard drug Amphotericin B at tested concentration.
Conclusion:-
We conclude the overall observation about some of the synthesized compounds. Compounds were showed antimicrobial activity, with compared to standard drugs. Compounds 3b, 3f,5a, 5b, 5d, 5e have showed moderate anti Bacterial activity and compounds 3f, 3g, 5b and 5d have showed superior antifungal activity, while 3a, 3b, 3h, 3i, 3k, 3l, 5c, 5e have showed moderate antifungal activity.
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Sonawane, D. V., & Ahire, R. R. (2026). Synthesizing copper tartrate crystals through controlled nucleation and growth in silica gel. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 63–67. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/6
D. V. Sonawanea , R. R. Ahire
Dept. of Dept. of Physics, Jijamata Arts, Science Commerce College, Nandurbar.
Dept. of Physics, S.G.Patil College, Sakri Dist- Dhule, Maharashtra 424304
Abstract –Copper tartrate crystals were synthesized at room temperature using the single diffusion method within a sodium metasilicate gel matrix. Optimal growth conditions were determined by systematically varying parameters, including gel pH, density (concentration), and setting time, as well as the concentration of the reactants. The resulting crystals exhibited a characteristic bluish, opaque appearance.
Keywords-Silica gel, grown Copper tartrate crystals, bluish and opaque.
1 INTRODUCTION
Recent scientific advancements have shifted crystal analysis from traditional laboratory methods to sophisticated instrumental techniques that offer superior accuracy. While crystal growth was historically a subset of crystallography, it has evolved into an independent field driven by the need for high-purity materials unavailable in nature. Silica gel has emerged as an ideal, chemically inert medium for growing high-quality single crystals, providing a controlled environment for research and commercial applications.
2 EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Copper tartrate shows poor solubility in water hence it was thought worthwhile to grow such a kind of material by chemical reaction at controlled rate using gel method.Gel was prepared by using tartaric acid & sodium meta silicate . The chemicals use for the growth of copper tartrate crystals; all chemicals were of AR grade. Take 7ml of tartaric acid (1M) in a small beaker. To tartaric acid add sodium metasilicate solution. (1M) drop by drop with constant stirring. Then the pH of solution maintains to 4 to 4.5, then pH is measured with digital pH meter.
Transfer the mixture in theborosilicate glasstest tube in diameter is 2.5 cm & in length is 25 cm. Then cover its mouth with cotton plug .Its is transparent initially, after 2/3 days, it turns onto milky & gel converted into semisolid with little amount of water on the top of the surface which is called water of syneresis. Such gel cannot be used for reaction as it has not set. It vibrates with the small mechanical jerks allows the water of syneresis to evaporate completely. It may take one week & it does not vibrate with the small mechanical jerks i.e. called “Setting of gel”.
After setting of gel, allow the aging of the gel. Aging makes gel the harder and reduces the diameter of the capillaries present in the gel. Take the copper chloride (CuCl2) required concentration was then poured slowly along the sides of the test tube to avoid breaking of the gel. Copper chloride solution acted as upper reactants ions through the narrow pores of the silica gel leads to reaction between these ions and the ions present in the gel as lower reactant.[5-8].
The following reaction was expected inside the gel.
Crystals of copper tartrate are bluish opaque, diamond shaped. Maximum sizes of the grown crystals are 3mm x 4mm and thicknesses about 2 to 3mm are obtained.
1.Effect of gel density – It is observed that the nucleation density decreases with increases in gel density . Gels with high density sets more rapidly than the gels with low density. Sodium meta silicate gel density 1.05gm/cm3. bluish ,dimond shaped crystals of copper tartrate.
2 Effect of conc of reaction –The volume of metasilicate gel required to adjust the pH value around 4.2 varies with conc.of tartaric acid . The good quality crystals were grown at 1M conc of tartaric acid.
3 Effet of conc of supernatant –copper chloride is used as supernatant with different conc. From 0.4to 1M is added around 70% of gel volume It is observed that 0.8M conc gives well defined crystals.
4 Effect of pH of gel – It is observed that As pH of gel incrases the no. of crystals decreases due to contamination of crystal with gel In present work good quality crystals of copper tartarete were obtained at pH 4.2
5 Temperature – At normal temp
Different parameters such as concentration of reactants, pH of gel, impurities in the solvent, gel setting time, gel aging time, etc. have considerable effect on growth rate. Near gel interface dendrites growth is observed due to fast growth rate. However as the reactants percolates through the gel, the controlled reaction occurs below interface the depth of 3 to 4 cm. Hence good quality, bluish opaque crystals having well developed faces are observed.Optical micrograph of the grown crystal it shown fig. it shows bluish coloured & opaque crystal of copper tartrate Table 1 gives the various conditions for copper tartrate crystals grown in silica gel.Optimum condition of copper tartrate crystal Gel setting time
Table 1 Various optimum conditions for growing crystals were found
Various process parameter
Optimum conditions
Density of sodium meta silicate solution
1.05 g/cm3
Concentration of tartaric acid
1 M
Volume of Tartaric acid
7 ml
Concentration Copper chloride
1 M
Volume of sodium meta silicate solution
18 ml
6 Effect of gel aging time – It was observed that as aging time of gel increased the number of crystals decreased gels were allowed to age for different period before about one week gives good quality crystals
Table no. 2-Effect of conc .of supernatant
Test Tube No.
SMS(1.05 g/cm3)
Tartaric Acid(1M)
Conc.of Supernatant
Observation
1
18.3 ml
7ml
0.4M
Very few nucleation crystals; size is very small.
2
18.3ml
7ml
0.6M
Slight increase in crystal size compared to Tube 1.
Large number of crystals; multiple nucleation sites; not isolated.
In present work Figure 1 illustrates different morphologies of pure copper tartrate crystals different conditions of growth. Some bluish opaque crystals were observed.Figure1 shows single bluish opaque crystal.
Fig. 1 shows insides the test tube copper crystal
4 CONCLUSIONS
The present investigation confirms that the gel growth technique is an effective and suitable method for the synthesis of high-quality copper tartrate crystals. It was observed that the crystal habit and morphology are highly sensitive to experimental parameters, specifically gel density, pH levels, and the concentration of the supernatant. Furthermore, preliminary characterization indicates that these copper tartrate crystals exhibit significant Non-Linear Optical (NLO) properties, suggesting potential applications in optoelectronic devices.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grate full to Prof.V.R Borane,Principal,Jijamata Arts, Science Commerce College, Nandurbar for encouragement.The author are also grateful to Prof. R.R AhireDept. of Physics, S.G.Patil College, Sakri for the valuables suggestions and helpful discussion regarding research topic.
REFERENCES
1. H.K. Henisch., “Crystal Growth in Gels”,Dover Publication inc p –17,1996.
2. N. Srinivasan ands. Natarajan.,“Indian J. Phys”70 A563, 1996.
3. A. Elizabeth, C.Joseph. and M.A. Ittyachan.,“Bull. Material Sci.”24, 4,431. 2001
4. K.C. Joseph and M.J. Joshi.,“Indian J.Phys”76A 159, 2002
Wagh, B. S., & Tambe, S. S. (2026). Traditional Uses and Conservation Status of Ceropegia Species in Satana Tehsil of the Northern Western Ghats. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 56–62. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/5
Bhushan S. Wagh1, Satish S. Tambe2
Department of Botany, L.V.H. Arts, Science & Commerce College, Panchavati, Nashik.
India has a diverse basin of flowering and medicinal plants with four biodiversity hotspots. The use of plants as medicine was traced to the Vedic period. From ancient times,the value of Plants shows an enormous ability to tackle diseases. Humans are dependent on medicinal plants for various purposes, such as medicines,cosmetics,and other resources. In modern days, tribal communities like Kokana, Bhilla, Koli, and others are completely reliant on medicinal plants to fulfill theirdaily needs.
Ceropegia L. belongs to the family Asclepiadaceae, native to Africa, Southern Asia, and Australia. It is a botanically curious genus, mainly distributed in the Western Ghats. The genus comprises 200 species found throughout the world, mainly distributed in subtropical and tropical Asia. In India, 55 species are reported, of which 28 are endemic to Peninsular India.A total of 6 species and 2 varieties of this genus have been recorded in the Nashik district.The pharmacological importance of the genus is mainly due to the presence of ‘cerpegin’, a pyridine alkaloid, apart from the different potential phytoconstituents such as steroids, terpenoids, anthocyanins, anthracene glycosides, coumarins, flavonoids, fatty acids, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, and carotenoids.The given study explores the important ethnobotanical uses of the genus Ceropegia.
Keywords– Ceropegia L., Asclepiadaceae,Ethnobotany, Medicinal plants, Western Ghats
Introduction–
The occurrence of Ceropegia is very restricted to a narrow range of habitats. As they prefer to grow in moist, shady, and isolated regions.Ceropegia L., with more than 200 species, is distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Maximum diversity of Ceropegia occurs in southeastern Asia, India, Madagascar, tropical Arabia, South Africa, and Kenya (Meve 2002). The genus is represented by 53 species, two subspecies, and six varieties in India, of which 41 taxa are endemic to India. A majority of the species are under threat as per Kambale & Yadav (2019).The hilly region of Satana tehsil is one of the natural hubs for threatened plant species.Villages likeSalher, Mulher, Bhilwada, Antapur, etc has great diversity of medicinally important plants. Most species of Ceropegia were categorized as endangered in the Red Data Book of Indian plants.(The Indian Plant Red Data Book-I, 1984.)As per(Wagh, Tambe, 2025.)the ceropegias like to grow at high altitude, about 926m.
Despite the rich ethnobotanical knowledge in the Satana tehsil, Ceropegia species are still very poorly studied, especially regarding their local uses and indigenous knowledge. These plants are known to have pharmacological importance due to the presence of alkaloid compounds such as cerpegin and other ingredients, including flavonoids, terpenoids, and anthocyanins (Nikam et al., 2018). So, studying how local communities in Satana tehsil identify, collect, and use Ceropegia plants in traditional medicine is both important and timely. Many Ceropegia species found in the Western Ghats and Nashik district are reported to be threatened or endangered due to habitat loss, grazing, and human activities, which highlights the need to document traditional plant knowledge for conservation and sustainable use (Sangale et al., 2024).
This study will be helpful to documenting the uses of Ceropegia and local medicinal knowledge to understand its importance and need for conservation.
Methodology–
In the present ethnobotanical study on the genus Ceropegia, carried out in Satana tehsil, Nashik district, Maharashtra. The study area includes hilly regions, forests, and tribal villages where Ceropegia species are naturally distributed. Fieldwork was conducted during the monsoon season of 2025 to record maximum plant diversity and traditional ethnobotanical knowledge.
Ethnobotanical information was collected through regular field visits and interaction with local tribal communities. Informants included elderly villagersknown for their knowledge of medicinal plants. Interviews questionary was used to collect information simply. Details such as the local name of the plant, plant parts used, method of preparation, mode of administration, and traditional uses were carefully noted.
Regular field visits were conducted with knowledgeable informants to locate Ceropegia plants in their natural habitats. During these explorations, plants were observed and photographed. The collected ethnobotanical data were organized and analyzed to understand the importance of different Ceropegia species in local healthcare practices. The methodology followed standard ethnobotanical guidelines to ensure authenticity and reliability of the recorded information (Jain, 1995; Martin, 2004).
Resultand Discussion –
Plant Name
Local Name
Plant Part Used
Traditional Use
Medicinal Properties
Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb.
Kadu khardi
Tuber, leaves
Consumed for diarrhea, dysentery, and kidney stones; used as a tonic
Digestive, anti-urolithic, antioxidant
Ceropegia lushii Graham
Kadu khardi
Tuber
Eaten raw/cooked to relieve stomach pain and weakness
Nutritive, cooling, digestive
Ceropegia vincaefolia Hook.
Dudhi khardi
Tuber
Used as food during scarcity; treatment of gastric troubles
Energy-giving, stomachic
Ceropegia mahabalei Hemadri
Madhu khardi
Tuber
Consumed for general health and vitality, increases fertility in women.
Tonic, nutritive
Ceropegia hirsuta Wight &Arn.
Madhu khardi
Tuber
Used for indigestion and body weakness
Digestive, restorative
The present ethnobotanical study carried out in Satana tehsil of the northern Western Ghats of Maharashtra highlights the rich traditional knowledge associated with selected species of the genus Ceropegia. Interactions with tribal and rural communities revealed that Ceropegia bulbosa, C. lushii, C. vincaefolia, C. mahabalei, and C. hirsuta are mainly valued for their underground tubers, which are used both as food and medicine. Among these, Ceropegia bulbosa was found to be the most frequently used species. Its tubers are commonly consumed to treat digestive problems, diarrhea, dysentery, and urinary ailments such as kidney stones, and are also considered a general health tonic. Other species, particularly C. lushii and C. vincaefolia, are eaten raw or cooked to relieve stomach pain, weakness, and dehydration, especially during times of food scarcity. The tubers of C. mahabalei and C. hirsuta are known for their nutritive, cooling, and restorative properties and are therefore used as energy-giving foods by local people (Jagtap & Singh, 1999; Yadav & Sardesai, 2002; Patil, 2013).
The widespread use of tubers across all recorded species shows their importance as survival foods and traditional remedies in the semi-arid and hilly regions of Satana tehsil. However, information shared by local informants also pointed to a noticeable decline in natural populations of these plants. This decline is mainly due to habitat destruction, grazing pressure, forest clearance, and excessive collection of tubers before the plants can produce seeds. Many of the documented species are narrow endemics of the Western Ghats and fall under threatened categories of the IUCN Red List. Ceropegia mahabalei and C. hirsuta are classified as Endangered, while C. lushii and C. vincaefolia are considered Vulnerable because of their limited distribution and decreasing populations. Although C. bulbosa has a comparatively wider distribution, local overexploitation has raised concerns about its future survival (IUCN, 2023).
Ceropegia species play an important role in the traditional healthcare system and food security of tribal communities in Satana tehsil. At the same time, unsustainable use poses a serious threat to their conservation. There is an urgent need to create awareness among local communities, promote in situ conservation, encourage cultivation trials, and adopt community-based management practices. Combining traditional ethnobotanical knowledge with conservation planning can help protect these valuable and endemic plant species of the Western Ghats.
The findings emphasize that while Ceropegia species play a crucial role in traditional healthcare and food security of tribal communities in Satana tehsil, unsustainable use poses a serious threat to their conservation. There is an urgent need for awareness programs, in situ conservation, cultivation trials, and community-based management strategies to ensure sustainable utilization. Integrating ethnobotanical knowledge with conservation planning can help protect these ecologically and medicinally important endemic plants of the Western Ghats.
The author wishes to express sincere gratitude to the Principal, L.V.H. Arts, Science & Commerce College, Panchvati, Nashik, for providing the necessary facilities, encouragement, and institutional support to carry out the present ethnobotanical research. Special thanks are extended to the tribal and rural communities of Satana tehsil, Nashik district, for generously sharing their valuable traditional knowledge and cooperation during fieldwork. The support and guidance received from all those who directly or indirectly contributed to this work are gratefully acknowledged.
References –
IUCN. (2023). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Jagtap, A. P., & Singh, N. P. (1999). Folk medicinal plants of India. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.
Jain, S. K. (1995). A manual of ethnobotany. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.
Kambale, S. S., & Yadav, S. R. (2019). Taxonomic revision of Ceropegia (Apocynaceae: Ceropegieae) in India. Rheedea, 29(1), 1–115.
Martin, G. J. (2004). Ethnobotany: A methods manual. Earthscan Publications, London.
Meve, U. (2002). Ceropegia, pp. 63–106. In: Albers, F. & U. Meve (eds.), Illustrated handbook of succulent plants: Asclepiadaceae. Springer, Berlin, 274 pp.
Nikam, T. D., Ebrahimi, M., & Patil, V. A. (2018). Phytochemistry and pharmacological potential of the genus Ceropegia: A review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(3), 1234–1242.
Patil, D. A. (2013). Ethnobotany of Maharashtra. Daya Publishing House, New Delhi.
Sangale, et al. (2024). Several Ceropegia species from the Western Ghats are reported to be threatened, highlighting the need for conservation.
The Indian Plant Red Data Book–I. (1984).
Wagh, B. S. (2025). A short note on new distributional record of Ceropegia mahabalei from Dhule District of Maharashtra. https://doi.org/10.11609/ijar.3103
Yadav, S. R., & Sardesai, M. M. (2002). Flora of Kolhapur District. Shivaji University, Kolhapur.
Wagh, B. S., & Tambe, S. S. (2026). Ecological Importance and Conservation Challenges of Wild Edible Vegetables in the Biodiverse landscape of Sakri Tehsil. International Journal of Research, 13(13). https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/4
Bhushan Shivaji Wagh Satish Sampatrao Tambe
bhushan49wagh@gmail.com sst.sph@gmail.com
Research centre in Botany, Mahatma Gandhi Vidyamandir’s, LokneteVyankatraoHirey Art’s, Science and Commerce College, Panchavati, Nashik- 422003 (Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune)
Abstract
The western region of Sakri tehsil boasts remarkable biodiversity, offering a rich tapestry of flora and fauna. Among its inhabitants are tribal peoples residing in the pockets of Pimpalner village, who have long depended on the natural resources of their surroundings for sustenance and livelihood. These tribal communities, often economically marginalized, have traditionally turned to the abundant wild plants in their environment, utilizing them as a source of nourishment due to their high nutritional value.
In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the nutritional benefits offered by wild plants, many of which are rich in essential vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients. For the tribal peoples of Pimpalner village, these wild plants represent more than just sustenance; they are an integral part of their cultural heritage and traditional knowledge systems. However, as modernization and urbanization encroach upon their ancestral lands, the preservation of these wild plant resources faces numerous challenges.
One of the primary concerns is the unsustainable harvesting of wild plants, driven by increasing population pressure and changing land use patterns. As demand for these resources continues to rise, there is a risk of overexploitation and depletion of plant populations, threatening not only the biodiversity of the region but also the food security and livelihoods of the tribal communities reliant on them.
In light of these challenges, there is an urgent need for concerted efforts to conserve and sustainably manage the wild plant resources of the western region of Sakri tehsil. Conservation strategies should aim to strike a balance between the utilization of these resources for human needs and the preservation of their ecological integrity. This requires the involvement of multiple stakeholders, including local communities, government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and researchers.
Community-based conservation initiatives can play a crucial role in empowering tribal communities to become stewards of their natural heritage. By promoting traditional knowledge systems and sustainable harvesting practices, these initiatives can help ensure the long-term viability of wild plant resources while also enhancing the resilience of local livelihoods. Furthermore, there is a need for scientific research to identify priority species for conservation and to assess their nutritional composition and potential culinary uses.
Education and awareness-raising efforts are also essential to instill a sense of pride and ownership among local communities regarding their natural heritage. By highlighting the nutritional benefits and cultural significance of wild plants, these initiatives can foster a greater appreciation for the value of biodiversity conservation.
In the heart of Dhule, Maharashtra, lies a vibrant tapestry of tribal life, intricately woven with a deep connection to the rich biodiversity that surrounds them. The tribal communities of Dhule have nurtured a profound relationship with the land, relying on an array of wild edible plants that form the backbone of their traditional sustenance. These communities, dispersed across the district’s diverse landscapes, have developed a unique knowledge of local flora, turning to nature’s bounty for both nourishment and cultural significance.
In the lush forests and verdant hills of Dhule, the knowledge of identifying and utilizing wild edible plants has been passed down through generations. From the elders to the youth, each member of the community learns the secrets of the land, honing their skills in recognizing the subtle nuances of nature’s offerings. Plants like Mahua flowers, Tendu leaves, and Bamboo shoots aren’t just culinary ingredients; they are threads woven into the fabric of tribal life, symbolizing a harmonious coexistence with nature.
The Mahua tree, with its sweet-scented flowers, holds a special place in the hearts of the tribal people. Beyond its culinary uses, Mahua embodies cultural significance, often featuring in rituals and ceremonies, marking moments of celebration and unity. Similarly, Tendu leaves, commonly used for rolling indigenous cigarettes, carry a multifaceted importance. While serving as a livelihood source for some, these leaves also hold medicinal properties, offering remedies for various ailments.
Bamboo, revered for its versatility, provides not only sustenance but also materials for crafting tools, utensils, and even shelter. The tribal communities of Dhule understand the value of every part of the Bamboo plant, utilizing its shoots as a delicacy and its sturdy stems for construction purposes. Such holistic utilization of resources reflects a deep-rooted respect for nature’s abundance and a sustainable approach to living in harmony with the environment.
This intimate connection with wild edible plants transcends mere sustenance; it reflects a profound understanding of ecosystems and the delicate balance between human communities and their natural surroundings. As modernity advances, preserving and acknowledging the wisdom encapsulated in the traditional knowledge of these tribal communities becomes crucial. Their age-old practices offer valuable insights into sustainable living and resource management, serving as a blueprint for navigating the challenges of a rapidly changing world.
Moreover, the significance of wild edible plants extends beyond their nutritional and cultural value. They play a vital role in biodiversity conservation, contributing to the preservation of native species and habitats. By fostering a symbiotic relationship with the land, the tribal communities of Dhule act as stewards of their ecosystems, safeguarding them for future generations.
However, this delicate balance is increasingly threatened by external pressures, including deforestation, urbanization, and climate change. As the traditional territories of the tribal communities shrink and natural habitats degrade, the survival of both people and plants hangs in the balance. Efforts to conserve these ecosystems must prioritize the inclusion of indigenous voices and the protection of their rights to land and resources.
In Maharashtra’s wild embrace, the intricate web of life intertwines human and botanical diversity in a timeless dance of mutual dependence. The resilience and ingenuity of the tribal communities of Dhule offer hope for a sustainable future, where the wisdom of the past guides us towards harmony with nature. By embracing and celebrating the traditional knowledge embodied in wild edible plants, we can cultivate a deeper appreciation for the intricate tapestry of life that sustains us all.
Methodology and Study area
This study is carried out in the western region of Sakri, specially in Pimpalner. This region is situated on the western side Dhule District of the Indian state of Maharashtra. Region contains largest tribal population of the total tribal population of Dhule. Aborigines are inhabited in this region such as Bhil, Bhil Garsia, Kokna, Kokni, Kukna, Dongar Koli, Gavit, Pardi, Warli, Tadvi, etc.
A short questionary was prepared by authors and simple interviews were conducted.
The individual plant specimen is identified by using following keys.
Botanical name
Family.
Local name.
Habit.
Plant part used.
Ethnobotanical use.
The questionnaire is given by S. K. Jain (1987) is as follows.
Collection no. Date:
Place
Recorded by
Informer Name
Sex: Age:
Local Name Plant
Plant Part Use
Preparation and Uses
Wild / Cultivated
Signature of Informer
Result and Discussion
Sr.No
Name
Common Name
Family
Methods ofconsumption
1
Wrightia tinctoria
Kala Kuda
Apocynaceae
Young Pods As vegetable
2
Oroxylum indicum
Tetu
Bignoniaceae
Pod As vegetable
3
Cucurbita maxima
Bhopla
Cucurbitaceae
Fruits As vegetable
4
Sesbania grandiflora
Hadga
Fabaceae
Young pods and flowers As vegetable
5
Abelmoschus ficulneus
Ranbhendi
Malvaceae
Fruits As vegetable
6
Phyllanthus amarus
Bhuiavali
Phyllanthaceae
Fruits As vegetable
7
Moringa oleferia
Shevga
Moringaceae
Pods and flowers Eaten boiled or vegetables
8
Ficus racemose
Umbar
Moraceae
Unrip and ripe fruits Unripe fruits as vegetable
9
Bombax ceiba
Kate Savar
Bombacaceae
Flower is used as vegetable
10
Amaranthus polygonoides
Tandulja
Amaranthaceae
Entire plant is used as a vegetable
11
Cordia dichotoma
Bhokar
Ehretiaceae
The inflorescence is used as vegetable
12
Diplocyclos palmatus
Mahadevpind
Cucurbitaceae
Leaves are used as vegetable
Nutritional Values:
Rich in Micronutrients: Wild vegetables are typically high in essential vitamins (like A, C, E, and K) and minerals (such as iron, calcium, potassium, and magnesium), which are vital for maintaining health.
Diverse Phytochemicals: They are abundant in phytochemicals like flavonoids and carotenoids, offering antioxidant properties that help in combating oxidative stress and reducing the risk of chronic diseases.
High Dietary Fiber: Wild vegetables usually have higher fiber content compared to cultivated varieties, which is beneficial for digestive health.
Low Caloric Content: Many wild vegetables are low in calories yet nutrient-dense, making them excellent for balanced diets.
Need for Conservation:
Genetic Diversity: Wild vegetables represent a reservoir of genetic diversity which is crucial for crop improvement and resilience to pests and environmental changes.
Cultural Heritage: They are an integral part of traditional diets and local cultures, with indigenous knowledge systems surrounding their use.
Food Security: Wild vegetables can be vital in times of food scarcity. They are often more resilient to climatic changes and can grow in harsh conditions where cultivated crops might fail.
Medicinal Value: Many wild vegetables have medicinal properties, used in traditional medicine, and can be a source for developing new pharmaceuticals.
Ecosystem Services: They play a role in the ecosystem, contributing to soil health, water regulation, and providing habitat for wildlife.
Conservation strategies include sustainable harvesting practices, habitat protection, cultivation in home gardens, and incorporating them into agricultural systems (agroforestry). Additionally, documenting traditional knowledge and supporting policies that protect both the plants and the indigenous rights to use these plants are essential. Public awareness and education on the value of these plants can also encourage conservation efforts.
Acknowledgement
The author expresses gratitude to the Head of the Research Center in Botany, L.V.H College Panchvati, Nashik, and Dr. Atul Wagh for their invaluable support and guidance throughout this research endeavor. Additionally, heartfelt thanks are extended to the local tribes for generously sharing their knowledge and providing essential information about the plants from the specified area. Their collaboration and assistance have been instrumental in enriching this study and advancing our understanding of traditional plant uses and biodiversity.
References
Kiran U. Gaikwad (2019) Studies on wild plant Species used by tribal people of Shirpur Tehsil Dist. Dhule in their traditional food items- International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews.
Kshirsagar PP, Bhogaonkar PY, & Marathe VR(2012). Underutilized wild fruits of North Maharashtra. J. of Research in Plant Sci. 1: 071-076.
Sachin D. Kuvar, Rajendra D. Shinde, 2019, WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY KOKNI TRIBE OF NASIK DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA, Journal of Global Biosciences, Vol. 8(2), 2019 pp. 5936-5945
Singh, N. P. , Krathikeyan, S. (2000). Flora Of Maharashtra state -Dicotyledons, Vol. I, Botanical Survey Of India (BSI), Culcutta. India
Raut, B. J. (2026). Manupatra Legal Database and Current Era of an Artificial Intelligence. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 32–49. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/3
Bhupendra J. Raut
Ph.D. Scholar, KBCNMU, Jalgaon
Abstract
AI is being incorporated into legal research databases which will change how legal information is accessed, organised and interpreted significantly. Manupatra (one of the largest legal research databases in India) lies at an important intersection of traditional forms of accessing legal information and the new generation of advanced AI-enabled legal research tools. This study has been developed in response to the significant increase in the number of judgements, statute material and regulations in India which has made traditional keyword-based systems of legal research increasingly ineffective. This study will evaluate how AI-enabled features within legal databases are changing legal research practices and may raise important ethical and governance issues as well.
This study will be based on a doctrinal and analytical research methodology based purely on secondary data sources which include scholarly literature about legal technology, artificial intelligence and digital legal research systems. The article provides a comprehensive overview of the progression of legal research from traditional methods to electronic formats and finally to AI-assisted legal research tools such as Manupatra. Furthermore, the article critically appraises the ethical issues associated with using AI for legal research, including algorithmic bias, transparency and data concentration to name just a few. While AI improves the efficiency, contextual understanding and depth of legal research it will potentially standardise legal thinking / reasoning and exacerbate existing inequalities in society if no regulation is implemented.
The author highlights some of the ways that Manupatra’s AI enhanced legal research improves precision and connectivity by using AI, but also recognises that better standards for transparency, ethics and inclusive access are needed to optimise its use in legal research. The author makes a recommendation that AI should only be an assisting tool in legal research not the key determinant in legal reasoning. Lastly, the author states that effective regulation of AI legal databases through governance, oversight and capacity building will assist in ensuring AI legal databases move towards improving fairness, pluralism and access to justice in India.
Keywords: Artificial Intelligence, Legal Research Databases, Manupatra, Access to Justice, Legal Technology
1. INTRODUCTION
In the Indian legal ecosystem, Manupatra has become one of the most well-known digital research platforms that has been created with an objective to alleviate the aspects of scale, complexity, and fragmentation of the vast amount of legal information on India’s courts, statutes, tribunals, regulatory materials, etc. To create a research environment that can support researching large numbers of case laws and legal texts, Manupatra has to create a collection of actionable items that are searchable, can link to other case laws, and are fully supported with structured finding tools such as subject classification and citation links; a critical requirement to a legal system where precedent and cross-references play a significant role in the legal reasoning process. Manupatra’s own available training and product documentation describes it as an online legal research solution that facilitates search and retrieval by providing structured search and retrieval interfaces and back-end mechanisms that help to reduce the time spent searching through large volumes of legal material (Manupatra, n.d.-a; Manupatra, n.d.-b).
In direct contrast, the advent of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has opened a new chapter in the history of legal research. With the use of machine learning and natural language processing systems that allow for the automated interpretation of vast quantities of text, as well as the ability to identify patterns that are not quickly identifiable through traditional keyword searches, AI has changed the way legal scholars approach the task of researching legal issues. Although AI’s application in the field of law has been understood to include a variety of computational techniques aimed at performing legal tasks such as information retrieval, classification, summarization, and prediction, the adoption of these technologies also introduces new concerns about lack of transparency and accountability, and the potential for erroneous results to be introduced into the legal process. A broader understanding of the impact of these technologies is important because it highlights that the purpose of conducting legal research is no longer simply to find relevant documents but rather, to manage the overwhelming amount of information available while still providing the necessary level of interpretative accuracy, procedural fairness and professional integrity (Surden, 2019).
As the quantity of legal resources dramatically outdistances the limit of human ability to read, analyze and compare them, so too does the urgency of the need to study Manupatra in today’s age of AI. Traditional keyword searches are frequently unable to capture critical nuances in the law because many concepts may be articulated in differing ways in separate cases, and the relevance of a legal concept often relies heavily on the context within which it is found (i.e., facts, issues, outcome, and how future courts have interpreted similar decisions). An additional aspect of this issue is that AI can facilitate access to and retrieval of case law through the use of semantic search capabilities, citation analytics, and automated recommendations to direct the user from one useful piece of authority to another in a more efficient manner. An indication of the current evolution of Manupatra includes a specifically created narrative for an AI-centric legal technology suite, which places the overall process of legal research within a broader context of a workflow that is supported by the use of AI in legal operations (Manupatra, n.d.-c; Surden, 2019).
This research is motivated by both practical and normative considerations regarding the accuracy, transparency, accessibility, and ethics of AI-supported legal research – especially when these tools are provided as part of proprietary platforms. If recommendation systems do not have an explainable rationale for why certain cases were ranked higher, there may be no way for users to assess how that ranking may affect their argument and potentially influence the outcome in a courtroom. The risks inherent with using AI-generated outputs become increasingly apparent when used without an adequate validation process – as exemplified by various incidents reported recently whereby legal documents contained non-existent citations that have been incorrectly attributed to an artificial intelligence tool. These examples highlight that while AI tools may enhance overall efficiency, they do not relieve the user from his or her obligation to verify and confirm the accuracy of any work produced (The Guardian, 2025).
This paper explores the research question of how the proprietary legal database Manupatra has been adapting to meet AI expectations while also meeting the requirements of speed and convenience (i.e., to practitioners) and reliability, interpretive neutrality, and access to justice (i.e., to the public). The purpose of this study is to critically evaluate Manupatra’s current role, capabilities, limitations, and direction in the AI-enabled legal research ecosystem. This evaluation considers how AI will change the way lawyers conduct legal research, how professionals will become dependent on technology, and how AI will affect fairness in information access.
In conducting this study, the researchers utilized a doctrinal and analytical approach to research methodology and relied solely on secondary source materials. Sources included, but were not limited to, peer-reviewed open access academic literature on artificial intelligence and law; publicly available legal informatics research studies; policy and institutional documentation about legal technology; and platform documentation that may be freely available. In synthesizing these sources of information across the fields of legal technology, artificial intelligence governance, and digital legal research, the researchers used comparative and thematic analysis to produce structured insights regarding the benefits, risks, and governance requirements that apply to AI-based legal databases.
2. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND THE EVOLUTION OF LEGAL RESEARCH SYSTEMS
Phases of evolution in legal research illustrate how legal information is stored, classified and organised. The earlier manual way of performing legal research involved using printed sources of law: case law reports, digests, citators and treatises. The ability to find and use legal authority was dependent upon the expertise of the researcher in making the application. Although providing an analytic basis for reading with care and doctrinal precision, the earlier manual method for conducting legal research was also fundamentally constrained in three ways: (1) research relied heavily on physical access to libraries; (2) the availability of reports; (3) the ability of lawyers to follow a taxonomy determined by the editorial structure of the relevant publication in order to identify which authority was “relevant” to their research problem. The way legal information is compiled has never been “neutral”. It is through the classification of legal material and the editorial decisions that determine how professionals attend to legal material, and thereby effectively standardise legal understanding, over time (Berring, 1987).
The introduction of full-text databases and computer-aided legal research was a significant technological advancement around legal research. Instead of having to use indexes for finding cases or legal articles, attorneys are able to rapidly perform searches with Boolean and free-text queries across an entire body or corpus of cases. While this change increased access to legal resources and reduced the amount of time required to find those resources, it also impacted research habits. Lawyers increasingly began their research by formulating search strings rather than thinking about the concept before searching and using printed resources like digest using the 3rd edition of Digest of Decisions of the United States Supreme Court to identify the areas they plan to research then, using those digests when researching to identify those cases you are going to use. The early digital tools did not automatically fix the larger question of how to determine meaning in law. Because the determination of meaning or legal reasoning requires contextual, factual, procedural, and subsequent court treatment of each case, keyword searches are often, too broad or too narrow. Thus, while they are able to execute their research at a much faster pace, there is still a significant amount of interpretation required, on the part of the researcher, to convert the results from the digital research into usable authority (Berring, 1986).
AI fundamentally changed legal research from retrieving documents to extracting meaning and discovering relationships. To achieve this, AI-based systems depend largely on natural language processing to interpret text beyond literal keywords and find documents conceptually similar to one another. A semantic search enables systems to identify relevant cases that use different word combinations or phrases to express the same legal idea. Also, citation networks expand the ability of systems to identify relevant cases by graphically representing the precedential relationships between cases (instead of treating cases as discrete documents, systems treat cases as nodes in a graph of influence and treatment of one another), showing clusters of cases, lines of authority and trends in judicial emphasis over time. Recommendation algorithms provide another means of identifying relevant authorities or cases by learning the patterns of usage of various legal materials, then recommending authorities, quotes of a particular passage or doctrinal paths regarding the question or document (Ashley, 2019).
Global advancements of AI-enabled legal research technologies have demonstrated increased efficiency gains and enhanced contextual assistance. The most recognizable benefit has been the reduction of time: AI-enabled systems are able to identify which cases will most likely be relevant for review, identify important passages within a case, and highlight connections between multiple cases that would have otherwise required users to perform multiple searches to verify. This has a particular value in environments that are experiencing rapid growth in litigation activity and expanding decision making capabilities. A second benefit is that AI systems will assist users in thinking about a judgment not only as a single authority, but as part of a larger system of doctrine, where future citations, negative treatments, and “side” reasoning will affect the practical impact of a particular authority. Many users have time limitations; therefore, AI systems can serve as decision-support tools that will limit the amount of time users will spend searching for information and assist them to focus their attention more effectively (Hellyer, 2005).
The features of AI tools that make them useful also introduce new risks. The primary issue of risk is over-reliance on AI systems because ranked results and recommendations can lead to a false sense of completeness, especially if users treat top-ranked outputs as fully valid authorities. In the law, relevance is subjective and dependent on context, arguments, and issue type (e.g., fact pattern) for any given case in any given court. If the logic of the recommendation system is not transparent to the user, they may not know why some authorities are given more prominence than others. It is this lack of transparency in how a case has been analyzed that is most problematic for users because the law requires that lawyers provide justification for their authority choices and reasoning processes, while judges should base their decision on arguments that can be traced back to valid source(s) and/or verify logical basis(es) used by each party. Consequently, ethical discussions around AI tools for use in the practice of law increasingly define them as supports that remain secondary to the verification and accountability established through the professional ethic of practice by lawyers and judges, rather than as alternatives to professional practice (Walters, 2019).
A serious challenge is presented by the possibility that algorithmic systems will reinforce existing paths of judicial authority through their use of citation ranking systems. A citation ranking system may work well for common or accepted doctrines; however, the same system may inadvertently do extensive harm to dissenting voices, to less commonly used doctrines or to newly established doctrines that are not widely cited. Over enough time, this situation creates a scenario such that a researcher seeking out an opinion has his or her results influenced by where the system directs him/her to look, rather than by where the most analytically appropriate source may be found for the specific issue being addressed by the researcher. In practical terms, the researcher will be limited by what the prevailing system directs him or her to consider and as such will develop procedural patterns consistent with “recommendation” based systems rather than those consistent with an exploratory thought process. This issue is not merely a technical one; this also presents a methodology problem in terms of the way legal reasoning will be conducted and the way in which the ability to think outside the box will develop (Ashley, 2019).
AI is not just about speedy searching; it also denotes an alteration in how we conduct our research as it changes the first thing that Legal Professionals do when engaging with a Legal Text, the primary focus of their search, and what constitutes ‘authoritative’ sources. Also, AI will change how we interact with Legal Texts in that we now will have an added layer of Computational Interpretation that translates from User to Source Material. Therefore, while AI can decrease workloads and enhance accuracies, it will also create a greater need for Critical Oversight, Transparency Norms, and Professional Discipline in order to evaluate the credibility of the source, challenge the validity of Ranking Systems, and ensure you consider as many different Research Fields as possible when conducting Research (Walters, 2019; Hellyer, 2005).
Table 1: Evolution of Legal Research Systems
Phase
Research Method
Core Characteristics
Key Limitations
Manual Era
Printed law reports, digests, citators
Deep doctrinal reading; human interpretation; editorial classification
Opacity; interpretative dependence; potential reinforcement of dominant trends
The AI systems significantly improved time and the contextual relevance of information and increased transparency and reliance on interpretations by providing clear evidence of the methods and rankings used to generate algorithm-generated output; therefore, requiring critical evaluation and monitoring (oversight) because the manner in which these algorithm-generated recommendations influence legal reasoning and the selection of authority is often unclear. Through the transformation of legal research from one of gathering information to one of assisting in interpretation, AI has changed and is continuing to change how lawyers engage professionally with the legal profession, as well as the manner in which lawyers access and use legal research in doing their daily work. AI’s effect on the way lawyers access legal materials is not limited to where they search, but the manner in which relationships between materials and relevance, authority and doctrinal pathways are developed.
3. MANUPATRA AS AN AI-ENABLED LEGAL RESEARCH PLATFORM
Manupatra has gradually transitioned from a traditional digital legal database to a new AI-powered legal research platform created specifically for the complex structure and principles of the Indian legal system. The design of its architecture has taken into consideration the way that precedents, statutory interpretation, and tribunal adjudication coexist in many jurisdictions that also use different languages. Rather than being like other generic legal search engines, Manupatra combines its structured databases of decisions from the Supreme Court, High Court and tribunals with statutory material, rules, circulars and commentaries, creating an overall legal authority that is not just made up of individual documents (Manupatra, n.d.-a).
One of the important aspects of the development of Manupatra is its ability to conduct searches based on both context and concepts. With traditional keyword searches, the results will often be fragmented as a result of differences in the way that legal concepts are stated in decisions. The Manupatra search interface allows users to search for cases based on the relevant legal issues, subject matter classifications and their relationship to doctrine, thus providing searches based on principles of natural language processing (NLP) and semantic searches. This enables users to search through cases for conceptually similar authorities rather than relying strictly on a word-for-word match, which is especially beneficial in India because of the different ways that similar cases are decided in multiple High Courts, but still, discuss similar concepts (Manupatra, n.d.-b).
Manupatra has another fundamental feature – Case Linking and Citation Tracking. This feature is based on the network analysis principles of AI. All of the judgments in Manupatra are linked via way of positive, negative or neutral citations, which can assist the user in determining the weight of precedential authority and how subsequent courts have treated that particular case. This function is similar to citation intelligence from an AI perspective, where you visually and structurally map the development of legal authority over time. Several recent Indian legal research studies have highlighted that citation tracking is important in systems where the precedential value of a case depends not only on its hierarchy but also on whether the case continues to be regularly adhered to or distinguished from (Sengupta, 2019).
Manupatra’s subject classification and taxonomy organization support AI-based information retrieval by limiting information noise for AI. Legal subjects and sub-subjects are curated according to Indian statutory and doctrinal categories. As a result, users can quickly find relevant materials, without needing to build elaborate query strings, by relying on the subject classification. This structured subject classification is useful for students conducting legal research, as it helps them approach their research thematically, as opposed to looking at particular cases (Tripathi, 2017).
Judicial trend mapping is one of the latest AI-aligned functionalities of Manupatra, enabling users to observe patterns of judicial decisions over time, by different courts, and for different topics. The tool gives researchers an aggregated view of similar types of decisions through theme and citation-based organization, as well as insight into how legal points of view have changed or remained steady. Indian research in judicial analytics suggests that trend-based tools can aid with strategic litigation planning and doctrinal analysis, especially within areas such as constitutional law and commercial law, where interpretive trends are important (Chandra, 2020).
Manupatra’s strategy: globally identifiable trend towards the use of AI in the preparation of legal documents. However, the majority of international companies using these technologies often focus on predictive analysis and predicting the outcome of litigation, whereas Manupatra’s focus has been more on the use of contextual authority mapping and doctrinal navigation, which align more closely with the Indian judicial culture/reality. Manupatra’s proprietary design includes substantial concerns due to the fact that the algorithms used to determine ranking and relevance of materials have not been disclosed to users; if users do not know how a particular authority is ranked as relevant or created an authority list, then it may significantly impact the individual’s research &/or arguments constructed from it. Consequently, legal scholars using Indian legal information technology have expressed concern over the effect that this type of absence may have on research outcomes and the types of authorities that are most visible to the user, as these will dictate argument construction and akademisch or academically interpreted (Sengupta, 2019).
Another major issue related to limited public access is the fact that Manupatra uses a subscription-based model and therefore, its advanced research capacity is limited to paying institutions and practitioners. This raises questions about equitable access for students at small institutions, independent researchers and self-represented litigants. Research on digital justice in India has found that while proprietary legal databases provide greater efficiency, they also risk creating even larger divisions in access to legal information unless other initiatives provide accessible and free public legal information (Chandra, 2020).
Although there are some concerns about its impact, Manupatra plays an important role in the way legal education, preparation of documents for use in court, how judges use the law, and research is done in the country. All of India’s law schools use it in their teaching of case analysis and statutory interpretation. Also, attorneys use it to provide a brief in connection with a case and identify relevant authority in an expeditious manner and judges and law clerks frequently reference it for ease of access to the appropriate authorative source. Additionally, researchers in academia benefit from having integrated access to the decisions of the court and the corresponding commentary, and in turn, this integration influences the way that legal knowledge is developed, cited, and issued in relation to the research conducted in the area of law in India (Tripathi, 2017).
Table 2: AI Features Integrated within Manupatra
Feature
Functional Description
Research Impact
Contextual Search
Concept-based retrieval aligned with legal issues
Improved relevance and precision
Case Linking
Citation-based interconnection of judgments
Better assessment of precedential value
Citation Tracking
Positive/negative treatment analysis
Informed authority evaluation
Subject Classification
Taxonomy-driven organization
Structured thematic research
Judicial Trend Mapping
Pattern identification across cases
Strategic and doctrinal insights
Manupatra’s use of Artificial Intelligence technology has improved the accuracy of legal research results and made access to relevant case law more contextually related. However, reliance on proprietary algorithms can create concerns about the neutrality of how lawyers and judges interpret legal information or use the information found in legal documents. Manupatra is a good example of how Artificial Intelligence can enhance efficiency and coherence in legal research inside of the Indian legal system while highlighting the need for transparency, accountability and ethical oversight in Artificial Intelligence assisted legal research tools.
4. ETHICAL, ACCESS, AND GOVERNANCE CHALLENGES IN AI-BASED LEGAL DATABASES
AI’s increasing presence in legal research databases is changing how legal knowledge is created, organized, and consumed. AI-enabled systems offer the ability to retrieve information faster, understand legal text in context, and analyze data more intelligently, but there are also severe ethical challenges posed by AI-based legal databases, particularly related to access and governance, which are crucial in jurisdictions like India where access to justice, judicial pluralism, and equality under the Constitution are the basis of the legal system.
AI powered legal databases raise ethical issues such as algorithmic bias. Algorithmic systems are trained on historical legal datasets such as case law, citation practices, and patterns of legal practice. These datasets are not neutral and instead reflect social hierarchies, institutional power, and dominant legal histories. Barocas & Selbst (2016) provide examples of how algorithmic systems developed using biased training datasets can perpetuate and exaggerate existing inequalities, even without any intentional bias by an algorithmic designer. This applies to legal research databases as AI relevance ranking has the potential to favor frequently cited cases or judgments that come from institutions and status, and leave behind lower/infrequently cited cases, led to references for marginalized groups; as well as cases that refer to jurisdictional-specific types of law contrary to the claim made by the relevant party to the decision made by the legal system, or cases associated with unique situations associated to their geographic area. In determining this in an Indian context (where High Courts issue significantly different decisions with respect to the same legal issues) will ultimately materially impact the outcome of legal research.
An additional consideration in algorithmic bias relates to the exclusion/marginalization of dissenting judgment opinions. These legal opinions are significant in the legal system’s development, especially in constitutional democracies. In India particularly, many of the significant doctrines that have changed the legal framework were influenced by older dissenting opinions; but, when using AI-based citation and recommendation systems to compile legal research information, the majority opinions are often ranked the highest (because they are cited more frequently) and viewed as authoritative. As described by Ashley (2019), many of the characteristics needed to build a machine-learning model that identify relevance often rely on citation frequency and acceptance by other judges as relevance measures which, in turn, results in creative disagreement among judges legally, meaning that over time, these data-driven methods may continue to narrow the diversity of style through restricted interpretations and continue to suffice the creative use of law by judges. An additional difficulty has to do with how subscription-type services for AI lawyer databases divide up access (Some lawyers depend on being able to pay for AI databases in order to use them). Although these databases improve efficiency and accuracy, they are typically located in proprietary systems which are available only to people who have paid for access (Pasquale, 2015). This concentration of power has been stated by Pasquale as an example of how the concentration of the information on AI lawyer databases creates asymmetry, leading to less democratic accountability. In India, many lawyers are independent of each other (i.e. solo practitioners) and many people rely on lawyers for help getting legal representation. Many people depend on legal aid; therefore, if AI databases are not readily available to many people because of subscription services, this could lead to a disparity in the level of legal representation received by those seeking legal aid. The result is an inherent tension between improving technological advances and ensuring equal protection under the constitution of access to justice.
The issues around access to data were compounded by the monopolization of data. All legal judgments and statutes are public documents created by constitutional institutions, but when AI (Artificial Intelligence)- based legal databases aggregate, arrange and monetize public legal documents, they do so using proprietary analyses. This phenomenon, as described by Pasquale (2015), contributes to a wider “black box” society where only private entities may have access to algorithmic systems; this limits transparency, public oversight and adds to the problem of monopoly power of these technology companies. It also means that AI-enabled legal databases create extensive dependence on only a few sources of information (i.e. an AI-enabled legal database) thereby concentrating epistemic power (or authority), which in turn influences (or delivers) what the relevant law is within a community through opaque computational processes.
To fully appreciate the lack of governance attached to these AI-based legal databases is to understand their risks. One consistent critical issue around these AI systems is algorithmic opacity. Legal reasoning relies on being able to determine the explainability and justifiability of the authority relied upon; however, AI systems typically do not disclose the way relevance scores, recommendation algorithms and trend analyses are generated. Barocas and Selbst (2016) explain that because they lack transparency with respect to the data upon which AI systems make decisions, accountability cannot exist, as it would require identifying and challenging or correcting output from an AI system that has been developed and maintained by private entities for their financial return. Legal professionals in India are guided by their ethical duties to independently verify the sources of data they rely upon, and thus if they are unable to identify the underlying data used by AI systems to develop ‘algorithmically curated’ results, there is a significant and valid concern that lawyers will inappropriately rely on the AI-generated result as an independent source of verifying the law.
Concerns regarding standardization of legal reasoning arise with the use of AI-driven legal databases. When lawyers and judges utilize an AI-based legal database, they receive repeated exposure to the authorities that have been prioritized algorithmically; thus, these authorities may in turn influence the framing of arguments. According to Ashley (2019), AI-driven legal databases may direct users along the dominant doctrinal path and discourage exploration into authorities that are rarely cited but are nonetheless relevant to the context. In a plural legal system, such as India, where constitutional, statutory, and socio-customary norms overlap, this standardization effect will inhibit doctrinal innovation and limit the maintenance of alternative interpretative methods.
From the perspective of governance, the issues of ownership and regulatory oversight of legal AI database tools remain unresolved. There are no public governance arrangements for most AI-based legal research platforms; therefore there is a lack of transparency and little or no external auditing function for AI-based legal research platforms. Pasquale (2015) suggests that there should be stronger regulations for sectors that affect fundamental rights to maintain accountability and enhance public trust. Because there is no sectoral regulation for legal AI tools in India, the ethical responsibility for their use is relegated to the platform providers and end-user, compromising systemic safeguards.
Ethical challenges, access issues, and governance issues have a significant impact on the Indian legal system when using AI-based legal databases to support legal education, litigating practice, and judicial research through the development of these databases. The design choices made about these databases impact how legal knowledge is created and will therefore influence whether AI-based legal databases will create more equitable access to legal information rather than creating greater structural inequities due to the lack of ethical protection against bad faith, poor access policies, and lack of governance.
Table 3: Key Challenges of AI-Based Legal Databases
Dimension
Key Challenge
Implications
Ethical
Algorithmic bias
Reinforcement of historical inequalities
Interpretative
Marginalization of dissents
Reduced legal pluralism
Access
Subscription barriers
Unequal access to justice
Governance
Algorithmic opacity
Weak accountability
Structural
Data concentration
Dependence on private platforms
The above table shows that although AI increases the speed and ability to analyze legal research, there are still unresolved ethical and governance concerns that may result in decreased fairness, inclusivity, and diversity of interpretation in India’s legal system. Therefore, without ethical oversight or regulatory clarity, AI-based legal research databases could perpetuate the existing structural inequalities found in the justice system instead of creating equal access to legal information.
5. CONCLUSION
The research found that Manupatra has developed a notable junction between artificial intelligence (AI) and legal information systems within the backdrop of Indian legal research. The research also found that by incorporating AI-enhanced tools into its legal databases, Manupatra had vastly improved research speed, accuracy, and depth through the ability to perform contextual searching, intelligent case-linking, and structured navigation of large volumes of judicial and statutory material, which address many of the issues created by the rapid growth of legal information and limitations of traditional keyword-based research techniques.
The research also showed that the application of AI technology within legal research tools raises important issues that cannot be ignored. Among the central issues includes transparency of algorithms, disparity in access to proprietary information, and ethical governance; thus, it is clear that while AI-enhanced research tools can lead to more informed reasoning about the law, the opaque nature of their operations and concentration on subscription-based platforms has the potential to reinforce information inequality within the legal profession. In addition, relying on algorithmic rankings and recommendations has raised concerns regarding the neutrality of legal interpretation, marginalizing alternative judicial opinions, and the homogenisation of legal reasoning.
The findings of the research show how Manupatra has grown to indicate both the potential of artificial intelligence in legal research as well as the existing friction to using AI for legal research. AI has not only changed the way that legal research has been done from simply finding information to also interpreting and analyzing information, bei ng both a retrieval process as well as an interpretive and analytical process. However, the current lack of strong ethical safeguards and governance mechanisms around the use of AI may potentially undermine fundamental concepts of constitutional rights such as fairness, equality of access to justice, and pluralism. Therefore, the conclusion is that technological advancements alone are not enough; AI must also be developed in an ethical manner, maintained with accountability, and offer equal access to all users within the technology to accomplish their similar respective roles in providing justice.
Recommendations
Through the completion of the study on possible ethical and institutional foundations of Artificial Intelligence (AI) utilization within Legal Research Platforms, the following recommendations were made to enhance the establishment of ethical and institutional foundations for all types of legal research platforms enabled by AI technology.
The creation of “transparent” AI explanation mechanisms in all legal database systems will provide the user with an understanding of how their relevance rankings, recommendations, and trend analyses were developed so that they can utilize those results more effectively, while holding themselves accountable as professionals.
The establishment of regulatory frameworks governing ethical access to use of AI technology in legal databases was identified as a necessity. Clear and standard regulations defining what constitutes an appropriate method to mitigate bias, explain capabilities, & provide accountability will create a collective standard by which all companies supplying legal research platforms can operate, thereby limiting each company’s reliance upon self-regulatory discretion to provide those solutions.
The establishment of hybrid access models (i.e.: providing both fee-based and limited-fee access for public and academic users of AI technology through legal research platforms) would provide greater access for the general public and the academic community to legal information thereby removing some types of informational inequality.
The stakeholders recommended that efforts be made to educate legal professionals about how to use AI appropriately through both training programs and by integrating AI into the law school curricula. This will provide lawyers, judges, and law students the ability to evaluate AI tools in a critical way instead of uncritically relying upon those tools.
Lastly, periodic audits of AI algorithms were recommended to ensure that they are neutral, inclusive, and consistently aligned with constitutional values. Periodic evaluations will allow for bias to be identified and corrected, and will help maintain public confidence in AI-enabled legal research systems.
References
Ashley, K. D. (2019). Automatically extracting meaning from legal texts: Opportunities and challenges. Georgia State University Law Review, 35(4), 903–941.
Barocas, S., & Selbst, A. D. (2016). Big data’s disparate impact. California Law Review, 104(3), 671–732.
Berring, R. C. (1986). Full-text databases and legal research: Backing into the future. Berkeley Technology Law Journal, 1(1), 27–60.
Berring, R. C. (1987). Legal research and legal concepts: Where form molds substance. California Law Review, 75(1), 15–49.
Chandra, A. (2020). Legal analytics and access to justice in India: Promise and perils of technology. Indian Journal of Law and Technology, 16(1), 1–26.
Hellyer, P. (2005). Assessing the influence of computer-assisted legal research: A study of Westlaw and Lexis. Law Library Journal, 97(2), 185–204.
Tripathi, A. (2017). Digital legal research and legal education in India. Journal of Indian Law Institute, 59(3), 375–392.
Walters, E. (2019). The model rules of autonomous conduct: Ethical responsibilities of lawyers and artificial intelligence. Georgia State University Law Review, 35(4), 1073–1124.
Sayyed, A. Z., Patil, A. M., Patil, S. P., Sonawane, J. P., & Quazi, M. A. (2026). Physicochemical, Biological and Antibacterial Evaluation of Metal Oxide and Calcium Silicate Materials: A Comprehensive Review. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 11–31. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/2
Aarzoo Z. Sayyed1, Arun M. Patil1*, Sandip P. Patil2, Jaywant P. Sonawane3, Mahewash A. Quazi1
1Department of Physics, R. C. Patel Arts, Commerce and Science College, Shirpur-425405, India
2Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, R. C. Patel Arts, Commerce and Science College, Shirpur-425405, India
3Department of Chemistry, R. C. Patel Arts, Commerce and Science College, Shirpur-425405, India
Metal oxide and calcium silicate materials are largely utilized in the field of medicine and dentistry.
Some of the metals that are stable, bio-compatible, and antibacterial include zinc oxide (ZnO), titanium dioxide (TiO2) and magnesium oxide (MgO). These are utilized in bone skeleton, tooth drugs, and self-cleaning surfaces. Calcium silicate materials, tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate are bioactive materials are used in regenerating bone tissue, repairing tissue and in dental procedures.This review will integrate and comment on research available regarding physicochemical, biological, and antibacterial properties of these materials. Physicochemical properties including the structure, thermal stability, funniness, and surface area relevant to the physical behavior of materials. Unlike the case of biological tests, which focus on the cytotoxicity, proliferation and bioactivity of cells, antibacterial tests can demonstrate the activity of such materials in relation to destructive bacteria.It is also proved in the available literature that both, metal oxides, and calcium silicates have quite promising biological and antibacterial activities, the particularities of their mechanism may vary depending on the particles size, new synthesis methods, and chemical formulations. Despite this, missing links in the in vivo studies, long term, standard testing and multifunctional optimization, are not covered. Bioactivity and antibacterial efficacy have to be improved and considered in clinical terms in the future.
Metal oxides and calcium silicate materials have been granted extensive consideration over the recent years because of its uniqueness and number of usabilities. Metal oxides include zinc oxide (ZnO), titanium dioxide (TiO2) and magnesium oxide (MgO) and are chemically stable, biocompatible and antibacterial. The noted behaviors qualify it as usable in biomedical applications, environmental remediation and engineering materials. In biomedical applications, bioactive ceramics (calcium silicate compounds) such as tricalcium silicate (3CaOSiO2) and dicalcium silicate (2CaOSiO2) can be integrated (El Nahrawy et al., 2021). They are capable of offering bone and tissue repair as well as bone regeneration and are extensively applied in the US in oral applications as well as orthopedic applications.
These are multi-purpose materials since they have favorable physicochemical properties, including particle size, surface area, crystallinity, and heat stability. Apart from their biological and antibacterial property compatibility, it is very key to medical and dental efficacy and safety. This research may allow the research scholar and engineers to build materials that are robust and stable and promote healing and eliminate infection.
Applications
Bonescafs, orthopaedic devices, closure of wounds, transdermal devices,
Dentistry: tooth filling materials, restoration materials for teeth, tooth resin, sealants for teeth, tooth restoration systems.
Engineering Catalysts, sensors, coats of arms, environmental clean-up material.
Importance of Evaluation
The assessment of physicochemical and biological and antibacterial properties is an integral part of determining the yield of such materials.
Physicochemical analysis applies in the assessment of structure, composition, surface and stability (Fosca et al., 2023).
Biologic testing of materials provides protection for cells and tissue in that it aids in facilitating attachment of cells, proliferating, and differentiating.
An antibacterial test is run in order to determine if materials have infection prevention capabilities and is of great relevance to implants and dental applications.
Aim and Objectives of the Review
This literature review report endeavours to compile as much as possible of the work that is available on metal oxides and calcium silicate materials and their application pertaining to physicochemical, biological, and antibacterial characteristics. It will critically survey existing literature, spurred either by trends or defining major conclusions.
Objectives
To discuss the physicochemical characteristics of the material metals oxide such as the structural, surfaces, chemical, thermal and mechanical properties.
To analyze the biological performance of this type of materials, it will be necessary to concentrate on the biological performance playing such materials i.e., the biocompatibility and bioactivity and also interactions of the cell of tissues.
To study dynamic action and efficacy of metal oxides and calcium silicates as the antibacterials on the basis of available publications of laboratory and clinical studies.
To formulate the said gaps in the research and the direction to follow in creating the multi-functional properties as well as to determine the potential application in the medical field, field of dentistry with the aid of the field of tissue engineering.
Scope of the Review
Properties and classifications of metal oxides materials and calcium silicate.
Biological activity, such as cytotoxicity, cell adhesion and bioactivity. Antibacterial motions and actions against different types of bacteria.
Synthesis processes and their impact on materials.
Applications in clinical and industry, gaps in research and future perspective.
Figure 1:Schematic overview of metal oxide and calcium silicate applications in biomedical fields(Source:Al-Naymi et al., 2024)
2. Classification of Materials
Metal Oxides
Metal oxides are compounds of metal elements and oxygen. They are very stable, bioactive, and antibacterial compounds. The following are some of the major ones among them.
Zinc Oxide (ZnO):
It possesses excellent antibacterial activity, high stability, and is popularly applied in medical coatings, wound care, and dental materials (Jang et al., 2023). Due to the nanosized nature, it is capable of forming reactive oxygen species (ROS) that destroy bacteria.
Titanium Dioxide (TiO₂):
It is biocompatible and is often used in medical devices and dental applications. It is also photocatalytic, that is, it is light-reactive and leads to antibacterial activity.
Magnesium Oxide (MgO):
MgO is stable at temperatures and is safe for biological usage. It encourages bone growth and is studied as an alternative bone graft and scaffold enhancer.
Copper Oxide (CuO):
CuO is highly antibacterial. It is used as a coating as well as sensor material, but cytotoxicity at higher doses prevents direct medical application.
Calcium Silicate Materials
Calcium silicate compounds are bioactive ceramics with positive interactions with body tissue. They encourage attachment and restoration of bone and tooth (Janini et al., 2021).
Tricalcium Silicate (3CaO·SiO₂):
It is widely applied in root canal sealers and dental cements. It promotes bioactivity and hydroxyapatite formation when it comes into contact with body fluids and aids bone regeneration.
Dicalcium Silicate (2CaO·SiO₂):
Typical for a slower working setting reaction, it is bioactive as well and helps establish strong bonds with tissue.
Wollastonite
It is a natural calcium silicate and is very much biocompatible. The compound is normally introduced into bone tissue engineering as it supports growth and mineralization of cells.
Table 1:Comparison of Metal Oxides and Calcium Silicate Materials
Material
Chemical Formula
Crystal Structure
Key Property
Application
ZnO
ZnO
Hexagonal
Antibacterial, UV absorption
Bone scaffold, coatings
TiO₂
TiO₂
Rutile/Anatase
Photocatalytic, Biocompatible
Dental cement, coatings
MgO
MgO
Cubic
High thermal stability
Bone graft
Tricalcium Silicate
3CaO·SiO₂
Monoclinic
Bioactive, osteogenic
Cement, scaffolds
3. Physicochemical Properties
Structural Analysis (XRD, SEM, TEM)
Composition of materials is very important as it dictates the type of material as it is in application. The researchers are conversant with the application of the X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transaction electron microscopy (TEM) in its study.
The phase and crystal structure is also acquired by use of X-ray diffraction (XRD). For example, hexagonal wurtzite XRD pattern can generally be ZnO; and TiO2 rutile or anatase. The presence of either the monoclinic or the orthorhombic crystalline phase will be established in the presence of tricalcium silicate compounds such as tricalcium silicate. This will help determine level of material stability, and whether the material would retain the properties of the biological temperature.
When analyzing the surface morphology of the particles, one applies scan electron microscopy. It gives the data regarding the nature and the sizes of the crystals/grains (Jin and Jin, 2021). The calcium silicate would be porous and irregular when the zinc oxide nano -particles are spherical or rod shaped. The morphology is a factor that weighs a lot to check the reactivity of the surface or biological connection.
Next in line to electron microscopy is Repastephanou (1998) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) that gives us the images of the internal structure of such thing as patterns of lattices in very high resolution. It can now be tested together with TEM in order to discover the dimension of the a particles at the nano scale and rediscoveries which can now be made on the defects, crystallinity and grains. This is good as the enhanced activities and functions with regards to the antibacterial and biological portions are observed with tiny and shrunken measurement and size of the particles.
The likelihood of coming up with a complete set of description of what materials accumulate at the nano level and at the micro level also exists when all the three methods are employed.
Recovery.
Definitive definition of the nature interaction of the material to the exterior environment is made on the surface of the material e.g., the biological cells and fluids of the bacteria. Surface parameters best comprehended are the surface area, porosity, and hydrophilicity.
Surface area is crucial as increased surface area allows for increased exposure for cell, protein, and bacterial interactions. These ZnO and TiO₂ nanoparticles also possess very extensive surface areas and are hence superior in antibacterial activity and bioactivity. In a similar vein, porous calcium silicate materials possess an extensive surface on which apatite formation induces attachment with bone.
Porosity is defined as the existence of pores or tiny holes throughout the material. High porosity materials are capable of fluid penetration and ion exchange (Khan et al., 2023). In biomedical applications, porosity aids in cell migration and nutrient transport, a concern in tissue engineering. Interconnected porosity is specifically sought after in calcium silicates with future bone tissue development in mind.
The hydrophilicity is the ability of the material to attract water. Cell spreading as well as cell adhesion is increased with the hydrophilic surfaces because hydrophilic surfaces are closer to the natural biological environment. There are a variety of metal oxides that are hydrophilic, e.g., TiO₂, and surface treatments are applied in calcium silicate-based materials with the objective of increasing hydrophilicity.
Overall, the surface nature primarily decides the adhesiveness of such materials with tissue as well as the efficiency of such materials in antibacterial application.
Chemical Properties (Elemental Composition, Stability under pH and Temperature)
Chemical properties establish the constitution and the stability of materials. Scientists can employ energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) or inductively coupled plasma (ICP) techniques in order to establish the elemental composition.
Composition of elements ensures that the materials are chemically pure and are without harmful impurities. For example, ZnO needs to contain zinc and oxygen in definite proportions without other elements capable of causing toxicity.Similarly, calcium silicates need to contain calcium and silicon in definite proportions so as to maintain their bioactive potential. Stability against pH conditions is equally important. The body itself is weakly alkaline with pH near 7.4 but localized sites, e.g., infection sites or sites of wound, are acidic (Majeed et al., 2023). A stable material will not degrade too rapidly in acidic and alkaline conditions. Metal oxides, e.g., TiO₂, are highly stable against a very wide pH range, while calcium silicates degrade very slowly and give out calcium and silicate ions. This slow ion release is actually beneficial for bone and tissue regeneration.
Thermal stability of chemical nature is the degree it resists breakdown with increase of temperature. In biomedical application, the materials need to maintain their constitution while undergoing sterilization, usually a method of using high temperatures. The thermal stability of ZnO is up about 800°C and that of tricalcium silicate even higher.
In general, chemical stability and composition ensure materials are functional and safe in application usage.
Thermal and Mechanical Properties (Thermal Stability, Compressive Strength, Hardness)
Mechanical and thermal are quite basic physical characteristics needed for materials used in engineering, orthopedics, as well as in dentistry. They determine the toughness and strength of materials resisting pressure and changing temperatures.Thermal stability is defined as the capacity of the material not to experience breakdown upon increased temperatures. Both MgO and TiO₂, for instance, are attributed with very good thermal stability and hence are applied in operations such as processing and sterilization at increased temperatures. Calcium silicates are also attributed with very good thermal stability and hence applied in bone cements and bioactive coatings that require heat application while being prepared.
Compressive strength is a measure of the pressure it will withstand until it will fail. It is a desirable specification for orthopedic and dental materials required to bear body weight or chewing forces. Compressive strength is normally adequate for silicate cements, and it is maximized while the cement is setting up and maturing (Negrescu et al., 2022). Metal oxides used as fillers may provide added strength and durability. Hardness is one of the specifications undoubtedly indispensable and is quantified as the degree of resistance against scratch or indentation on the material. To enhance wear resistance, some of the natural hard minerals, e.g., TiO2 and ZnO are added to the composites. The components of the calcium silicate render the substance less tough and strong.They are developed to be stubborn to leave the body and to perform their work without being easily defamed.
It is due to the effect of physicochemical factors that the reaction of calcium silicate material and metal oxide materials to change in the environmental conditions occurs. Material physicochemical qualities depend on surface property, chemical stability, thermal and mechanical strength. Analytical methods including XRD, SEM, and TEM may investigate particle morphology inside and out. They respond to cells and bacteria based on surface area, porosity, and hydrophilicity. Safety and dependability depend on stability and chemical composition, whereas power and durability depend on mechanical and thermal factors.
With a study of all of these properties, researchers are capable of designing materials that are not merely hard and stable but are safe for biological usage and antibacterial performance. These are then highly sought after for medical, dental, and engineering purposes.
Figure 2:SEM/TEM images of ZnO nanoparticles and calcium silicate particles (Source: Algadi et al., 2025)
Table 2:Physicochemical properties of selected metal oxides and calcium silicate materials
Material
Particle Size (nm)
Surface Area (m²/g)
Porosity (%)
Thermal Stability (oC)
ZnO
50–100
25
15
800
TiO₂
20–50
50
10
900
MgO
30–60
40
12
1100
3CaO·SiO₂
100–200
30
20
1300
4. Biological Evaluation
Biocompatibility:
Biocompatibility is one of the conditions essential for every and all materials that are placed inside the human body. It simply means that the material is not required to be poisonous to the living cells or tissue with which it is in contact. For metal oxides such as zinc oxide (ZnO), titanium dioxide (TiO₂), and magnesium oxide (MgO) materials, a number of research have found that, in controlled concentrations, the materials are non-cytotoxic for the majority of mammalian cells. However, if the dose is excessive, some of them are capable of inducing cytotoxicity, e.g., retardation of cell growth or disruption of cell membranes. Researchers therefore extensively study the dose-dependent action of such materials.
Materials that contain calcium silicate, such as tricalcium silicate and dicalcium silicate, are normally very biocompatible (Mokhtar et al., 2023). This is because the materials have the capability of releasing calcium ions, which are endogenous in the human body and are needed in many biological functions. The ions improve cell survival and encourage healing. Hemocompatibility is also an integral part of biocompatibility. It is the property where the material should not kill the cells in the blood nor develop problems in clotting after exposing it to the blood. It is clear that calcium silicate cement and properly prepared metal oxides are normally very hemocompatible and are thus safe for usage in medicine and dental fields.
Bioactivity: Capacity for Apatite Formation
Bioactivity is the ability of a material to interact favorably with biological systems. The development of a hydroxyapatite layer on the surface after immersion in body-like fluids is one of the better indicators of bioactivity. Hydroxyapatite is the mineral that constitutes most of human bone and tooth. Tricalcium silicate and wollastonite are materials that form apatite crystals after contact with body fluids. It is an indication that the material is capable of binding strongly with tissue near it after implantation inside the body.Metal oxides are also bioactive, although with a somewhat different mechanism (Salem et al., 2022). For example, ZnO nanoparticles can stimulate the formation of mineralized tissue through the release of zinc ions, and zinc ions have very crucial roles in bone metabolism. Titanium dioxide is also very bioactive as it readily produces a bioactive surface layer and stimulates bone growth.
Osteogenic potential is the ability of a material to induce bone-forming cells (osteoblasts) and enable them to grow and divide and also deposit bone tissue. Osteogenic potential is highly established in calcium silicate cements. They are capable of releasing calcium ions, and the calcium ions induce osteoblastic activity and stimulate new bone formation. Titanium-bearing metal oxides are also widely used in orthopedic and dental applications as they are capable of bone regeneration.
Cell-Material Interaction: Adhesion, Prol
In order to work effectively within the body, the biomaterial must allow cells to adhere on the surface and respond positively to it. This is cell adhesion. After cells adhere, they must proliferate, i.e., divide and spread out across the surface of the material. Finally, cells must differentiate, i.e., develop their specialty functions like bone-forming cells, connective tissue cells, and so on, based on the application.
Metal oxides like TiO₂ are very good substrates for cell attachment. The rough and hydrophilic nature of TiO₂ promotes fast attachment of cells.In addition, calcium silicate materials promote secure attachment as a result of forming calcium and silicon ions with cell-signaling potential (Sharifi et al., 2024).Cells multiply well on calcium silicate cement, according to studies. Magnesium is essential for cell metabolism, and MgO and other metal oxides accelerate cell growth. In addition, differentiation is important for tissue rejuvenation. Stem cells exposed to calcium silicate materials become osteoblasts. This illustrates that method. Bone tissue engineering benefits greatly from this.
Animal Studies: Preclinical Implantation Results
Any new biomaterial intended for human implant is initially tested on animals to assure a positive response. Preclinical testing is crucial because it uses biological circumstances that are hard to replicate in a tissue culture dish.The use of metal oxides and final test in calcium silicates has been quite promising. Assuming that of much of the animals, such as dogs, rabbits, Titanium dioxide-covered material or substance can implant on that bone in a highly wonderful way and influence the tissue even without the undesirable reaction. In the same case, ZnO nanoparticles incorporated into dressing materials for wounds have been seen in animals as having rapid closure of wounds and reduced infection rates (Simila & Boccaccini, 2023). It is therefore suggested that metal oxides can serve as structural as well as antibacterial materials that promote healing.
Calcium silicate materials, after implantation inside bone defects of animals such as sheep, rabbits, and rats, have demonstrated strong bone regeneration. They not only filled and repaired the defects but also integrated adhesively with host bone tissue. Various research showcased that calcium silicate cements encouraged new blood vessels (angiogenesis) as much as required for long-term repair. Results of the in vivo studies confirm that metal oxides and calcium silicate materials are safe, effective, and promising materials for potential application in the field of medicine, dentistry, and tissue engineering. These materials demonstrate very good biological compatibility, promote healing, and suppress infection. However, there is a need for extended studies on their long-term performance and potential toxicity before scale-up application in human subjects.
Figure 3:Illustration of cell adhesion and proliferation on metal oxide and calcium silicate surfaces(Source: Chang et al., 2022)
Table 3:Biological evaluation summary
Material
Cytotoxicity (IC50)
Bioactivity Score
Cell Adhesion
In Vivo Results
ZnO
80 μg/mL
High
Good
Positive bone integration
TiO₂
>100 μg/mL
Moderate
Excellent
Minimal inflammation
MgO
60 μg/mL
Moderate
Moderate
Partial osteogenesis
3CaO·SiO₂
50 μg/mL
High
Excellent
Strong bone regeneration
5. Antibacterial Evaluation
Mechanisms: ROS Generation, Membrane Disruption, Ion Release
Antibacterial action of biomedical materials is very important as it avoids infection upon placement of materials in the body. Metal oxides and calcium silicate materials kill or slow down the development of bacteria through certain primary mechanisms. Among the most common ones is the formation of reactive oxygen molecules (ROS). ROS are very reactive molecules, including hydroxyl and superoxide ions that are able to kill the protein, lipids, and DNA of bacteria (Al-Naymi et al., 2024). For example, ZnO and TiO₂ are highly described in the literature as forming ROS upon irradiation with light, killing the cells of bacteria.
Disruption of the membrane is another mechanism. Most metal oxide nanoparticles have charged surfaces and are able to adhere to the negatively charged bacterial cell walls. It disrupts the functioning of the bacterial membrane, forms holes, and leads to cell material leakage and subsequent cell death.
The third action is the liberation of ions. When metal oxides like ZnO or calcium silicates are brought into a moist atmosphere, they are liberated as ions in the forms of Zn²⁺, Ca²⁺, and Si⁴⁺. These ions disrupt the normal metabolism of the bacteria, prevent their enzyme activity, and do not allow them to divide. The calcium ions also increase the pH of the medium around the material and create an unfavorable environment for the survival of the bacteria. These combined roles make metal oxides and calcium silicate materials perfect antibacterial materials.
Tests: Agar Diffusion, MIC, Biofilm
To determine antibacterial activity, researchers utilize a variety of common lab assays. Perhaps the oldest and simplest is the agar diffusion test. The test is carried out by culturing the bacteria on an agar plate and placing the test compound on top. The compound will grow a clear zone around it if it is capable of antibacterial activity and there will be an absence of bacterial growth. The size of the zone is a measure of the effectiveness of the compound.
The other notable test is the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) test. It measures the lowest amount of substance (or ions released) that is able to prevent growth in bacteria. It is a better indicator than agar diffusion and is valuable in comparing materials with differing strength. Inhibition testing of biofilm is no less important (Algadi et al., 2025). Biofilms are aggregates of bacteria that stick to each other and form a protective film over the surface, enhancing resistance against antibiotics. The majority of medical and dental infections are caused by biofilms. They have also been proven very capable of preventing the formation of biofilms or breaking down formed biofilms, a significant plus factor in clinical usage.
Comparative Analysis Between Metal Oxides and Calcium Silicate
Both metal oxides and calcium silicate materials are very antibacterial, but both mechanisms and advantages are somewhat different. Metal oxides such as ZnO, TiO₂, and CuO are very capable of forming ROS and killing the bacteria directly. They are very powerful against a wide range of bacteria, even resistant ones. However, at very concentrated levels, some metal oxides might be cytotoxic against human cells, so careful control of dose is necessitated.
In contrast, calcium silicate materials are antibacterial as well as highly bioactive and biocompatible. Ion release and vigorous alkalinity are their major antibacterial activity. An undesirable growth condition for the bacteria is established as an outcome (Chang et al., 2022). Compared with metal oxides, the materials are less poisonous to human cells while improving tissue healing as an added benefit.
In layman’s terms, metal oxides are highly lethal materials with very strict control requirements, whereas calcium silicates are weak but very effective long-term materials as they trigger antibacterial activity and encourage bone and tissue growth. For the majority of biomedical applications, researchers are now looking at combinations of metal oxides with calcium silicate cements in an attempt to achieve the best of both worlds: strong antibacterial activity with very good tissue compatibility.
Figure 4:Antibacterial mechanism schematic (ROS generation and bacterial membrane damage)Source: (Chaudhari et al., 2022)
Table 4:Antibacterial activity against common bacteria
Material
Gram-Positive Bacteria
Gram-Negative Bacteria
MIC (μg/mL)
Biofilm Inhibition (%)
ZnO
S. aureus– High
E. coli– Moderate
50
75
TiO₂
S. aureus– Moderate
E. coli– Low
100
50
MgO
S. aureus– Low
E. coli– Low
80
40
3CaO·SiO₂
S. aureus– Moderate
E. coli– Low
60
60
6. Synthesis Methods and Influence
The fabrication method of metal oxides and calcium silicate materials vastly contributes final properties, and there are quite popular techniques of synthesis such as sol-gel, hydrothermal, co-precipitation, and solid-state reaction. Sol-gel is a popular technique due to very accurate control over particle size along with very uniform and nano-scale powders with greater surface area, improving bioactivity and antibacterial activity. Hydrothermal technique utilizes higher pressure and temperature with closed conditions in order to grow crystals with greater purity and controlled morphologies and frequently ends up with needle-shaped or rod-shaped particles improving cell attachment and reactivity across the surface. The co-precipitation technique is a facile and cost-effective one, where differing ions are co-precipitated at the same time from a medium, and it is advantageous in the scenario of large-scale fabrication of the material, but sometimes the final product might be less uniform unless very much controlled. In the case of the solid-state technique, the powders are blended and sintered at higher temperatures in an attempt to achieve the desired material and while one of the most stable and uncomplicated compound-producing methods, product particle size is relatively large with less surface area compared to the sol-gel and hydrothermal technique.
Each of these methods affects particle size, shape, and crystallinity, which are crucial for biological applications. Smaller particles with increased surface area spread ions better, making them more powerful against germs. Controlling crystallinity stabilizes biological environments. Morphological differences like rods and spheres affect the cell’s shape and interaction with the bacterium. Adjusting temperature, pH, reaction time, and adding magnesium, zinc, and silver ions optimizes results. These ensure the best mechanical strength, bioactivity, and antibacterial qualities in manufactured materials. Silver ions can be added to calcium silicate to make it more antibacterial without affecting its biomaterial characteristics. Altering pH during sol-gel synthesis produces stable nanoparticles that form apatite better. Selecting the best material synthesis process and carefully controlling reaction conditions are the best ways to create stable, durable, bioactive, and microorganism-resistant materials. This makes them ideal for advanced medical, dental, and tissue engineering applications.
Figure 5:Flow diagram of different synthesis methods and their influence on material properties (Source: Ebenezer et al., 2025)
7. Applications
Metal oxides and calcium silicate materials have been subject to extensive research due to the potential number of applications, specifically biomedical application. They are regularly integrated in bone scaffolds as they encourage bone growth, strengthen, and adhere with host tissue. In dental cements, calcium silicate is highly desirable as it unleashes calcium ions that encourage tooth restoration, sealing, and long-term stability. These materials are also being studied for medicinal delivery systems. Because of their porosity, they can store and release drugs gradually at treatment sites, improving efficacy. Tissue engineering experts believe that metal oxides and calcium silicates heal wounded tissues best. These materials allow cells to proliferate, attach, and differentiate due to their surfaces (Ebenezer et al., 2020). Antibacterial coatings for implanted medical devices and wound dressings are also made from them. They produce reactive oxygen species and release ions to kill harmful germs and prevent infections. They are used in catalysis to speed chemical reactions and sensors since their surface is more reactive to their surroundings outside of medicine. Their chemical stability, germ-killing capabilities, and bioactivity make them valuable materials for pharmaceuticals, dental care, and technology.
8. Research gaps and problems
Calcium silicate and metal oxide research has been promising. However, numerous major issues must be addressed before this may be fully implemented in clinical settings. Many studies currently show intriguing antibacterial, bioactive, and cell compatibility. Short-term lab trials showed all of these. A much smaller number show long-term consequences in live organisms. Long-term research is valuable because it can show whether a substance can maintain stability, retain its antibacterial properties, and benefit tissue without side effects. Testing methods are also inconsistent. It is difficult to draw conclusions because different study groups may utilize different methods to test for bioactivity, cytotoxicity, or antibacterial potential. Ebenezer et al. (2025) found that standards would improve findings and allow them to be used in real medicine. Increasing materials’ multifunctionality is also important to preserve bioactivity and antibacterial efficacy. You must remember that increasing antibacterial characteristics can decrease biocompatibility while choosing the optimum blend. To better therapeutic use, more work is needed to develop secure, sturdy, multifunctional materials.
9. Future Research
Future study on metal oxides and calcium silicates may focus on mixed or doped materials. Doping with small amounts of silver, zinc, magnesium, or copper boosts antibacterial activity while retaining biocompatibility. Doped or hybrid materials allow you to regulate particle size, surface charge, and ion release, as well as their internal effects. Physicochemical and biological improvement is the second method (El Nahrawy et al., 2021). This boosts the surface material’s strength, stability, and performance while promoting cell growth, bone mending, and infection prevention. Balance is maintained through synthesis chemistry and mix fine-tuning.Third, clinical translation of the materials is being executed. Preclinical work completed in the lab and animals is very promising but additions of clinical trials and safety determinations must be performed before it is used extensively throughout patients. In case such challenges are overcome, hybrid and multifunctional versions of the materials may have a very large application base in dentistry, orthopedics, wound care, and other clinical applications.
10. Conclusion
Metal oxides and calcium silicate materials have certain properties that are biologically active and antimicrobial in nature. They are thus used in biomedical applications.
Particle sizes are controlled. They are of huge surface area, with favorable crystallinity, and thermal and mechanical stability ensure resistivity. They are biocompatible, support attachment and harbor cell growth, differentiation and induce bone and tissue regeneration. In consideration of study, there exist some agents that kill or prevent breeding of bacteria through the formation of reactive oxygen molecules, pinching of cell membrane and ion releasing. Metal oxides of ZnO, TiO₂ and CuO are more efficacious antimicrobial. However, efficacy is reserved with appropriate dosing as elevated level of concentration leads to cytotoxicity. Conversely, bioactive and biocompatible silicates such as tricalcium silicate or wollastonite are better. Additionally, they exhibit an antibacterial activity via ion releasing and alkalinity. Furthermore, the other two appear to rebuild tissue. In spite of exemplary profiles, study gaps remain. They are long-term studies carried out in vivo and protocols capable of being classified as standardized. We also should develop metamaterials and such should possess best-possible bioactivity and ultimate antibacterial activity. We need future research work including next-generation hybrid or doped materials that harbor physicochemical and biological optimisation amenable for safe and efficacious clinical translation into medicine, dentistry and tissue engineering applications.
References
Al-Naymi, H.A.S., Al-Musawi, M.H., Mirhaj, M., Valizadeh, H., Momeni, A., Pajooh, A.M.D., Shahriari-Khalaji, M., Sharifianjazi, F., Tavamaishvili, K., Kazemi, N. and Salehi, S., 2024. Exploring nanobioceramics in wound healing as effective and economical alternatives. Heliyon, 10(19).https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(24)14528-8.
Algadi, H., Alhoot, M.A. and Yaaqoob, L.A., 2025. Systematic review of antibacterial potential in calcium oxide and silicon oxide nanoparticles for clinical and environmental infection control. Journal of Applied Biomedicine, 23(1).http://jab.zsf.jcu.cz/pdfs/jab/2025/01/01.pdf.
Chang, S.W., Gaudin, A., Tolar, M., Oh, S., Moon, S.Y. and Peters, O.A., 2022. Physicochemical and biological properties of four calcium silicate-based endodontic cements. Journal of Dental Sciences, 17(4), pp.1586-1594.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1991790222000630.
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Jang, Y.J., Kim, Y.J., Vu, H.T., Park, J.H., Shin, S.J., Dashnyam, K., Knowles, J.C., Lee, H.H., Jun, S.K., Han, M.R. and Lee, J.H., 2023. Physicochemical, biological, and antibacterial properties of four bioactive calcium silicate-based cements. Pharmaceutics, 15(6), p.1701.https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4923/15/6/1701.
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) in a 2:1 stoichiometric ratio, leading to a rapid color change from yellow to aqua, with significant shifts in absorbance spectra. The receptors R1 and R2 offered several advantages for carbonate ion detection, including simple synthesis via Schiff base condensation reaction, high selectivity over other competing ions in aqueous DMSO:H2O (9:1 v/v), and practical application using test strips. Therefore, receptors R1 and R2 served as simple and cost-effective chemosensors for detecting carbonate ions in aqueous DMSO: H2O (9:1 v/v). Additionally, density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT) studies supported the experimental data and proposed sensing mechanism.18
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