Dr. Varsha Wamanrao Suryawanshi

Assistant Professor

Department of English

Sharda Mahavidyalaya, Parbhani. (MS)

Suryawanshi.varsha4@gmail.com

Abstract:

The present research paper discusses the play Harvest (1997) by Manjula Padmanabhan. In spite of its futuristic cast, the play focuses on postmodern urban spaces and its control on everyday life. The play portrays the self-devastating anguish of people who are stressed to live on in the fast-paced surroundings of a modern city. It depicts the economic anxiety of the marginalized deprived by asking them to sell their organs for a profit to the rich people. The play takes advantage of the policy of ‘futurization’ to tell the story of contemporary reality in an indirect way, as it is a work of ‘science fiction’. The situation of the helpless people of a developing country is depicted in the story. In the futuristic city, we see the new lifestyle of urban India: an aimless search for ‘equipment’, a general dependency on TV, and an addiction to modern props. In addition to these topics, Padmanabhan in addition highlights the troubles shaped by overpopulation in urban areas as she mentions organ trade, prison-like living circumstances, parents’ favouritism toward employed children, and women’s plight. The play Harvest explores not merely the postcolonial circumstances but also the process of neo-colonization. It sheds light on overseas procurers’ influence over third-world organ donors. The writer thus expresses subaltern survival of city dweller who is subjected to scarcity and manipulation in order to survive. In this game, the city is a separate entity. It initially fascinates the individual, but it eventually deceives them in its malicious spirals.

Keywords: Utopia, Dystopia, Postmodern, Urban, Neo-colonial.

Introduction:

Cities serve up as a space contractor for shelter, luxury, desire for a home, nostalgia, vision, fantasies, myth, fear, crime, estrangement, attraction, disease, dishonesty, excitement, disorder and menace to the socio-political, spiritual, and financial systems. Poets, dramatists, fiction and non-fiction writers, explicit novelists, voyage writers, and other documentarians commencing India began to center on two different aspects as innermost to the recognition of urban literature, where the position and collision of cities had began to be vibrantly portrayed and predictable. However, it should be renowned that certain cities in India be present mainly as an effect of their spiritual congregations and those celebrated Indian epics such as The Mahabharata and The Ramayana can be seen to attribute socio-cultural and sacred bases that are occasionally chronological, but frequently mythological re-imagined.

The play Harvest by Manjula Padmanabhan is set in the future, but it shows the horrible enforcement depression of individuals need wealth to survive in today’s challenging urban surroundings. The drama depicts the compulsion with which underprivileged people trade their organs. It presents a bleak future for deprived, immobilized people in developing nations. The play takes place to Bombay in 2010 AD while the trade of human organs is a recurrent practice. The play emphasizes on the suburbanites’ mingled esteem and dread of their method of life, as well as their rising fascination with electronic gadget. The organ donors, who were chiefly single-room occupants in a overcrowded Indian metropolis, trade their body parts to rich persons through worldwide approved and permitted agents. They mistake wealth for happiness because they lack fundamental human necessities.

A sense of importance and imminent though Padmanabhan has utilized as a innovative liberty to portray the deprivation practiced by deprived city dwellers in the twenty-first century, it is distinguish that she came up by way of the thought for Harvest through a meeting with her sister in Madras in early on 1995, when she was acquainted with the atrocious actuality of the trade-in of human organs while taking a morning walk around the town. In her article “The Story of Harvest” (1998), Padmanabhan describes how she observed numerous men in dress gowns and sterilized maw masks on a holiday to her sister in Madras in early 1995, which inspired her to write this piece. When she enquired further, she was already informed that they were deprived Tamil Nadu villagers recovering from kidney transplant operations. Later news items on the thriving organ trade inspired her to write about a frantic pursuit for immortality through cannibalism the corpses of the young and needy. Dystopia in the City on the surface, the drama is all about Om Prakash, he mislaid his job and lives with his family in a one-bedroom residence. He chooses to trade indefinite organs to a prosperous American woman named Ginni through a corporation called Inter Planta Services in order to obtain cash and soothe for his relatives. Inter Planta and the earpiece are worried with Om’s health and, as a consequence, have complete control over Om, his mother, and his wife Jaya’s lives in their one-room residence. Ginni, the beneficiary, checks in on them through videophone on a regular basis and act with them with contempt. Om’s sick brother Jeetu is first transported to contribute organs in place of Om, and then Om volunteers to see Ginni, who is portrayed as a seductive white woman. Ginni ultimately reveals herself to be somebody than what she was thought to be. Ginni is revealed to be Virgil, an elderly man in poor health.

The play’s underlying premise is rich in significance and depth, and it serves as a parable for the current socio-economic situation in third-world nations, particularly India, where organ selling is a familiar owing to increasing require for donated organs, elevated financial productivity, and unimpeded trafficking. Every recorded example of illicit body part harvesting and sale is motivated by profit, with little or no protection for victims of those whose bodies have sold as solitary portion at a time. Padmanabhan eloquently depicts the apathetic character of city inhabitants. All convicts have deceived family unit members and or lovers, and perhaps more importantly, they have violated their kindness, in their empty desire for riches, the instant inmate began achieving the console and the fake promises of alteration. Even their own blood Jeetu was overlooked by the mother and son Om. Om and Jeetu have a striking resemblance, as depicted by the dramatist. Om signed a contract with InterPlanta to make his body a commodity on the international market, whereas Jeetu in the present play is a prostitute who is selling his body for sexual enjoyment. As an effect, both guys were busy in the similar action.

Manjula Padmanabhan addresses the association among sexuality and cultural dissimilarity at the end of this soul-stirring narrative, addressing the oriental representation of alien, sexually attractive; so far possibly hazardous ‘Other’ that is unmoving prevalent in western discourse. Yet in the desire for Utopia by people from the Third State, the play implies that supposed Utopian world, where everyone shares the similar place with identical human rights, is difficult to achieve. Harvest speculate on the bumpy prepositions public by western cultures and third-world countries, as societal differences such as race, class, and colors are flattering less relevant than physical resemblance and adaptation. When the body is reduced to its functional organs, it becomes a wonderful leveler. In the play, the body becomes a contestation space wherever the colonial theater unfolds.

When we consider the title of the play Harvest, we can observe that the sound has a romantic connotation, as it is connected with affluence, abundance, profusion, the age of enlargement, and springy in many cultures. Not only that, but it is always associated with a spiritual entity that represents mother nature’s blessing, whether it be Maa Annapurna from Hindu mythology, Demeter from Greek mythology, or Ceres from Roman mythology. However, the play has taken a significant step forward in language growth, demonstrating the usage of ancient terminology in new but harmful ways. Organs are being harvested here. This is also indicative of the overpopulation problem in third-world countries. In the uber-medical environment, where bodily organs exercise power and money, the drama reverberates the idea of cannibalism of the body. So, in order to conceal the wicked act of neo-cannibalism in a contemporary urban environment, the word cannibalism is replaced with the distant added optimistic expression Harvest. Harvest’s science fiction rudiments, while important to the play’s tightly organized description, are kept mainly inside the confines of late twentieth century reality, ensuring the outlook shown is plausible.

Cultures’ human being and substance capital is exemplified by Padmanabhan’s take on the matter. Harvest’s macabre trade resembles its imperial forerunners in this regard, the trans-Atlantic slave trade, which proverb millions of colored bodies bought, sold, and traded for the advantage of European mercantile expansionism. The current trade in organs is situated within a range of unequal cross-cultural linkages due to these resonances between previous and present forms of the human body and or body part trafficking. The historical analogies are strengthened by the fact that IP services also manage a worldwide sexual market, which includes trade in exotic infants. F. the Play’s Postmodern Approach Harvest might thus be understood as a warning story concerning the potential (mis)uses of modern medical and reproductive research, as well as an indication on the financial and communal legacies of western imperialism, particularly when they interconnect with latest technologies. Padmanabhan uses the constantly fraught metaphor of cannibalism to distil some of the moral dilemmas presented by organ commerce with deft sarcasm. Om’s insult that Jeetu has been transferred to a human game reserve where the wealthy hunt socially disadvantaged people effectively prefigure cannibalism’s connotative reach such that it now refers to traits of developed rather than savage nations. Sofar as it is aggravated by a fable of renaissance—the reinstatement of infancy and completeness—the western cannibalism of third-world bodies in harvest has a ritualistic element. When Jeetu’s organs were transplanted into Ginni/Virgil, it’s not just a medicinal operation; metaphorical ‘money’ as well flows from the youthful, insolvent, and gorgeous to the old, wealthy, and hideous.

At other stage, the play’s indictment of a dehumanized Indian culture, which is depicted in microcosm through the vicious conflicts within the Prakash family, is heightened by the cannibalism metaphor. Harvest’s story also uses disease as a metaphor for the moral evils of a civilization driven by greed and self-interest to the point that a lucrative trade in body parts has become the norm. The sickness metaphor, on the other hand, works in a complicated way. It’s possible that the dirty world outside the sanitized Prakash housing unit is preferable to the sterile environment in which Om, Ma, and Jaya will be compelled to reside once their Interplanta contract kicks in.Jeetu’s presence precipitates a breakdown in the fragile connection between Donors and Receivers when he enters the unit covered in muck and grime and weeping sores: because he epitomizes the possibility of infection, he disturbs the tightly regulated Receiver world’s power and authority. As she lovingly treats Jeetu’s wounds, Jaya’s revolt against her cruel family and the demands of the system in which they have gotten engaged creates one of the play’s few sympathetic moments. Padmanabhan addresses the relationship between sexuality and cultural difference at the end of this unsettling narrative, addressing the concept of the exotic, sexually attractive, but potentially dangerous other that still exists in western discourse.

Jaya refuses to be a social gathering to a contract that efficiently puts Virgil in manages of her sexuality, just alike she had formerly rejected to repress her sexual requirements by playing the sedate wife of Om. As an effect, Jaya’s order that Virgil meets her in person before she considers his proposal serves as a broader challenge to Western civilizations to set aside harmful stereotypes and compulsive uncertainties of contagion in order to interact with other cultures on a more equal and respectful basis. From a postcolonial viewpoint, the play raises a significant question about the characters’ battle with choice. In this situation, their identities as deprived third-world people drive them to do desperate decisions. In both public and political discourse, it is critical to study the formation of both manliness and femaleness in the expression of cultural and national identity. This raises the question of what happens to men, male bodies, and masculinity notions in the postcolonial public sphere’s discursive articulation of nationalism. It’s also worth noting how male bodies were depicted and refashioned in the wake of postcolonial nationalism’s formation of contestation. Both the male characters Om and Jeetu are in a circumstance where their masculinity is threatened by their poverty. A woman is little more than a ‘body’ for enjoyment in a patriarchal society. Similarly, the play transfers the binaries of male and female to the third and first worlds, with third-world people playing the role of females whose primary identity is limited to their bodies.

Om sells his body, while Jeetu works as a male prostitute; therefore both of them are portraying themselves as female substitutes. The dehumanization of the poor continues, as we discover, ironically, that Jaya’s identity is reduced to her womb. This marginalization of third-world individuals is accomplished through challenging their traditional constructs of family, relationship, culture, and habitual practices, resulting in a theatrical battle between the identities of “East Vs. West” or, more specifically, India versus the West. The play follows a symmetrical pattern, with India’s projection limited to the body and a poor viewpoint, while the west is projected indirectly through a virtual picture due to money, power, and technology, all of which obstruct reality. This virtual world is an intriguing place that caters to enticing stereotyped young white women who attract brown men. Ginni gains the diaphanous status as a result of this. Ginni, who are you? Because there is a lot of sexual uncertainty throughout the play because, despite the fact that Ginni is portrayed as a (young attractive) white woman, it is only in the final scene that the playwright reveals Ginni’s true identity as an old white male. As a result, the female body serves as a site of contestation for both the colonizer and the colonized. Ginni’s persona reveals a lot about first-world projection. Ginni appears in numerous positions under this shady alias. She is a coloniser as well as the virtual reality of a superior species manufactured by doctored images.

The play depicts the blurring of limitations and the control of the west above third-world nations, with Ginni installing a virtual platform to contact Om, but it was in fact firm observation for Om and his whole family, despite the fact that only he had signed the Faustian pact with IP services. In a shocking turn of events, the guards abduct Jeetu instead of Om, and when he returns, he is utterly blind. Under the thrall of a potential sexual enchantment with Ginni, Jeetu becomes oblivious to the idea that he will be robbed of his body organ by organ. Nobody cares about Jeetu’s situation, not even his mother Ma, who is fascinated by the dramatic turn of events in her life, and watching television becomes her main pastime. Ginni/Virgil, who is desperate to reclaim his youth, is dissatisfied with the transplants from Jeetu’s body and sets out to seduce Jaya, because the elderly man with youthful transplants desires youthful female flesh at the moment. Jaya, who couldn’t bear the thought of being a wife to Om, who will lose his essential organs, wants her guy to be genuine. Virgil, on the other hand, is unwilling to risk physically entering Jaya’s disease-ridden world.

Conclusion

Harvest is not just a societal critique, but it also delves into the relationships between people from different countries. It emphasizes the neo-colonial market while also focusing on the blurring of political and psychological borders. The play explores the breakdown of societal and family relationships as a result of increased consumer product consumption and unending human materialistic pursuits; on the other side, it also depicts the operation of progressed countries in increasing countries to endorse consumerism for mercenary purposes.

 Ginni’s physical flaws and wealth, as well as Om’s physical beauty and poverty, make them equal competitors. Om and his family are no longer on the oppressed end of the power equation because of their common needs. When Virgil, Ginni’s real self, begs Jaya to substitute his child, Jaya requests that he come in self to get her. Jaya is depicted as a powerful woman who prefers and chooses the real world over the virtual. Women’s bodies are frequently used to represent civilization, custom, society, and nation. Padmanabhan, through the character of Jaya, challenges the colonized world’s viewpoint by presenting the colonized world’s reverse gaze. So Padmanabhan has portrayed the dystopian image of the Future Indian through this play and has explored the terrible prospect of the third-world nations identical to harvest.

References:

1. Padmanabhan, Manjula. Harvest. New Delhi: Kali.1998

2. Frow, J. Bodies in Pieces” eds. L. Dale and S Ryan, The Bosy in the Library, Amsterdam: Rodopi. 1998

3. Gilbert, Helen.“Manjula Padmanabhan’s Harvest: Global Technoscapes and the International Trade in Human Body Organs.” Contemporary Theatre Review, 2006

4. Chatterjee, P.The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1993

5. Beatrice, Colomina, ed. Sexuality and Space. New York: Princeton Architectural, Press, 1992. 

6. Brittan, Arthur. Masculinity and Power. UK: Basil Blackwell, 1989.  

7. Brook, Peter. The Empty Space. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986.

8. Halberstam, Judith. Female Masculinity. New Delhi: Zubaan, an imprint of Kali for Women, 2012.             

9. McDowell, Linda. “Place and Space.” A Concise Companion to Feminist Theory. Ed. Mary Eagleton. USA: Blackwell Publishing, 2003.

10. Niranjana, Seemanthini. Gender and Space: Femininity, Sexualization and the Female     Body. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2001.

Citation

Anand, P. (2026). Western Political Thought: A Critical Study from a Marxist Framework. International Journal of Research, 12(12), 683–688. https://doi.org/10.26643/rb.v118i8.7507

Prem Anand

MA, UGC NET (Political science)

Sahebganj Sonarpatti Chowk, Chapra, Saran, Bihar, 841301

royale.prem@gmail.com

Abstract

Western political thought constitutes a vast intellectual tradition spanning from ancient Greece to contemporary liberal and post-liberal theory. It is commonly presented as a progressive unfolding of rational ideas concerning justice, the state, sovereignty, citizenship, liberty, and democracy. However, from a Marxist standpoint, political thought is not an autonomous realm of abstract reasoning but a historically conditioned superstructural formation shaped by material relations of production and class struggle. This paper offers a detailed and critical examination of Western political thought through the framework of Marxism, drawing upon the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and extending the analysis through later Marxist thinkers such as Antonio Gramsci, Louis Althusser, Nicos Poulantzas, and Ralph Miliband.

The paper argues that Western political theory has functioned historically as an ideological expression of dominant class interests corresponding to successive modes of production—slave society, feudalism, mercantilism, and capitalism—while also containing internal contradictions that give rise to emancipatory possibilities. By situating canonical thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, G W F Hegel, and modern liberal theorists within their socio-economic contexts, this study demonstrates how political ideas both reflect and reproduce relations of domination.

Keywords: Western Political Thought, Marxist Framework, Historical Materialism, Dialectical Materialism, Class Struggle, Base and Superstructure, Ideology Bourgeois Democracy, Hegemony.

Introduction: Re-reading the Canon through Historical Materialism

The conventional historiography of Western political thought presents it as a continuous conversation about justice and the good polity. From the polis to the modern nation-state, political philosophy is often depicted as a rational inquiry into normative principles. Marxism, however, challenges the autonomy of ideas. According to Marx’s theory of historical materialism, articulated most clearly in The German Ideology and the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, the mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political, and intellectual life. The economic base—constituted by productive forces and relations of production—shapes the superstructure, including political institutions and ideologies.

This framework does not imply crude economic determinism. Rather, it emphasizes dialectical interaction between base and superstructure. Political ideas emerge within definite historical conditions and serve, consciously or unconsciously, to legitimize or contest prevailing social relations. The history of political thought is thus inseparable from the history of class struggle.

Marx’s famous claim in The Communist Manifesto that the state is “but a committee for managing the common affairs of the bourgeoisie” encapsulates the critical orientation of Marxist political theory. Political institutions are not neutral mediators but instruments embedded in class structures. Later Marxists refined this claim by analyzing the relative autonomy of the state and the role of ideology in securing consent.

Ancient Greek Political Thought: Philosophy within a Slave Mode of Production

The origins of Western political thought lie in classical Greece. The works of Plato and Aristotle are foundational to the canon. Yet their philosophies were produced within a slave-based economy in which a minority of citizens depended upon the labor of slaves and women excluded from political life.

In The Republic, Plato constructs an ideal state organized around a tripartite class structure. Justice consists in each class performing its designated function. From a Marxist perspective, this organic model of hierarchy mirrors the structural stability desired by the Athenian aristocracy during a period of crisis. Plato’s hostility to democracy reflects elite anxiety about popular rule. Although Plato criticizes wealth accumulation among the guardian class, he does not challenge the fundamental division between those who labor and those who rule.

Aristotle’s Politics offers a more empirical analysis of constitutions and defends the concept of citizenship. However, Aristotle’s justification of “natural slavery” exemplifies ideological rationalization. By presenting slavery as rooted in nature rather than economic necessity, Aristotle naturalizes a relation of exploitation fundamental to the ancient mode of production.

A Marxist analysis thus reveals that classical political philosophy, while intellectually profound, remains embedded in the social relations of slave society. The exclusionary definition of citizenship corresponds directly to the economic structure. Political participation is possible only because surplus is extracted from slaves.

Medieval Political Thought: Feudal Hierarchy and Divine Legitimacy

Medieval political thought developed within the feudal mode of production, characterized by land-based hierarchy and obligations between lords and serfs. Political authority was intertwined with religious authority. Thinkers such as Augustine and Aquinas articulated a vision of political order grounded in divine will.

Feudal society’s material base consisted of agrarian production and localized power. Political thought reinforced this structure by presenting hierarchy as natural and ordained by God. The doctrine of the divine right of kings sanctified monarchical power. The Church functioned as an ideological institution legitimizing the feudal order.

From a Marxist viewpoint, medieval political theology obscured material exploitation by translating social hierarchy into spiritual necessity. Yet contradictions within feudalism—growth of commerce, urbanization, and monetary exchange—generated new social forces. The rising bourgeoisie would soon demand political theories suited to emerging capitalist relations.

Early Modern Thought: Social Contract and Bourgeois Revolution

The early modern period witnessed the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Political theory during this era reflects the needs of a rising bourgeois class. Social contract theory, articulated by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, conceptualizes political authority as derived from individual consent rather than divine ordination.

Hobbes’s Leviathan defends absolute sovereignty to prevent civil war. Although Hobbes emphasizes security over liberty, his theory presupposes individuals as possessive and competitive, reflecting emergent market relations.

Locke provides the clearest ideological expression of bourgeois interests. His theory of property, grounded in labor-mixing, justifies private accumulation. By framing property as a natural right, Locke legitimizes capitalist ownership relations. Marx later critiques this conception in Capital, demonstrating that under capitalism, labor does not create property for the worker but surplus value for the capitalist.

Rousseau complicates this narrative. In The Social Contract and Discourse on Inequality, he criticizes private property as the origin of inequality. Marx admired Rousseau’s democratic impulse but argued that Rousseau’s solution remained within the framework of political, not economic, emancipation.

German Idealism and Marx’s Materialist Turn

The culmination of classical German philosophy in Hegel profoundly influenced Marx. Hegel’s Philosophy of Right conceptualizes the state as the realization of ethical freedom. Civil society mediates particular interests, while the state embodies universality.

Marx’s early Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right rejects Hegel’s idealism. Marx argues that Hegel mystifies the state by treating it as the source rather than the product of social relations. For Marx, civil society, structured by property relations, determines political forms.

Marx’s shift from philosophy to political economy marks a decisive methodological break. In Capital, he analyzes the commodity form, surplus value, and the dynamics of accumulation. Political institutions are understood as mechanisms for reproducing capitalist relations. Liberal rights guarantee equality in exchange but conceal exploitation in production.

Marx distinguishes between political emancipation and human emancipation in On the Jewish Question. Liberal rights create formal equality while preserving material inequality. True emancipation requires abolition of class relations.

Marxist Theories of the State in the Twentieth Century

Twentieth-century Marxists developed more sophisticated theories of the state. Gramsci’s Prison Notebooks introduce the concept of hegemony, emphasizing cultural and ideological leadership. The bourgeoisie maintains dominance not only through coercion but through consent, shaping common sense and civil society institutions.

Althusser advances the theory of ideological state apparatuses, arguing that institutions such as schools, churches, and media reproduce capitalist relations by interpellating individuals as subjects.

Miliband and Poulantzas debated the nature of state power. Miliband emphasized the instrumental control of the state by elites, while Poulantzas argued that the state’s structure ensures capitalist dominance even without direct personal control. These debates refine Marx’s original claim about the state’s class character.

Liberal Democracy and Neoliberalism

Modern liberal democracy, celebrated for universal suffrage and constitutional rights, coexists with vast economic inequality. Marxists argue that political equality does not eliminate class domination. Electoral competition occurs within parameters defined by capital accumulation.

In the late twentieth century, neoliberalism emerged as a dominant ideology associated with thinkers such as Hayek and Friedman. It promotes deregulation, privatization, and market supremacy. From a Marxist perspective, neoliberalism represents a response to the crisis of Fordist capitalism and the decline of profit rates. It reasserts capitalist class power by dismantling welfare institutions and labor protections.

Contemporary Western political thought often emphasizes identity, recognition, and multiculturalism. While important, Marxists caution that these frameworks may overlook the structural logic of capital. Critical theorists continue to analyze globalization, imperialism, and financialization as extensions of capitalist accumulation.

Conclusion

A Marxist critical study of Western political thought demonstrates that political ideas are historically situated within specific modes of production. From ancient slavery to modern capitalism, dominant political theories have tended to legitimize prevailing class relations while presenting themselves as universal reason.

Yet the tradition also contains resources for critique. Democratic aspirations, egalitarian impulses, and revolutionary movements have emerged from within Western political discourse. Marxism does not reject this tradition wholesale but reinterprets it through the lens of class struggle and historical materialism.

Ultimately, Marx’s eleventh thesis on Feuerbach remains instructive: philosophers have only interpreted the world; the point, however, is to change it. A Marxist framework transforms the study of Western political thought from a purely intellectual exercise into a critical engagement with the material conditions that shape human freedom.

Bibliography

Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Translated by Ben Brewster, Monthly Review Press, 1971.

Althusser, Louis. For Marx. Translated by Ben Brewster, Verso, 1969.

Aristotle. Politics. Translated by C. D. C. Reeve, Hackett Publishing, 1998.

Augustine. The City of God. Translated by Henry Bettenson, Penguin Classics, 2003.

Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica. Translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province, Christian Classics, 1981.

Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited and translated by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, International Publishers, 1971.

Hegel, G. W. F. Elements of the Philosophy of Right. Edited by Allen W. Wood, translated by H. B. Nisbet, Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. Edited by Richard Tuck, Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Locke, John. Two Treatises of Government. Edited by Peter Laslett, Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Miliband, Ralph. The State in Capitalist Society. Basic Books, 1969.

Marx, Karl. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Vol. 1. Translated by Ben Fowkes, Penguin Classics, 1976.

Marx, Karl. Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. Edited by Joseph O’Malley, Cambridge University Press, 1970.

Marx, Karl. Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. Translated by Martin Milligan, Progress Publishers, 1959.

Marx, Karl. The German Ideology. With Friedrich Engels. Prometheus Books, 1998.

Marx, Karl. On the Jewish Question. In Early Writings, translated by Rodney Livingstone and Gregor Benton, Penguin Classics, 1975.

Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. Penguin Classics, 2002.

Plato. The Republic. Translated by G. M. A. Grube, revised by C. D. C. Reeve, Hackett Publishing, 1992.

Poulantzas, Nicos. Political Power and Social Classes. Translated by Timothy O’Hagan, Verso, 1978.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Social Contract and Discourses. Translated by G. D. H. Cole, J. M. Dent & Sons, 1913.

Sabine, George H., and Thomas L. Thorson. A History of Political Theory. 4th ed., Dryden Press, 1973.

Skinner, Quentin. The Foundations of Modern Political Thought. Vols. 1–2, Cambridge University Press, 1978.

Wood, Ellen Meiksins. Democracy Against Capitalism: Renewing Historical Materialism. Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Wood, Ellen Meiksins. The Origin of Capitalism: A Longer View. Verso, 2002.

Citation

Chandra, M., & Bindal, M. (2026). Effective Implication of Corporate Social Responsibility activities for Social Development. Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 12(1), 78–90. https://doi.org/10.26643/rb.v118i2.7629

Murari Chandra -Research Scholar, Lords University-Alwar (Raj.)

 Dr. Meenakshi Bindal- Research Supervisor, Lords University-Alwar (Raj.)

Abstract: –

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in India effectively drives social development by funding critical areas like education, healthcare, and rural development, bridging infrastructure gaps, empowering women, promoting environmental sustainability, and aligning with India’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through mandatory spending, leveraging corporate skills for better governance and community self-reliance. 

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities significantly boost social development by funding education, healthcare, and skill-building, enhancing community well-being, fostering sustainable practices, and bridging societal gaps; this leads to improved living standards, workforce readiness, and environmental protection, creating a positive feedback loop for businesses and society. 

Key-Words: -SDGs, CSR, NGO, ROI.

Introduction: –

Key Areas of Impact:

1. Education & Skill Development: Improving literacy, reducing dropout rates, providing quality education, and offering vocational training for underprivileged children and women, fostering economic independence.
2. Health & Sanitation: Building hospitals, mobile clinics, funding health awareness, and providing clean water, significantly improving public health, especially in rural areas.
3. Rural & Community Development: Investing in infrastructure (roads, housing), supporting local economies, and creating livelihood opportunities through skill development.
4. Environmental Sustainability: Supporting reforestation, water conservation, waste management, and clean energy, promoting responsible stewardship.
5. Women Empowerment: Focusing on female entrepreneurship, financial assistance, training, and mentorship to break traditional barriers.
6. Disaster Relief: Providing rapid, effective responses to natural calamities and humanitarian crises. 

CSR activities are now essential components in modern business operations. Business operations now extend past creating profits because companies understand the expanded nature of their duties. The businesses operate to improve both society and economy systems. Well-planned CSR initiatives enable businesses to create meaningful changes in communities and produce advantages which extend past their corporate structures and production facilities.

CSR Activities and Social Development

Social development comes out as the largest positive effect of CSR activities between companies and their communities. Business institutions contribute funds to educational facilities as well as healthcare systems and community programs. The funding of schools and construction of rural hospitals and health camp organization reflect the common CSR initiatives from companies. These programs directly enhance the life standards of citizens who lack convenient access to such services. Business sponsorship of scholarships together with running skill development programs supports individuals toward better life futures which builds success for both them and their family members. By implementing CSR activities organizations establish regions which become stronger as well as healthier and more capable.

Role of CSR in Healthcare Improvement

Healthcare is another area where CSR activities have a major role. Medical camps, vaccination drives, and funding for hospital equipment are just a few examples. In regions where public health services are weak, these efforts can be life-changing. Healthier populations contribute more effectively to the workforce, helping to build a stronger economy.

Economic Benefits of CSR Activities

In addition to social welfare, CSR activities support economic development in many ways. Companies often focus on helping small businesses, artisans, and local entrepreneurs through financial assistance, training, and market access. By promoting local industries and skills, businesses ensure that economic benefits are shared widely. This helps create jobs and reduces poverty, leading to a more balanced and inclusive economy.

Infrastructure Development Through CSR

CSR activities also contribute to building infrastructure. Many businesses invest in roads, sanitation, clean water supplies, and housing projects as part of their efforts. Good infrastructure not only improves living conditions but also supports economic growth by making it easier for goods and services to move across regions.

Environmental Conservation Efforts

Environmental protection is another key area covered by CSR activities. Many companies are working to reduce their carbon footprint, recycle waste, and preserve natural resources. Reforestation projects, water conservation initiatives, and renewable energy adoption are common examples. By protecting the environment, companies are ensuring that future generations have the resources they need for sustainable development.

Building Trust and Employee Engagement

The impact of CSR activities is also seen in the way they build trust between companies and communities. When people see businesses taking genuine steps to improve society, they are more likely to support and engage with them. This trust can translate into customer loyalty, better employee morale, and stronger relationships with local governments and communities. In the long run, this goodwill can also lead to better business performance.

Moreover, CSR activities often encourage a culture of volunteering among employees. Many companies run programs where employees take part in community services during work hours. This not only benefits the community but also boosts employee satisfaction and pride in their workplace. When workers feel that they are part of a company that cares, it enhances their commitment and productivity.

Understanding corporate social responsibility

Corporate social responsibility is a broad concept that can take many forms depending on the company and industry. Through CSR programs, philanthropy, and volunteer efforts, businesses can have a positive social impact while boosting their brands.

Businesses that are socially responsible are essentially self-regulating, building issues such as climate change, poverty, equality, diversity, and inclusion into their business mission. They ensure that everything they do is ethical, fair, and beneficial to the communities they work in and interact with.

In essence, these businesses are thinking about and trying to work toward the greater good, rather than just making more money or pleasing their shareholders.

Types of corporate social responsibility

In general, there are four main types of corporate social responsibility. A company may choose to engage in any of these separately, and a lack of involvement in one area does not necessarily exclude a company from being socially responsible.

1. Environmental responsibility

Environmental responsibility is the pillar of corporate social responsibility rooted in preserving mother nature and addressing the environmental impact in the local community. Through optimal operations and support of related causes, a company can ensure it leaves natural resources better than before its operations. Companies often pursue environmental stewardship through:

• Reducing pollution, waste, natural resource consumption, and carbon emissions through its manufacturing process.
• Recycling goods and materials throughout its processes including promoting re-use practices with its customers.
• Offsetting negative impacts by replenishing natural resources or supporting causes that can help neutralize the company’s impact.
• Distributing goods consciously by choosing methods that have the least impact on emissions and pollution.
• Creating product lines that enhance these values.
• Ethical responsibility

Ethical responsibility is the pillar of corporate social responsibility rooted in a company’s values and acting in a fair, ethical manner. Companies often set their own standards, though external forces or demands by clients and company culture may shape ethical goals. Instances of ethical responsibility include:

• Fair treatment across all types of customers regardless of age, race, culture, or sexual orientation.
• Positive treatment of all employees including favorable pay and benefits in excess of mandated minimums. This includes fair employment consideration for all individuals regardless of personal differences.
• Expansion of vendor use to utilize different suppliers of different races, genders, Veteran statuses, or economic statuses.
• Honest disclosure of operating concerns to investors in a timely and respectful manner. Though not always mandated, a company may choose to manage its relationship with external stakeholders beyond what is legally required.
• Philanthropic responsibility

Philanthropic responsibility is the pillar of corporate social responsibility that challenges how a company acts and how it contributes to society. In its simplest form, philanthropic responsibility refers to how a company spends its resources to make the world a better place. This includes:

• Whether a company donates profits to charities or causes it believes in.
• Whether a company only enters into transactions with suppliers or vendors that align with the company philanthropically.
• Whether a company supports employee philanthropic endeavors through time off or matching contributions.
• Whether a company sponsors fundraising events or has a presence in the community for related events.
• Financial responsibility

Financial responsibility is the pillar of corporate social responsibility that ties together the three areas above. A company may make plans to be more environmentally, ethically, and philanthropically focused; however, the company must back these plans through financial investments in programs, donations, or product research. This includes spending on:

• Research and development for new products that encourage sustainability.
• Recruiting different types of talent to ensure a diverse workforce.
• Initiatives that train employees on DEI, social awareness, or environmental concerns.
• Processes that might be more expensive but yield greater CSR results.
• Ensuring transparent and timely financial reporting including external audits.

Benefits of corporate social responsibility

1. Increased employee satisfaction

How a company chooses to treat its employees plays a significant role in its overall success. If employees feel unappreciated and believe they are simply a means to an end for their employers to make money, it will greatly affect the standard of their work.

On the other hand, employees who feel that the work they do matters and that they are a valuable asset to their employers will naturally feel more motivated to do their best to help the brand succeed. Offering employees opportunities to volunteer in the community during regular office hours is a great opportunity for personal growth and development.

Always remember that when employees are active in the community, they are acting as brand ambassadors for the business. How employees feel about their company will be evident in their interactions with the general community. This is why brands that hope to have a positive reputation must strive to have enthusiastic and satisfied employees.

• Increased customer loyalty

Any business seeking to obtain loyal customers must understand that customers are loyal to brands that share a set of corporate beliefs and values that align with their own. Research shows that 87% of Americans are more likely to buy a product from a company when they can align their values; over half of all consumers are willing to pay extra for a product if they’re buying from a company with a sturdy CSR strategy. By embracing corporate social responsibility, you can add increase your competitive advantage and enhance brand awareness exponentially.

Further, a separate study shows that millennials, who have been the largest generation group alive in the U.S. since 2019, prefer brands that center on authenticity, local sourcing, ethical production, a great shopping experience, and giving back to society. CSR programs are an opportunity for organizations to display their corporate values and reach those customers who share a similar set of ideals.

• Increased employee engagement

Extensive research proves that CSR and a strong sense of employee purpose actively contribute to increased employee engagement.

That’s important because when a company has engaged employees, they see a 17% increase in productivity, are 21% more profitable and can have 41% lower absenteeism. Innovation also increases in an engaged workplace.

Translating this into financials, disengaged employees with a lack of job satisfaction cost businesses between $450 and $550 billion annually.

Giving back to the community is a virtuous circle in which engaged employees are enriched by volunteering opportunities that further engage and encourage them.

• Attract and retain top talent

There’s a lot of competition to acquire top talent in the marketplace and increase retention. Do you wonder how you can tilt the odds in your favor? Here’s a tip: a company with a robust CSR program will appeal more to socially conscious job candidates than one that chooses not to support their communities or declines to take a stand on important cultural issues.

As Forbes states, younger adults in particular are interested in working for companies with good reputations that are active in their communities. Working for a socially responsible company has become one of the top factors for millennials when choosing where to work. As 76 percent of millennials look for employers based on their corporate social responsibility before signing an offer, giving back to the economy and employees has never been more important.

These workers are keen to align their personal beliefs with their professional goals. In fact, over 60% of Gen Y and Millennial adults donate to charities, while over 40% are active volunteers or members of some type of community organization.

• Enhanced brand position

What makes a consumer choose the product sold by Company A rather than Company B?

One deciding factor could be a CSR program. By supporting causes and initiatives relevant to the business, Company A, which does participate in corporate social responsibility, will differentiate itself from Company B, which does not. Company A’s brand – what they do and why – is further elevated by its actions and involvement.

In fact, a strategically developed and properly implemented CSR program can enhance a brand’s ability to create and sustain a positive image in the marketplace,

• Increased revenue

When you’re trying to win buy-in from leadership for your CSR program, it often falls to financials. Stakeholders want to know if this project will see a positive ROI – and research shows it will.  CSR and sustainable initiatives positively affect businesses’ bottom-lines.

Companies investing in social purpose have a 6% higher market value and generate 20% more revenue than companies that don’t invest in social purpose, according to Project ROI. And cost savings are often recognized in the process as well.

• Press opportunities

Impactful CSR can get excellent press. If your organization is ever struggling to gain online popularity and press interest, your CSR initiative could be your route to market. Creating a CSR program that gets you noticed will see a fantastic boost in your brand awareness and overall online brand affinity.

However, be cautious about the why behind your CSR efforts. CSR that’s not authentic has been called greenwashing; if your CSR initiative seems too out of line with your mission and values, people can question its purpose, even though it comes with good intent.
Improved investor relations

In a study by Boston Consulting Group, companies that are considered leaders in environmental, social, or governance matters had an 11% valuation premium over their competitors. For companies looking to get an edge and outperform the market, enacting CSR strategies tends to positively impact how investors feel about an organization and how they view the worth of the company.

• Supports local and global communities

For all of the fantastic benefits your business gets from showcasing your CSR initiatives, it can be easy to overlook its reason for being in the first place. CSR gives people the leverage and the platform they need to make a difference in local and global communities.

Companies are often collections of like-minded, talented people working towards a broader vision. If you can find a CSR program that’s in line with the company’s values, then your business truly has the opportunity to create a substantial positive impact.

• Risk mitigation

Consider adverse activities such as discrimination against employee groups, disregard for natural resources, or unethical use of company funds. This type of activity is more likely to lead to lawsuits, litigation, or legal proceedings where the company may be negatively impacted financially and socially. By adhering to CSR practices, companies can mitigate risk by avoiding these situations and creating an environment where they are least likely to happen.

Effective implementation of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities significantly drives social development by focusing on key areas like education, healthcare, and environmental sustainability. Data from the 2023-24 period shows an increasing corporate commitment to these areas, leading to measurable positive outcomes in various social indicators. 

Effective Implication Strategies for Social Development

Effective CSR goes beyond mere compliance, involving strategic alignment of business goals with social needs and data-driven project monitoring. 

• Strategic Alignment: Integrating CSR initiatives with core business strategy ensures that resources are directed towards national development goals and specific community needs, creating a sustainable impact.
• Data-Driven Planning and Monitoring: Using research and data to identify areas needing support helps determine the most effective interventions and allows for continuous improvement and impact assessment.
• Partnerships: Collaborations between businesses, NGOs, and local authorities are crucial for efficient resource utilization and successful project delivery, leveraging the on-the-ground presence of implementing partners.
• Transparency and Reporting: Regularly sharing progress reports based on data-driven insights fosters trust and credibility among consumers and stakeholders. 

CSR Activities and Social Development Outcomes (FY 2023-24 Data)

The following table highlights key areas of CSR spending, the financial commitment in the 2023-24 fiscal year (primarily in India, a leader in mandatory CSR reporting), and the associated social development implications and outcomes. 

CSR Activity Area (Aligned with Schedule VII)	Approximate CSR Spending (FY 2023-24)	Social Development Implications & Outcomes
Education & Skill Development	~₹1104 crore (approx. 25-27% of total)	• Increased Enrollment: School enrollment rates increased by 12-15% in intervention areas. • Improved Literacy: Literacy rates improved from 68% to 83% in some targeted districts. • Enhanced Livelihoods: Fosters employment-enhancing vocational skills, directly contributing to economic empowerment.
Healthcare & Sanitation	~₹9000-10,000 crore (approx. 25-27% of total)	• Reduced Mortality: Achieved a 10% reduction in infant mortality rates in supported regions. • Improved Maternal Health: Witnessed a 25% increase in institutional deliveries through funded maternal health programs. • Combating Diseases: Initiatives focus on combating diseases like HIV/AIDS and malaria.
Environmental Sustainability	~₹5000-6000 crore (approx. 15-18% of total)	• Climate Action: Efforts to reduce carbon footprint and promote sustainable practices. • Conservation: Companies pledged to conserve millions of trees. • Resource Accessibility: Ensuring access to clean air and water resources in local communities.
Rural Development & Poverty Alleviation	Not specifically itemized in data, but a key focus area	• Infrastructure Development: Community-based investments improve local infrastructure. • Hunger Alleviation: Programs aimed at eradicating extreme hunger and poverty.

Note: The financial data provided is largely based on reports from Indian listed companies, which collectively spent approximately ₹17,967 crore on CSR in FY 2023-24, a 16% increase from the previous year. 

Indicator / CSR Aspect	Data / Details (FY 2024-25)	Impact on Social Development	Source
Total CSR Expenditure (India)	~₹34,909 crore (FY 23-24), projected ~₹38,000 crore for 2025	Large financial contribution from corporates to social development projects across sectors	(India CSR)
Number of CSR Projects (nationwide)	~59,634 projects implemented (up 9% YOY)	Expanded reach of CSR activities with more projects addressing diverse needs	(Fortune India)
Top CSR Spending Companies	HDFC Bank (₹922 cr), Reliance (₹899 cr), TCS (₹813 cr)	Major corporate commitment toward social causes (education, health, livelihoods)	(Fortune India)
Regional Spending Patterns	Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Delhi lead in CSR spending	Greater concentrated impact in industrialized states; imbalance in rural/underfunded regions	(India CSR)
Company-Level CSR Example: Info Edge	₹15.33 crore spent in FY24-25; ~10 lakh lives impacted	Focus on quality education, livelihood creation, inclusion; direct beneficiary count	(India CSR)
Company-Level CSR Example: Axis Bank	₹426.57 crore allocated in FY24-25	Large-scale intervention in education, health, community welfare (details per bank CSR disclosures)	(India CSR)
Company-Level CSR Example: IndiGo	₹13.96 crore spent	Support for community development and welfare initiatives	(Facebook)
Small/Mid-Size CSR Example: Canarys Automations	₹20 lakh spent on education, animal welfare, environment	CSR contribution even from smaller companies addressing niche social needs	(India CSR)
Sectoral Focus Trends	Education, livelihoods, health & WASH, environment, gender equality	Alignment with SDGs; education remains high priority in CSR allocations	(Impact Practice)
Implementation Mechanisms	Through NGOs, CSR Foundations, direct projects	Partnerships improve execution efficiency, reach, and accountability	(Impact Practice)
Compliance & Penalty	30 companies penalised for CSR non-compliance FY22-FY25	Strengthens accountability and adherence to CSR rules	(The Economic Times)
Recent Government & CSR Collaboration	Push to align CSR with PMAY (housing), digital libraries for students	CSR funds used to fill gaps in essential services (housing support, education)	(The Times of India)

Conclusion: –

Companies that promote CSR activities generate diverse societal and economic improvements. Through CSR activities, businesses help educate people while enhancing their healthcare access and providing better infrastructure and taking care of the environment. Local industries receive support through CSR initiatives and this support aims to fight poverty. Businesses whose operations include CSR activities create foundation for mutual trust and positive relationships with their customer communities. Companies which commit completely to CSR programs do more than help society while establishing a solid foundation for their enduring business prosperity.

Numerous businesses participating in meaningful CSR activities together generate a world that becomes more fair and healthier while providing prosperity for all people. CSR now plays an essential role in creating responsible and sustainable business operations.

References: –

Ayande, A., Sabourin, V., & Cuevas Moreno, R. (2025). Fostering Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainable Development: A critical analysis and perspective on the organizational strategies implemented by corporations. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal.
— Theoretical analysis of CSR practices and sustainable development strategies.

Assessing the Impact of Social Sustainability Practices in Corporate Social Responsibility Initiatives (2024). Innovative Research Thoughts, 10(3).
— Evaluates how CSR social sustainability practices influence community development, education, and health outcomes.

Effectiveness of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in Implementation of Social Sustainability in Warehousing of Developing Countries: A Hybrid Approach (2021). Journal of Cleaner Production, 324:129154.
— Empirical study measuring effectiveness of CSR activities in social sustainability contexts using hybrid analytical methods.

Apurv-led Strategic CSR Framework (2020). In Values and Corporate Responsibility (pp.165–185). Springer.
— Conceptual framework linking CSR strategy with social and economic value creation (includes CSV theory).

Kamasak, R., & Yavuz, M. (2018). Revisiting the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Performance Relationship through a Dynamic Resource Management View. PressAcademia Procedia, 7(1), 97–100.
— Investigates CSR impact on firm performance and implications for resource allocation.

Citation

Kumar, H., & Bindal, M. (2026). Importance of Corporate Social Responsibilities towards Corporate Sector in India. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 207–217. https://doi.org/10.26643/rb.v118i10.9575

Hemant Kumar-Research Scholar, Lords University-Alwar (Raj.)

Dr. Meenakshi Bindal- Research Supervisor, Lords University-Alwar (Raj.)

Abstract: –

Indian companies engage in diverse CSR activities focused on Education, Healthcare, Environmental Sustainability, Skill Development, and Rural/Community Development, with major players like Tata, Wipro, HUL, and Infosys leading in areas from water conservation and women’s empowerment to COVID-19 relief and skill training, guided by India’s Companies Act. Key trends show increased focus on environment, skill-building, and tech-driven impact measurement, though spending fluctuates. 

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is vital for Indian companies as it boosts brand image, customer loyalty, and talent attraction, while mitigating risks and ensuring long-term sustainability by integrating societal welfare with business strategy, leading to better financial performance, innovation, and competitive edge in a growing conscious market. 

Key-Words: -CSR, COVID-19, HUL, BHEL.

Introduction: –

Key CSR Focus Areas:-

• Education & Skill Development: Building schools, scholarships, supplementary learning centers (ITC), vocational training for employability (Tata Power, Wipro).
• Healthcare: Medical camps, hospital infrastructure, COVID-19 relief (oxygen, PPE), sanitation, HIV/AIDS awareness (Wipro, HUL).
• Environmental Sustainability: Afforestation (BHEL), water conservation, renewable energy, waste management (Infosys, HUL, BHEL).
• Rural & Community Development: Slum development, disaster relief, women’s empowerment via Self-Help Groups (Tata Power, Reliance).
• Poverty Eradication: Hunger reduction programs, supporting livelihoods for marginalized groups. 

Examples by Company: –

• ITC: Focuses on education (Supplementary Learning Centres) and sustainable agriculture.
• Tata Power: Empowers women in Kutch through SHGs, providing financial aid.
• Infosys: Water body restoration, metro station partnerships, general education.
• Wipro: Health, wellness, disaster relief, and education through Wipro Care.
• BHEL: Large-scale afforestation and biodegradable product support. 

Trends & Mandates: –

• Legal Framework: Mandated by the Companies Act, 2013, requiring companies to spend a percentage of profits on CSR.
• Sectoral Shifts: Increased spending on environmental sustainability, growing focus on skill development and technology for impact measurement.
• COVID-19 Impact: Significant CSR funds directed towards creating health infrastructure and supplying medical equipment during the pandemic. 

In India, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is crucial for the corporate sector as it enhances brand image, boosts customer loyalty, attracts/retains top talent, mitigates risks, and drives long-term financial sustainability by aligning business goals with societal welfare, fulfilling legal mandates, and creating shared value in a conscious marketplace. 

Key Importance for Corporations:-

• Enhanced Reputation & Brand Value: CSR builds a positive public image, increases brand recognition, and differentiates companies in competitive markets, fostering trust among consumers, investors, and the media.
• Customer Loyalty & Sales: Consumers prefer and trust brands that contribute positively to society, leading to deeper connections, increased loyalty, and higher sales.
• Talent Attraction & Retention: Socially conscious companies attract skilled professionals who seek purpose-driven work, improving morale, engagement, and retention.
• Risk Management: Proactive CSR helps mitigate legal, regulatory, and reputational risks by addressing social and environmental concerns, preventing lawsuits and negative publicity.
• Long-Term Sustainability: By investing in community and environmental well-being, businesses build sustainable models that benefit society and ensure their own longevity.
• Access to Capital & New Opportunities: Strong CSR can attract investors and create partnerships with NGOs and communities, opening new markets and growth avenues.
• Legal Compliance: In India, CSR is mandated by law (Section 135 of the Companies Act, 2013), making it a necessity for compliance, especially for large companies. 

Societal Impact & Business Synergy

• Poverty Alleviation & Education: CSR initiatives contribute to grassroots development, education, and poverty reduction, benefiting society directly.
• Community Development: Engaging with local communities through CSR fosters better stakeholder relations and promotes inclusive economic growth. 

In essence, CSR moves beyond charity to become a strategic imperative, benefiting both the corporate sector’s bottom line and India’s overall sustainable development. 

Key trends: –

1. Slower CSR spending growth: In FY 2023-24, the CSR spending by companies listed on the National Stock Exchange (NSE) increased by 5 percent to INR 155.24 billion, up from INR 148.16 billion in FY 2022-23. This growth was slower compared to a 13 percent rise in average net profit over the preceding three years.
2. Decline in CSR as a percentage of net profit: CSR spending as a percentage of net profit fell to 1.87 percent, a six-year low, indicating a lag in CSR spending relative to profit growth.
3. Compliance with CSR mandate: Despite the slowdown, 1,271 out of 1,296 companies required to spend on CSR did so, showing an improvement from the previous year.

CSR Expenditure in India
Fiscal year	Total number of companies	Total amount of CSR spent (INR)	States and Union Territories covered	Total number of CSR projects	Development sectors
FY 2023-24	24,392	299.86 billion	40	51,966	14
FY 2022-23	19,888	265.79 billion	40	44,425	14
FY 2021-22	20,840	262.10 billion	39	39,324	14
FY 2020-21	22,985	249.65 billion	38	35,290	14
FY 2019-20	25,181	202.17 billion	39	32,071	14

Source: CSR National Portal, Ministry of Corporate Affairs

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives involve companies integrating social and environmental concerns into their business operations and interactions with stakeholders. These efforts fall generally into four main categories: environmental, ethical, philanthropic, and economic responsibility. 

Types of CSR Examples

• Environmental Responsibility: Focuses on behaving in an environmentally friendly way, often called environmental stewardship.
  • Examples: Reducing carbon footprints, minimizing packaging, increasing reliance on renewable energy, improving water efficiency, and donating to environmental causes.
• Ethical Responsibility: Ensures an organization operates in a fair and ethical manner through fair treatment of all stakeholders

.     Examples: Offering competitive salaries and compensation, providing generous benefits like parental leave, establishing clear ethical codes of conduct, and ensuring the supply chain avoids child or forced labor.

• Philanthropic Responsibility: Aims to actively make the world a better place through charitable donations and community involvement.
  • Examples: Donating a percentage of profits to charities, organizing employee volunteer programs (with paid leave or volunteer grants), funding scholarships, and providing in-kind donations of products or services.
• Economic Responsibility: Involves making responsible financial decisions that “pay dues” to society.
  • Examples: Paying fair taxes, ensuring financial transparency, paying employees competitive wages, and investing in local communities or businesses that further social good. 

Real-World Company Examples

Many companies have strong CSR programs, often aligning their initiatives with their core business values. 

• Google: Committed to achieving net-zero emissions across all operations by 2030, powered entirely by carbon-free energy. It has invested billions in renewable energy projects and offers Google Ad Grants, providing free advertising credits to eligible nonprofits.
• Microsoft: Known for its robust employee volunteering programs and its donation of billions in tech assets and grants to nonprofits worldwide.
• Starbucks: The Coffee and Farmer Equity (C.A.F.E.) Practices program sets guidelines for ethically sourcing 100% of its coffee to ensure sustainability and fair working conditions for farmers.
• Walmart: Focuses on large-scale philanthropy, donating over a billion dollars in cash and in-kind goods annually, and works with suppliers to reduce their emissions.
• TOMS: A Certified B Corporation that donates a portion of its profits to support various causes like mental health, access to opportunities, and ending gun violence (previously known for its “One for One” shoe donation model).
• Patagonia: Commits to radical supply chain transparency and environmental activism, donating 1% of all sales to conservation efforts and using organic cotton.
• Coca-Cola: Aims to make 100% of its packaging recyclable by 2025 and has a goal to return 100% of the water used in its beverages back to communities and nature. 

Example: ITC Limited

Key aspects of ITC’s CSR approach include participatory planning and community ownership, emphasizing behavioral change and asset creation. The Two Horizon approach guided ITC’s Social Investments Program, promoting inclusive growth and livelihood enhancement.

ITC’s CSR projects spanned 27 States/Union Territories and impacted over 300 districts. Notable initiatives included:

• Social forestry: Afforested over 31,000 acres, benefiting 176,000 households.
• Water stewardship: Enhanced water security across 136,000 acres with effective water-harvesting structures.
• Biodiversity conservation: Revived ecosystems over 150,000 acres, improving biodiversity.
• Climate smart agriculture: Covered 2.34 million acres, promoting sustainable farming practices.
• Livestock development: Improved livelihoods for families engaged in various livestock rearing.
• Women empowerment: Supported over 35,400 women and reached 210,000 self-help groups.
• Education: Enhanced learning for over 250,000 children.
• Skilling & vocational training: Trained over 14,400 youth, achieving a 68 percent placement rate.
• Sanitation: Constructed toilets benefiting 115,000 community members.
• Health & nutrition: Improved health awareness for over 560,000 beneficiaries.
• Waste management: Developed models for zero waste to landfills.
• ITC Sangeet Research Academy: Promoted Hindustani Classical Music through training.

Example: Tata Chemicals

In the fiscal year 2022-23, Tata Chemicals allocated INR 160 million to CSR initiatives. During FY23, Tata Chemicals collaborated with 5,245 farmers, providing training and support in areas like livestock management and organic farming, which improved farm productivity and farmers’ incomes.

The company also engages rural youth through skill development programs in areas such as fashion technology and welding, creating employment and entrepreneurial opportunities. These initiatives take place at various locations, including a skill development center in Mithapur and partner institutions like Tata Strive Skill Development Centre.

The company has established comprehensive CSR policies, including a Community Development Policy and Diversity & Inclusion Policy.

In 2024, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in India became crucial for enhancing brand image, attracting talent, ensuring long-term profitability, and meeting legal mandates under the Companies Act, with spending by listed firms rising 16% to ₹17,967 crore, driving community development in education, healthcare, and environment while boosting inclusive growth and aligning with national goals like “Developed India 2047,” though financial limits and awareness remain hurdles. 

Importance of CSR for the Corporate Sector in India (2024)

• Enhanced Brand & Reputation: CSR builds trust, positive public image, and brand equity, attracting ethically-conscious consumers.
• Talent Attraction & Retention: Employees, especially younger generations, prefer socially responsible employers, boosting morale and loyalty.
• Long-Term Profitability: Socially responsible practices are linked to business expansion, stability, and increased profitability.
• Legal Compliance & Governance: India’s Companies Act, 2013, mandates CSR for large firms, making it a core governance requirement, not just voluntary.
• Community & National Development: CSR supplements government efforts in education, healthcare, poverty alleviation, and sustainable development, aiding India’s vision for 2047. 

Key Data & Trends (FY 2023-24)

• Increased Spending: Total CSR spending by listed companies grew 16% to ₹17,967 crore in FY24.
• Mandatory Thresholds: Companies with ₹500 Cr+ net worth, ₹1000 Cr+ turnover, or ₹5 Cr+ net profit must comply.
• Key Focus Areas: Education, skill development, healthcare, and environmental sustainability saw significant investment.
• Collaborative Approach: Increased partnerships between companies, NGOs, and government to maximize impact. 

Tabular Data: CSR Impact & Trends

Metric/Area	Data/Trend (Approx. 2024)	Significance for Corporates
CSR Spending Growth	16% increase in FY24.	Shows growing commitment & integration into business.
Total CSR Spend	₹17,967 Crore (Listed Cos, FY24).	Demonstrates scale of corporate contribution to society.
Profitability Link	Positive correlation (r=0.67) between CSR & business expansion.	Proves CSR as a strategic financial advantage, not just cost.
Employee Engagement	Higher morale & attraction for values-driven employees.	Crucial for talent management in a competitive market.
Community Well-being	15% rise reported via MSME CSR.	Shows tangible social return on investment (SROI).
Environmental Impact	20% drop in carbon emissions with green tech adoption.	Aligns with ESG goals & regulatory demands.
National Vision	59% of MSMEs ready to expand CSR for national goals.	Positions companies as key partners in nation-building.

Data reflects trends and reported figures from 2024 sources; MSME data from a 2025 study on 2024 trends. 

Conclusion

The outcome of this paper demonstrates that governments should play a proactive role in promoting CSR in any given nation or state, as Caroll (1991) argues that CSR is “an economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectation (philanthropic).” The same sentiment is expressed by Freeman (1984), who argues that business has responsibilities for groups and individuals who can both influence and be influenced by business operations. Hopkins (2003) also acknowledged that CSR has four core principles or addenda of economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectation (philanthropic) that should not be left only to the corporation’s voluntary means but should be safeguarded and managed so that there is a win–win situation between a corporation and the communities or societies they operate. In some developing countries in Africa, CSR activities are inexistence not implemented, or the elites are the ones who benefit from such funds that could help spur development in those countries. CSR’s best practices should be transferred from developed west to developing countries since most of these corporations operating in developing countries are businesses with origins in the western world, for example, firms operating in mining or forestry products or communication.

Collaboration is vital so that CSR core issues are shared. There is a need for a transfer of best practices of CSR. In promoting CSR activities or agendas, each country or government should carefully consider its own social, economic, cultural, political, and growth situations. Hence, good governance is essential for CSR activities, especially in developing countries where centralization leads to inefficiencies and ineffectiveness. There is a need to avoid situations whereby some oil companies and forestry exploration corporations in developing countries in Africa do not directly benefit their local communities.

Most local communities in developing countries feel abandoned by corporations exploring their natural resources. There is a growing sentiment of anti-western domination, notably when some of these western companies are operating in developing countries and are not implementing CSR activities or are benefiting a small elite in developing countries. Good governance and transparency in the management of natural resources in developing countries concerning CSR agenda are welcome, and best practices should be shared and not kept as a policy that is not used or communicated. The need for local chiefs in developing countries and the local authorities to be transparent in managing local land and its natural resources for local development and growth is essential hence the CSR agenda. Thus, the significant contribution of this paper is that governments should play a proactive role in promoting CSR activities that benefit local communities and their societies. Developing countries’ nature government systems need to be transparent and serve the interest of their people. We need to avoid a situation whereby rich oil countries with significant natural resources do not benefit those at the local level but rather tiny elites who have confiscated the country’s natural resources for themselves only and their families. Developing countries’ governments can use varied instruments in promoting CSR by creating awareness, fostering and partnering, mandating, volunteering, or putting soft legislation in place for corporations to further improve CSR activities that benefit communities at large. Soft legislation will enable some of these corporations to comply with their CSR initiatives. For example, tax exemptions for a business that contributes money to educational, environmental, and social issues are vital for developing countries instead of CSR activities as philanthropic only. CSR should not be seen only as a philanthropic agenda but rather should focus on social, economic, environmental, and legal to spur economic growth and development for developing countries, especially in Africa.

The literature shows that many countries in the west and some developing countries profit from CSR activities and, more importantly, during the COVID-19 pandemic. The result also shows that developing countries should not blindly be copying from western countries’ CSR agendas. They should create CSR agendas that reflect their realities. Developing countries in the south should learn from developed countries’ CSR implementation, for example, the United Kingdom, the USA, Sweden, Denmark, South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Saudi Arabia, and India. There should not be a blind adoption of the implementation of the CSR agenda from the north; government and governance must create their own CSR agenda that fit them and their communities’ realities and context. This study contributes to CSR issues in developed countries, including how developing countries can learn from good practices in the developed world to strengthen CSR in developing countries, as well as the role of government in promoting CSR agendas for development and growth rather than seeing CSR as philanthropy. Good collaboration between developed and developing countries in enhancing best practices of CSR is vital because corporations have responsibilities to society that go beyond economic, legal, and moral expectations. Future research is needed to examine CSR agendas in both developed and developing countries and not allow CSR activities to be only a voluntary act by corporations.

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Citation

Thottumarathil, I. (2026). A Comparative Study of Ritual Practices Associated with Nerchas in Malabar. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.26643/think-india.v13i4.7942

Irshad Thottumarathil

Research Scholar, School of Folklore Studies, University of Calicut

Irshadt@uoc.ac.in

Abstract

Nerchas represent one of the most significant forms of folk religious expression in Malabar, integrating shrine-centred devotion with social interaction, material culture, and collective memory. Sustained primarily through oral tradition and ritual repetition, Nerchas function beyond the limits of formal religious practice, shaping cultural continuity within the Mappila community. Drawing exclusively from ethnographic observations and analytical insights, this paper undertakes a comparative study of ritual practices associated with major Nerchas in Malabar. By examining offerings, donations, Cheerani, embodied ritual actions, and festival spaces across multiple Nerchas, the study identifies a shared ritual structure grounded in local resources and community participation. The paper argues that the persistence of Nerchas in the contemporary social order lies in their capacity to embed sacred meanings within everyday practices, thereby sustaining relevance amid social change.

Keywords: Nercha, Malabar, Folk Rituals, Mappila Culture, Cheerani, Shrine Festivals

1. Introduction 

Folk festivals have long served as living spaces where collective identity, cultural memory, and social cohesion are continuously shaped and renewed within South Asian societies. In regions such as Malabar, religious life is closely interwoven with local history, ecological settings, and everyday social organisation. As a result, folk ritual practices are not confined to ceremonial moments alone; they actively influence daily cultural experience. These festivals go beyond the remembrance of sacred figures or events. They organise social relationships, transmit inherited values across generations, and create a balance between continuity and change within community life.

Within the rich spectrum of folk religious expressions in Malabar, Nerchas occupy a particularly distinctive and enduring place. As shrine-centred festivals connected with saints and revered sacred personages, Nerchas represent a form of lived religiosity that exists outside the rigid frameworks of formal religious institutions. Their continuity does not depend on written doctrines or canonical texts but on oral traditions, embodied ritual actions, and sustained communal participation. The strength of Nercha traditions lies in their ability to weave together devotion and social interaction, ritual obligation and cultural celebration, and sacred authority with the rhythms of everyday life.

Historically, the development of Nerchas took place within a plural cultural milieu shaped by Malabar’s long engagement with maritime trade, Sufi devotional currents, and locally rooted Islamic practices. This historical background enabled the emergence of shrine-based rituals that were spiritually meaningful while remaining socially accessible to a wide range of participants. Over time, Nerchas expanded beyond their initial devotional focus and evolved into annual cultural events. They began to incorporate economic exchange, performative expressions, and collective forms of celebration, gradually functioning as comprehensive cultural institutions rather than narrowly defined religious observances.

Despite profound changes in social structure, mobility, and communication in the contemporary period, Nerchas continue to retain their relevance within Malabar society. Urbanisation, labour migration, and the influence of mass media have reshaped patterns of participation, yet the ritual core of Nerchas remains largely intact. Practices such as offerings, donations, the distribution of Cheerani, and collective ritual performances continue to circulate meaningfully within shrine spaces. These elements demonstrate the capacity of Nercha traditions to adapt to changing social conditions while preserving their inherited symbolic framework and ritual logic.

This paper presents a comparative study of ritual practices associated with selected Nerchas in Malabar, with particular attention to offerings, donations, Cheerani, and shrine-centred ceremonial forms. Rather than treating Nerchas as a homogeneous ritual category, the study draws attention to both shared structural patterns and region-specific variations that shape ritual expression. Through this comparative approach, the paper seeks to show how Nerchas operate as dynamic cultural processes that mediate faith, social integration, and cultural continuity within the contemporary social landscape of Malabar.

2. Literature Review

Literature Review

Nercha festivals in Malabar have been discussed within broader studies of Mappila society, shrine traditions, and regional Muslim cultural practices. While detailed analytical work on Nercha as a ritual system remains limited, several scholars have contributed foundational insights that help situate these festivals within Malabar’s social and religious landscape.

K. K. Abdul Kareem’s Kondotty: Charithravum Samskaravum (2009) provides an important local historical framework by documenting the cultural significance of Kondotty and its shrine-centred practices. The work highlights how Nercha functions not only as a devotional event but also as a marker of collective identity and local cultural continuity. Similarly, Umer Maduvayi’s Kondottiyude Verukal (2011) emphasises the rootedness of shrine traditions in community memory, demonstrating how Nercha sustains connections between place, heritage, and social belonging.

Studies of ritual practices within Malabar Muslim life further contextualise Nercha traditions. C. Aboobacker’s Malabarile Muslim Anushtanangal (1998) outlines the structure of customary religious practices, while Shakkeela A. Rahiman’s doctoral study (2007) examines festivals as cultural institutions that combine devotional and social functions. These works are essential for understanding Nercha as part of everyday lived religiosity rather than as an isolated ritual form.

Scholars of Mappila folklore and society also provide important insights. B. Muhammed Ahammed’s Mappila Folklore (2006) highlights the role of oral tradition and ritual memory in sustaining community practices, while K. P. Ashraf’s Mappila Samoohavum Samskaravum (2010) situates such practices within broader patterns of social organisation. Hussain Randathani’s Mappila Muslims: A Study of Society and Culture (2008) similarly underscore the relationship between cultural institutions and social identity within Mappila life.

Historical works such as K. K. N. Kunhi’s Kerala Muslim Charithram (1995) and P. P. Mammed Koya Parappil’s Kozhikkotte Muslimgalude Charithram (2012) provide a wider socio-historical context for shrine-based practices, enabling an understanding of how Nercha traditions evolved within Malabar’s changing religious and social environment.

The devotional background of shrine festivals is illuminated through studies on Sufi traditions. K. M. Badarudheen’s Malabarile Sufi Paramparakal (2015) traces the influence of saint veneration in shaping public religious practices, while P. A. Mohammed’s Malabarile Palli–Dargah Samskaram (2012) examines the role of shrine culture in community life. Roland E. Miller’s Mappila Muslims of Kerala (1976) provides an important historical perspective on the evolution of Islamic practices in the region.

Anthropological perspectives also enrich the discussion. Filippo and Caroline Osella’s Muslim Culture in South India (2008) offers a framework for understanding Muslim cultural practices as socially embedded and locally negotiated. Zirfas and Wulf’s work on ritual integration (2001) further suggests how collective ritual participation fosters social cohesion across cultural differences.

Taken together, these studies demonstrate that Nerchas must be understood as shrine-centred cultural practices shaped by local history, social organisation, devotional traditions, and communal participation. However, while existing literature acknowledges the cultural significance of shrine festivals, a focused comparative analysis of ritual practices such as offerings, donations, and Cheerani across multiple Nerchas remains underexplored. This study seeks to address that gap.

3. Sources and Methodological Orientation

The study adopts a qualitative, comparative approach grounded in folkloristic analysis. The material includes shrine-based observations, ritual descriptions, oral explanations provided by devotees and organisers, and analytical reflections developed through sustained field engagement. No external ethnographic sources or theoretical frameworks have been introduced.

The comparative approach adopted here does not aim to rank or hierarchise Nerchas but to identify shared ritual patterns and culturally meaningful variations. By placing multiple Nerchas side by side, the study highlights how similar ritual practices acquire local specificity while remaining part of a broader cultural grammar.

4. Findings and Discussion

4.1. Historical and Cultural Grounding of Nerchas in Malabar

Nerchas emerged within a historical context shaped by shrine-centred religiosity and the diffusion of Sufi devotional traditions in Malabar. Saints’ shrines became focal points of spiritual authority and social gathering, particularly in regions where oral tradition played a dominant role in religious transmission. Annual Nerchas developed as ritualised commemorations that reaffirmed the sanctity of the shrine while enabling collective participation.

The continuity of Nerchas has depended less on written records and more on ritual repetition and communal memory. Each Nercha renews the relationship between the community and the sacred figure associated with the shrine. Over time, these festivals expanded to include economic activity, social interaction, and performative elements, thereby transforming devotional observance into a broader cultural institution.

Importantly, Nerchas historically functioned as inclusive spaces. Participation was not strictly limited by social or occupational boundaries, and shrine spaces often operated as shared cultural zones. This inclusiveness contributed to the endurance of Nerchas as socially embedded ritual forms.

4.2. Comparative Analysis of Ritual Practices Associated with Nerchas

Despite regional variations, Nerchas across Malabar reveal a consistent ritual structure. The following sections analyse key ritual components common to multiple Nerchas in Malabar.

4.2.1. Offerings and Vow-Based Ritual Commitments

Offerings associated with vows constitute a foundational ritual practice across Nerchas. Devotees undertake vows (Nerchakal) in response to personal concerns such as illness, financial difficulty, migration-related uncertainty, or familial well-being. Upon the perceived fulfilment of these vows, offerings are presented at the shrine.

As observed in Nerchas such as Pattambi and Malappuram, offerings often consist of food items prepared using locally available ingredients. The choice of material reflects the devotee’s economic capacity and local cultural norms rather than prescribed religious requirements. This practice transforms individual belief into a visible ritual act, reinforcing the moral relationship between the devotee and the sacred.

4.2.2. Donations and Collective Participation

Unlike vow-specific offerings, donations are voluntary contributions made toward the maintenance of the shrine and the organisation of the Nercha. Donation practices observed in Nerchas such as B. P. Angadi and Appavāṇibha emphasise collective responsibility rather than individual ritual fulfilment.

Donations support communal arrangements including festival logistics, ritual preparation, and shared facilities. Through this practice, devotees participate not only as recipients of sacred grace but as active contributors to the continuity of the Nercha as a cultural institution.

4.2.3. Cheerani as Sacred Distribution

“Cheerani” occupies a distinctive ritual position across Nerchas. As per the study, Cheerani is not an offering given by devotees, but a sacred substance received from the holy place. Prepared using locally available or locally cultivated materials, Cheerani is sanctified within the shrine context and distributed to devotees.

In Nerchas such as Kondotty and Kaṭṭilangāḍi, devotees receive Cheerani with reverence, consuming it or preserving it as a medium of blessing. Its preparation from everyday materials symbolically connects sacred grace with ordinary life, reflecting the folk religious logic that underpins Nercha rituals.

4.2.4. Embodied Ritual Actions and Use of Sacred Space

Ritual participation in Nerchas involves embodied actions such as circumambulation of the shrine, collective prayer, gestures of humility, and ritual waiting. These practices structure movement within sacred space and produce a shared bodily experience among participants.

In martyr-centred Nerchas such as Badr Śuhadā and Rāmanthali Śuhadā, collective presence itself functions as a ritual act, emphasising remembrance and communal solidarity. Through repeated participation, ritual knowledge is transmitted informally, ensuring intergenerational continuity.

4.3. Nerchas as Major Cultural Functions

Beyond ritual observance, Nerchas perform several major cultural functions that sustain their relevance within Malabar society.

First, Nerchas act as mechanisms of social integration by bringing together individuals from diverse occupational and social backgrounds. Temporary markets and communal gatherings associated with Nerchas create spaces for interaction that extend beyond religious boundaries.

Second, Nerchas function as repositories of cultural memory. Oral narratives associated with shrines are reactivated during the festival period, reinforcing historical consciousness and collective identity.

Third, Nerchas support local economies by enabling artisans, traders, and small-scale vendors to participate in festival-related exchange. This economic dimension strengthens the connection between ritual practice and livelihood.

4.4. Nerchas in the Contemporary Social Order

Despite significant social changes including urbanisation and labour migration, Nerchas continue to function as stable cultural institutions. Many migrant community members align their visits home with Nercha periods, reaffirming personal ties to shrine-centred ritual time.

While modes of participation have adapted to contemporary conditions, the core ritual framework remains intact. This adaptability allows Nerchas to mediate between inherited tradition and present-day realities.

5. Conclusion

This comparative study demonstrates that Nerchas are far more than simple religious festivals; they are dynamic cultural institutions that weave together devotion, social cohesion, economic exchange, and the transmission of cultural memory. Through practices such as offerings, donations, Cheerani distribution, and collective ritual performance, Nerchas reinforce community identity while mediating relationships among different social groups. These festivals are simultaneously sacred and social spaces, where spiritual authority intersects with everyday life, and individual devotion is interlaced with collective participation.

By examining multiple Nerchas in Malabar—including Kondotty Nercha, Kattilangadi Nercha, and Ramanthali Shuhada Nercha—the study reveals both the shared structural patterns of these festivals and the region-specific variations that give each Nercha its unique character. The comparative perspective highlights how similar ritual components—processions, offerings, and Cheerani distribution—perform different social, economic, and spiritual functions depending on local history, community composition, and cultural memory. This demonstrates the flexibility of Nercha traditions in accommodating local identities while maintaining an overarching ritual grammar that is recognisable across the region.

In the contemporary social order, Nerchas continue to sustain their relevance despite significant societal transformations such as urbanisation, labour migration, and the influence of mass media. The festivals function as temporal anchors, bringing together dispersed community members and creating embodied experiences of cultural belonging. They facilitate inter-group communication, integrate diverse social networks, and provide a framework within which inherited symbolic meanings are renewed and transmitted to younger generations. Ritual practices such as Cheerani distribution exemplify how sacred material culture mediates equality, social reciprocity, and shared experience, while offerings and donations connect spiritual devotion to tangible community support.

Furthermore, Nerchas exemplify the adaptability and resilience of folk festivals in negotiating continuity and change. While the forms and modes of participation may evolve, the core ritual structures, symbolic logic, and social functions remain robust, allowing the festivals to persist as living cultural institutions. They operate as spaces where the sacred and social are continuously negotiated, enabling communities to engage with both spiritual ideals and the practical realities of communal life.

Ultimately, this study underscores the significance of Nerchas as sites where belief, practice, and sociality intersect. By integrating devotion with collective action, these festivals sustain Malabar’s cultural heritage while dynamically responding to contemporary social conditions. They illustrate how folk rituals can simultaneously preserve continuity, accommodate variation, and foster community cohesion, offering valuable insights into the enduring role of festival culture in shaping social life, identity, and collective memory

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Miller, Roland E. Mappila Muslims of Kerala: A Study in Islamic Trends. Madras: Orient Longman, 1976.

Mohammed, P. A. Malabarile Palli–Dargah Samskaram. Malappuram: Media House, 2012.

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