Botanical Extracts Used Against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst): A Comprehensive Comparative Review up to 2025

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Ravindra N More1, Yuvraj M Bhosale2

1,2PG Department of Zoology, NYNC ACS College, Chalisgaon, Jalgaon 424101 (MH)

Email ID- dryuvrajb0807@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), is one of the most destructive cosmopolitan pests of stored grains and processed food products. Its remarkable adaptability, rapid life cycle, and increasing resistance to synthetic fumigants, such as phosphine, have intensified the search for safer and more sustainable alternatives. Botanical extracts, derived from plants rich in bioactive secondary metabolites, have shown promise as environmentally benign methods for controlling pests in stored products. This study offers a thorough, theoretical, and comparative synthesis of plant-derived chemicals, essential oils, and botanical extracts tested against T. castaneum until 2025. The modes of action, effectiveness comparisons, formulation advancements, possibilities for resistance management, and future research goals are highlighted.

To provide a cohesive framework for the logical development of plant-based pesticides for post-harvest protection, this review combines classical and modern literature.

KEYWORDS: Botanical insecticides, Essential oils, Tribolium castaneum, Phytochemicals, Sustainable pest management.

INTRODUCTION

Insects that infest stored products consistently endanger global food security, with Tribolium castaneum being one of the most economically important species because of its capacity to invade flour, cereals, and processed foods (Sokoloff 1974; Campbell and Arbogast 2004). Traditional control methods have relied significantly on chemical fumigants and long-lasting insecticides. Nonetheless, concerns about the environment, food safety problems, and the swift development of resistance, especially to phosphine, have diminished their lasting effectiveness (Coats, 1994; Nayak et al., 2020).

In this context, botanical extracts have received renewed scientific interest. Plants, which have been traditionally employed as grain protectants, possess a wide variety of secondary metabolites that are developed for their defense against herbivores (Fraenkel, 1959; Golob & Webley, 1980; Wink, 2012). Contemporary analytical methods and bioassays have facilitated a thorough assessment of these plants against T. castaneum, uncovering various insecticidal, repellent, antifeedant, and growth-regulating effects (Isman, 2006; Regnault-Roger et al., 2012).

MATERIAL AND METHODS-

  • Biology and Pest Status of Tribolium castaneum

Understanding the biology of T. castaneum is fundamental for evaluating botanical control strategies. The beetle thrives in warm and dry storage conditions and completes multiple generations annually, leading to exponential population growth (Sokoloff, 1974). Both larvae and adult insects can cause quantitative and qualitative losses in food products. They contribute to contamination through the presence of frass (insect droppings), secretions, and allergens (Phillips and Throne, 2010).

Its physiological plasticity and detoxification enzyme systems contribute significantly to insecticide resistance during development (Campbell & Arbogast, 2004; Nayak et al., 2020). These characteristics make T. castaneum an ideal model organism for testing alternative pest control agents, including botanicals with multitarget modes of action.

  • Rationale for Botanical Extracts in Stored-Product Protection

Botanical insecticides offer several advantages over synthetic chemicals, including biodegradability, reduced nontarget toxicity, and a lower risk of resistance development (Isman, 2008; Benelli et al., 2016). Plant-derived compounds often act on multiple physiological pathways, such as neuroreceptors, metabolic enzymes, and hormonal systems, making insect adaptation more difficult (Enan, 2001; Pavela, 2015).

Moreover, many botanicals are locally available and culturally accepted, aligning well with sustainable agriculture and integrated pest management (IPM) frameworks (Dubey et al., 2010; Dubey et al., 2011).

  • Essential Oils as Fumigants and Contact Toxicants

Essential oils represent one of the most extensively studied botanical groups for the control of T. castaneum. Rich in monoterpenoids and phenylpropanoids, these volatile compounds exhibit strong fumigant toxicity, often comparable to synthetic fumigants in laboratory conditions (Lee et al., 2003; Chaubey, 2012).

Mechanistically, essential oils disrupt neural transmission by interacting with octopaminergic receptors and ion channels, leading to paralysis and death (Enan, 2001; Bakkali et al., 2008). Studies have demonstrated high mortality and repellency using oils from Artemisia, Thapsia, and other aromatic plants (Negahban et al., 2007; Salem et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024).

  • Plant Powders and Crude Extracts

In addition to essential oils, crude plant powders and solvent extracts have demonstrated significant efficacy against T. castaneum. The leaf and seed powders of Aphanamixis polystachya reduced adult survival and progeny emergence in stored wheat, highlighting the practicality of low-technology applications (Ahmad et al., 2019).

Crude extracts often contain synergistic mixtures of alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and saponins, which collectively impair feeding, digestion, and reproduction (Harborne, 1998; Wink, 2012). Such complexity may enhance durability against the development of resistance.

  • Saponins and Antinutritional Compounds

The capacity of saponin-rich extracts to damage membranes has drawn attention. Recent studies on Chenopodium quinoa have demonstrated notable insecticidal and antinutritional effects on T. castaneum, linked to midgut injury and digestive enzyme inhibition (El-Sheikh, 2025; Francis et al., 2002).

  • Neem and Classical Botanical Insecticides

Neem (Azadirachta indica) is a benchmark botanical insecticide owing to its broad-spectrum activity and well-characterized mode of action (Schmutterer, 1990). Azadirachtin disrupts molting, reproduction, and feeding behavior in T. castaneum, making it particularly valuable for population suppression rather than rapid knockdown (Isman 2006).

  • Nano Formulations and Technological Advances

Recent advances in nanotechnology have revitalized the research on botanical insecticides. Nanoencapsulation enhances stability, solubility, and controlled release of plant-derived compounds, addressing volatility and degradation issues (Kah et al., 2013).

Although still emerging, nano-formulated botanicals show promises for improving the consistency and scalability of plant-based control strategies against T. castaneum.

  • Comparative Efficacy and Resistance Management

Comparative studies consistently show that while individual botanicals may vary in potency, their multi-site modes of action offer strategic advantages over single-target synthetic insecticides (Pavela & Benelli, 2016; Regnault-Roger et al., 2012).

Importantly, botanicals may play a critical role in resistance management by reducing the selection pressure when integrated with conventional methods (Nayak et al., 2020; Phillips & Throne, 2010).

  • Environmental and Safety Considerations

Botanical insecticides are generally regarded as safer for non-target organisms and consumers, although rigorous toxicological evaluations remain essential (Coats, 1994; Isman, 2020). Their rapid degradation minimizes environmental persistence, which aligns with sustainability goals.

  • Challenges and Future Perspectives

Despite encouraging laboratory findings, challenges such as field validation, standardization, and regulatory acceptance persist (Isman & Grieneisen, 2014; Benelli et al., 2016). Future studies should emphasize formulation science, synergistic mixtures, and practical storage conditions.

CONCLUSION

Botanical extracts are a scientifically valid and eco-friendly option for controlling Tribolium castaneum. Utilizing both conventional wisdom and contemporary studies, these plant-derived solutions provide multifunctional roles, minimize the risk of resistance, and align with sustainable pest control systems. Ongoing interdisciplinary studies are crucial for converting their potential into functional and scalable applications.

Table: Representative botanical extracts evaluated against Tribolium castaneum.

Azadirachta indica (Neem)SeedsAzadirachtin extractGrowth inhibition, reduced fecundityEcdysone disruptionSchmutterer (1990); Isman (2006)
Artemisia sieberi (D. Wormwood)Aerial partsEssential oilHigh fumigant mortalityNeurotoxicityNegahban et al.(2007)
Thapsia garganica (D. Carrots)SeedsEssential oilStrong contact & fumigant toxicityAChE inhibitionSalem et al.(2023)
Chenopodium quinoa (Rajgira)SeedsSaponin-rich extractDigestive inhibitionMembrane disruptionEl-Sheikh (2025)
Aphanamixis polystachya (Pithraj Tree)Leaves & seedsPowderReduced progenyAntifeedantAhmad et al.(2019)

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Plant-derived resources → Extraction (powders, crude extracts, essential oils, nano formulations) → Bioactive phytochemicals (terpenoids, alkaloids, saponins, phenolics) → Multiple physiological targets (nervous system, digestion, reproduction) → Mortality, repellency, population suppression of Tribolium castaneum → Sustainable and residue-safe stored-product protection.

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