Exploring the Prevalence of Cyber-Criminality among Undergraduate Students of Universities in South-Eastern Nigeria

Cybercrime has become a growing global concern, affecting individuals, corporations, and governments alike, with its reach extending far beyond national borders. The paper adopted a theoretical approach to examine the prevalence of cybercriminality among undergraduates of universities in Southeastern Nigeria. The paper used two theoretical approaches: the routine activity theory and the differential-association theory. The routine activity theory stipulates three necessary conditions for most crime: a likely offender (cybercriminals), a suitable target (victims) and the absence of a capable guardian (unprotected information), coming together in time and space. That is, for a crime to occur, a likely offender must find a suitable target in the absence of capable guardians. And the differential-association theory asserts that an individual is influenced to participate in criminal behaviour through watching and interacting with other individuals who are engaging in the criminal behaviour. The study revealed that the high level of corruption and the spread of poverty are seen by university undergraduates as the principal cause of cybercrime. Findings also show that the effort to get rich quickly by most Nigerians, especially the youths, is often exploited by cyber fraudsters. Again, findings also show that many security personnel, instead of looking at how to arrest this cybercrime operator, serve as bodyguards to them and cover them up in order to gain cash rewards. The conclusion is that cybercrime can adequately be controlled if law enforcement agencies are trained on the use of technology. The study recommends that there should be a more proactive approach that will allow law enforcement agencies to track and investigate students’ involvement in cybercrime within and outside the institution.

Keywords: Prevalence of cybercrime, Forms of cybercrime, Cybercrime, Undergraduate Students, Nigeria universities

Introduction

Cybercrime is one of the most evolving high-technology crimes of the twenty-first century in the world. Cybercrime has become a growing global concern, affecting individuals, corporations, and governments alike, with its reach extending far beyond national borders. As technology continues to advance, so too do the tactics employed by cybercriminals. In Europe, cybercrime encompasses a wide array of illegal activities, including identity theft, financial fraud, data breaches, and even cyber terrorism. The European Union has made efforts to combat these challenges by introducing stringent regulations such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), as well as cybersecurity initiatives (European Union, 2016). However, despite these efforts, cybercrime remains a persistent threat due to the evolving nature of technology and the increasingly sophisticated methods used by criminals (Böhme, 2020). In Africa, the rapid growth of internet access and mobile technology has brought both opportunities and challenges. Many African nations face widespread poverty, unemployment, and a lack of adequate educational opportunities, which have contributed to the rise of cybercrime. Countries such as South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria have witnessed an alarming increase in cybercriminal activities, including phishing, online scams, and hacking. In 2019, the African Union reported that cybercrime cost the continent approximately $3.5 billion annually (African Union, 2020).

Nigeria, Africa’s most populous nation, has been significantly impacted by the growing threat of cybercrime. Nigerian youths, in particular, have become increasingly involved in various forms of online crime, with financial fraud, phishing, and scams being the most common offences. The term “Yahoo boys” has become synonymous with internet fraud in Nigeria, referring to young people who engage in fraudulent schemes to scam people out of money (Adebayo, 2020).

These impacts have taken different shapes and forms over the years. It has contributed to the invention of other information and communication technology (ICT) solutions and services, such as emails, e-commerce, social media, the Internet of Things (IoT), and its smart services, among others. Aside from the numerous positive aspects of the internet, such as social networking, worldwide linkages, job creation, improving medical and education access, expansion of the commercial landscape and so on (Chen et al., 2023), it has also contributed to a series of criminal activities in our society in the form of internet crimes or cybercrimes (Garba, 2023). Cyber activities have both positive and negative impacts on the users as individuals, organisations, groups, people and society at large. According to Alansari, Aljazzaf, and Sarfraz (2019), cybercrime is any Internet-related crime that is always directed against individuals, groups, and/or the state and its economy, motivated by the criminal intention that can cause damage/destruction that may be of different types, including physical, mental, and loss of money, and also it involves the unlawful accessing of information of the victims using electronic devices. Cybercrimes are not entirely new with their widespread nature, nor are they peculiar to developing nations like Nigeria. For instance, the first highly publicised cybercrimes occurred in November 1988 in the United States (U.S.), when a 23-year-old student, Robert Morris, launched a virus (“Morris Worm”) on the internet. Over 6,000 computers of the estimated 60,000 systems linked to the internet at that time were infected, and it cost about $100 million to repair the infected systems. As a consequence, Morris got a sentence of 3 years’ probation and a $10,000 fine (Stambaugh et al., 2001). Subsequently, cybercrimes gradually evolved into a serious global problem.

In Nigeria, Rotimi (2015) asserted that the menace is very rampant among the youths within the age of 18 to 35 years, and it would be inappropriate to describe youths in Nigeria based on the temporal relation of age because of the timeline and multiplicity of opinion on this issue. Cybercrimes have become a serious problem in Nigeria, culminating in the listing of Nigeria as third on the roll of the top ten cybercrime hot spots in the world by a 2009 Internet Crime Report (FBI, 2010). The seriousness of this problem can be better appreciated when we consider the fact that in spite of the several interventions made by the Nigerian government and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in tackling cybercrime, such as the co-operation between Microsoft Corporation and the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) of Nigeria to fight cybercrime, the enactment of cybercrime laws by the Nigerian government aimed at ensuring the security of computer systems and networks in Nigeria has not produced much result (Balogun & Obe, 2010). Nigeria has for four consecutive years (2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009) ranked third on the list of world cybercrime perpetrator countries (FBI, 2010). Thus, Debarati and Jaishanka (2011) stressed that cybercrimes are offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with criminal motives to intentionally harm the reputations of their victims or cause physical or mental harm to their victims directly or indirectly using modern telecommunication networks such as the internet (chat rooms, e-mails, etc.) and mobile phones (SMS/MMS). The use of modern applications has enhanced cyber criminality such as facebook, yahoo messenger, tinder, twitter, instagram, snapchat, telegram, among others. However, there are no generally accepted typologies of cybercrime, but scholars of criminology typified two main kinds of internet-related crime, such as (1) Advanced Cybercrime (or high-tech crime), sophisticated attacks against computer hardware and software, and (2) Cyber Realm Enabled Crime (Interpol, 2016). What this implies is that many traditional crimes have taken a new turn with the emergence of the internet, such as crimes against children, financial crimes and even terrorism (Oyesanya, 2015). In view of the aforementioned problems, the age category of people that indulges in cybercrimes and other related activities is undergraduate students of universities; hence, this study aims at evaluating the prevalence of cybercrimes among undergraduate students of universities in southeastern Nigeria.

Problem Statement

A global concern today is the issue of cybercrime among undergraduates of Nigerian universities. This social phenomenon has been constituting huge security, economic and mental health threats to individuals, corporate and government organisations in different countries. A global economic crime survey by Armin, Thompson, Ariu, Giacinto, Roli and Kijewski (2015) puts the annual cost of cybercrime to the global economy at more than €300 billion, while the cost of cybercrime for the European Union (EU) was estimated to be 0.4% of its GDP, amounting to €13 billion per annum. This report claimed that Poland, Germany and the United Kingdom lost €377 million, €2.6 billion and €2 billion per annum, respectively (Armin et al., 2015). These figures, among others, showed that cybercrime globally constitutes a serious financial threat to the economy and the wellbeing of their innocent victims. It also follows logically that a crime of this magnitude is possible when individuals remove self-censure and self-sanctions from their behaviour. However, with respect to the undergraduates in Nigerian universities, the contribution of the internet to the academic development of Nigerian undergraduates has been marred by the conscious evolution of new waves of crime.

The internet has also become an environment where the most productive and safest offence thrives. Thus, the ubiquity of social media platforms in recent times has further aggravated the extent of cybercrime involvement among undergraduates in Nigeria (Akor, 2017). Indeed, the trend and patterns of this crime are fast changing with the increasing involvement of female students. For instance, in November 2018, the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) arrested 34 undergraduates, including nine females suspected to be involved in cyber fraud perpetration at Awa-Ijebu, Ogun State (Akinkuotu, 2018). Moreover, Tade and Aliyu (2011) submit that cyber fraud, a form of cybercrime, has literally become a way of life for many undergraduates in 44 Nigerian universities. Aghatise (2006) contends that 80% of cybercrime perpetrators in Nigeria are students in various institutions. The reported cases range from fake lotteries to the biggest internet scams. In July 2001, the Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) arrested four Nigerians suspected to be involved in cybercrime that duped unsuspecting foreign investors in Ghana. Two young men were recently arrested after making an online purchase of two laptops advertised by a woman on her website under false claims. They were arrested at the point of delivery by government officials. Recently, the Ibadan zonal office of the Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) arrested a 26-year-old student of Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, for internet fraud, deceiving unsuspecting victims on military dating sites while posing as a Nigeria-based US Army officer by the name Sergeant Frank McGhee (EFCC, 2016).In view of the aforementioned problems, this study evaluates the prevalence of cybercrimes among undergraduate students of universities in southeastern Nigeria.

The Conceptual Overview of Cybercrimes

Cybercrime refers to illegal activities carried out using computers, networks, or the internet. It has emerged as a significant issue in the digital age, with the rise of technology increasing the potential for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities in systems. Cybercrime can affect individuals, businesses, governments, and even entire nations. The anonymity provided by the internet makes it easier for criminals to operate without being identified, presenting significant challenges for law enforcement (Smith, 2010). Cybercrime is a global issue that frequently surpasses national borders, necessitating international cooperation for effective prevention. It is not surprising that a large number of youths are involved in cybercrime, as they are found to constitute the largest user of the internet. According to the NCA report (2018), the average age of people involved in cybercrime is between 17 and 22 years. This implies that the youths, especially the university undergraduate students, dominate the population of cybercriminals. Various studies (Lowry et al., 2016; Emma et al., 2015; Matti et al., 2015) have been conducted to examine cybercrime of different forms among university students. Cybercrime is mainly committed by our youths in order to make life earnings easier, thereby defrauding individuals or all organisations of all kinds. Some cybercriminals are well organised, use advanced strategies and are highly technically skilled. Their goal is to make money and is usually done by individuals or an organisation at large.

Cybercrime offences made their way into Nigeria in the 1990s. Such crimes were generally referred to as Advance Fee Fraud, or simply ‘419’. Advance fee fraud was a means by which some dubious Nigerians deceived foreigners into parting with their money by promising them non-existent oil contracts. Fraudsters perpetrate such illicit acts by sending emails to their prospective victims whom they promise oil well contracts and demand upfront payments to facilitate the process. Most times, the foreigners are invited into Nigeria and treated to make-believe official receptions during which they are made to sign fictitious contract papers. However, after being put through such make-believe shady deals and upon return to their country of origin, the foreign businessmen would later discover to their discomfiture that they have been conned by Nigerian fraudsters who, thereafter, discontinue further communication with their victims. Beyond the advance fee fraud, or 419 scams, the growth in information communication technology has led to an unprecedented rise in other cybercrime offences such as extortion, identity theft, cyber trespassing, digital piracy, Yahoo-Yahoo Plus and email scams, among many others. Thus, the ubiquity of social media platforms in recent times has further aggravated the extent of cybercrime involvement among undergraduates in Nigeria (Akor, 2017). Indeed, the trend and patterns of this crime are fast changing with the increasing involvement of female students. For instance, in November 2018, the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) arrested 34 undergraduates, including nine females suspected to be involved in cyber fraud perpetration at Awa-Ijebu, Ogun State (Akinkuotu, 2018). Moreover, Tade and Aliyu (2011) submit that cyber fraud, a form of cybercrime, has literally become a way of life for many undergraduates in 44 Nigerian universities. Aghatise (2006) contends that 80% of cybercrime perpetrators in Nigeria are students in various institutions.

Theoretical Framework

The major theories considered in this work include routine activity theory and differential-association theory. Routine activity theory is a crime of opportunity theory that focuses on situations of crimes. It was developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen in 1979. This theory attempts to show that crime rates are not generally affected by macro changes such as economic recessions, unemployment rates, poverty, etc. This theory stipulates three necessary conditions for most crime: a likely offender (cybercriminals), a suitable target (victims) and the absence of a capable guardian (unprotected information), coming together in time and space. That is, for a crime to occur, a likely offender must find a suitable target in the absence of capable guardians. According to Felson and Cohen (1979), the reason for the increase is that it offers more opportunities for crime to occur, as there is much to steal. Routine activity theory provides a simple and powerful insight into the causes of cybercrime. The idea is that in the absence of effective controls, offenders will prey upon attractive targets. To have a crime, a motivated offender must come to the same place as an attractive target. For property crimes, the target is a thing or an object (usually cash in the case of cybercriminals), while for personal crimes, the target is a person (wealthy people). If an attractive target is never in the same place as a motivated offender, the target will not be taken, damaged or assaulted. There are controllers whose presence can prevent internet crime, such as anti-virus, password or encryption, but if the controllers are absent or present but powerless, cybercrime is possible, as posited by Eric (2016).

According to Sutherland (1939; 1960), of differential association theory, criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. This would mean an individual is influenced to participate in criminal behaviour through watching and interacting with other individuals who are engaging in the criminal behaviour. The principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups. When criminal behaviour is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated and sometimes simple, and they learn the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalisations and attitudes for committing a crime. Differential association theory asserts that an individual is more likely to commit crime when the individual learns favourable definitions towards violations of the law in excess of the definitions unfavourable to violations of the law. That is, people learn to engage in crime, primarily through their association with others, and weigh the benefits between. They learn beliefs that are favourable to crime and, as a result, are exposed to criminality (McLeod, 2016). Differential Association theory views crime as something that is desirable or at least justifiable in certain situations. It explains both the process by which a given person(s) learns to engage in crime and the content of what is learned. According to Sutherland (1960), an individual’s environment influences one to learn appropriate behaviours to survive within the environment. This mostly occurs in groups where people within a specific reference group or association display norms of deviance or conformity (Siegel, 2013). According to Siegel (2013), the differential association theory applies to several types of behaviours, including cybercrime. This is because they view themselves as young and innovative; therefore, they commit crimes, such as hacking, advance fee fraud, identity theft, malicious coding and outside or inside espionage as a way to express their creativity cum the anonymous nature of the cyber realm (Moore, 2012). Thus, in relation to the study, the undergraduate student views himself as young and innovative; therefore, he commits cybercrimes such as hacking, advance fee fraud, identity theft, flash bank credit alerts, coding and outside or inside espionage as a way to express his creativity through the anonymous nature of the cyber realm. This theory is relevant in explaining the emergence of cybercrimes among undergraduates because they learn these deviant behaviours from their interactions with others and the environment around them. Cybercriminals acquire deviant behaviour on cyber or computer-related crimes from people they associate with within their daily lives. Today, people rely on computer devices to do almost every daily activity, including communicating, studying, researching and working. Consequently, this environment provides a suitable environment for undergraduates to engage in cybercrimes. Routine theory and differential association theory have been adopted as the theoretical framework in this study because they are the most suitable, adequate, appropriate, and relevant and best explain the phenomenon of cybercrimes.

Results

Motivating Factors and Evaluating the Performance of Institutional Frameworks and Proactive Measures that could Ameliorate the Menace of Criminality Among University Undergraduates

There are various factors that influence the prevalence of cybercrimes among undergraduate students of universities in Nigeria. The founding fathers of the internet, when the Internet was developed, were not willing to misuse the internet for criminal activities. Nowadays in cyberspace, there are numerous troubling events. Scholars have nevertheless attributed the world’s causes of cybercrime to the following: unemployment, the negative role model, insufficient police facilities and social gratification are causes of cybercrime. All these reasons, according to him, are used in most parts of the world to facilitate cybercrime. The major causes of cybercrime in most countries around the world are widespread corruption, harsh economic conditions, disregard for the law, and lack of transparency and accountability in governance. Two primary and secondary causes could be associated with cybercrime. Poverty prevailing and the weak education system are the main causes (Folashade and Abimbola, 2013). Habitat, corruption and rapid syndrome are the secondary causes.

In Nigeria, for example, the high level of corruption and the spread of poverty are seen by university undergraduates as the principal cause of cybercrime. The majority of Nigerian students live below the poverty line (less than one dollar a day (#360.50)). Over five million university undergraduates in Nigeria have no hope of what they will do when they are university graduates; as a means of paving the way forward, they use cybercrime (Szde, 2014). Nigeria was ranked the third most corrupt country in the whole world until 1999, when Nigerians created some financial crime monitoring agencies like EFCC (Economic and Financial Crime Commissions, etc.). Again, Nigeria is regarded globally as a third-world country due to its high poverty rate index, which is alarming. This poverty rate is increasing day by day; the rich are getting richer while the poor are getting poorer. Inadequate provision of basic amenities and an epileptic supply of power have put the small and medium enterprise into a pause.

· Peer group influence: This is usually showcased in certain environments where everyone wants to belong to a certain group or upper class without consideration of his/her background, and this is grinding the moral upbringing of many youth in Nigeria. They try to emulate their mate in how to defraud individuals and organisations without consideration of its negative effect on them. All they want is that I am driving life without the consideration that they say that “the ends justify the means”.

· Negative role models and parental influence: This is caused by some parents who compare their children with other children and think that all they need from them is to make money, whether good or bad. Money is all they want; money speaks. This usually lures these children into committing crimes.

· Security men collaborating with fraudsters: Many security men and women, instead of looking at how to arrest this cybercrime operator, serve as bodyguards to them and cover them up in order to gain cash rewards. They go a long way to teach them the best way to invest this illegally acquired wealth without being arrested by the government. According to Ebeleogu, Ojo, Andeh and Agu (2019), the occurrence of a high economic condition and bad educational system also contributes immensely to the proliferation of cybercrime in Nigeria. Other causes of cybercrime in Nigeria as a society include a high rate of urban migration, poor infrastructure, weak laws, and quick-money syndrome.

Evaluating the performance deals with security awareness as an essential part of the fighting and prevention of cybercrimes. Edwards et al. (2016) suggested that the frequency of data breaches has increased over time and continues to expose the personal information of hundreds of millions of people. Wiley et al. (2020) suggested that organisations should focus on security culture rather than organisational culture to improve information security awareness and save time and resources, which depends on the importance of leaders in the encouragement of positive security behaviours through strategic management and planning, communication, and transparent decision-making processes. Sabillon et al. (2019) estimated that a cybersecurity awareness programme must include adequate training aligned with the organisation’s objectives and long-term investment to help create a cybersecurity culture if training is delivered continuously. Security awareness training programs’ success depends on how they are delivered. The security awareness approach may differ from one country to another. Tambo and Adama (2017) estimated that 11 out of 54 African countries had taken concrete actions essential in preventing and counteracting cybercrimes by implementing laws and regulations about cybersecurity. Moreover, the continent has seen cybercrimes and mobile money fraud increase significantly over time due to the absence of laws and regulations in that regard and the rise of internet penetration, which has contributed to enormous financial losses in terms of cyberattacks for countries like South Africa, Morocco, and Uganda. In that regard, the need to increase cybersecurity capabilities and cooperation by investing in building safe, reliable, and persistent cyberspace decision-making platforms and frameworks and releasing the cybersecurity leadership role and commitment is essential to create cybersecurity and operating platforms for all stakeholders that include Microsoft, Google, Apple, Facebook, banks, governments, and other private sectors on cyberattack incidents that affect the local and global market and share losses (Bouveret, 2019). Furthermore, the cybercrimes can be reduced by building public and community cybersecurity communication and engagement resilience, readiness, and capability to promote public and community cybersecurity and cyber-wellness policy and capabilities, awareness campaigns, meetings, and empowerment. Person-Centred Information Security Awareness (PCISA) is helpful to maintain information security and protect data assets for organisations. Ki-Aries and Faily (2017) suggested the PCISA contributes to the identification of the audience needs and security risks and enables a tailored approach to business-specific awareness activities, which contributes to the reduction of information security risks through security and allows a better adaptation to the time and resources needed for its implementation within the organisation. Information security can be maintained by building a security-conscious culture, providing end-user training to reinforce security awareness, developing proper guidelines for disposal of storage media, performing audits of security systems regularly and testing staff, and developing procedures that will help to report an incident. Policies and Procedures. With the rise of cybercrime activities, the adoption of policies and procedures becomes relevant in fighting and preventing such a phenomenon. Aldawood and Skinner (2019) suggested that policies and procedures play a huge role in the security awareness education training by demonstrating the ability of the organisation to provide training to employees through a general session on security awareness for all the new employees by focusing on commitment to ethical business behaviour. Kayser et al. (2019) suggested the importance of having solid policies and procedures related to cybercrime protection and the necessity of working with private and government entities to ensure that human rights standards will be applied in the cyberspace environment. Addressing any change in policies and procedures and intensive training for specific employees for areas of responsibility is helpful to refresh from time to time exposed employees of the organisation by explaining any committed crimes and monitoring and reporting them (Aldawood & Skinner, 2019).

· Cyber Detection: Daily routines characteristic of a population affect the quantity and location of crime by determining how frequently potential offenders are victimised. The development of the Internet changed the lifestyle and routine activities of the population and opened a decrease in traditional police-based crime prevention strategies (Caneppele & Aebi, 2017). Malik and Younis (2016) suggested that cyber detection techniques such as checking mistakes from many authorities’ claims, the email inspection through internet protocol, and the use of a network intrusion detection system to track and detect incoming and outgoing traffic on the network system help in the prevention of cybercrimes. Malik and Younis (2016) suggested that imposing local law regarding the report of cyber incidents to the state police allows them to fight more efficiently against cybercrimes by collecting information about the victims to develop an incident response plan to manage cyber risks better. Chavez and Bichler (2019) suggested that the increasing disadvantages over anticipated rewards would lead potential offenders to refrain from committing a specific crime, influencing the rational decision-making process to prevent crime. As businesses start to take into account very seriously the impacts of cybercrimes on their daily activities, it becomes more vital for them to make that issue a priority as part of their social change culture, which will contribute to waking up and making their employees aware of the necessity to keep their eyes open for security threats that they may face on a daily basis. Positive Social Change Implication. Many researchers have addressed the importance of positive social change in the reduction of cybercrimes. Payne et al. (2019) suggested that the evolution of cybercrimes is the result of building a broad effort and the use of a category of presumption as a guide in the understanding of traditional crime, white-collar crime, international crime, and socially constructed crime as part of positive social change. According to Barosy (2019), social change can be viewed positively when it includes a safe and secure environment in which business and consumer confidence are increased, strengthened by protecting personal and confidential information.

· Safe Internet Environment: Having a safe internet environment is essential to prevent cybercrimes. Barosy (2019) suggested that establishing and sustaining a secure Internet environment may create a climate of trust and safety for the online community. Kakucha and Buya (2018) indicated that establishing a comprehensive framework to enable the development, institutionalisation, assessment, and improvement of an information security programme is a way to develop a typical information security strategy. Besides, there should be a need to deploy countermeasures that will block all attacks on the organisation, which can be used to avoid information leakage (Kakucha & Buya, 2018).

· Network Protection: Cyber attackers infiltrate organisation networks that are not protected from committing cybercrimes. Malware is any software used to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, gain unauthorised access to private computer systems, and make illegal profit for malware owners (Bai et al., 2019). Holt et al. (2018) suggested that wireless networks as part of any organisation’s network infrastructure should be secured to prevent malware from spraying when users engage in downloading activities that are not securely monitored. Critical elements contribute to cybercrimes and different approaches to mitigate them through a culture of prevention and security awareness that is very useful. Leukfeldt et al. (2017) suggested that cybercriminals can use malware such as viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and spyware to access credentials or manipulate the entire system sessions. Although there are many tools to detect and prevent malware, it remains, however, one of the most common ways that cybercriminals infiltrate and cause significant harm to businesses and organisations computers around the world, which needs to be taken into account when building and implementing security strategies in the prevention of cybercrimes.

· Artificial Intelligence in the Prevention of Cybercrimes: Artificial intelligence applications are being found efficient in the prevention of cybercrimes. According to Hamet and Tremblay (2017), artificial intelligence is a general term that implies using a computer to model intelligent behaviour with minimal human intervention. Siddiqui et al. (2018) suggested that artificial intelligence is helping humanity in addressing the issues of cybersecurity because of its intelligent nature and flexibility. Artificial intelligence techniques and applications such as heuristics, data mining, neural networks, and artificial immune systems have proven efficient in preventing and mitigating cybercrimes (Siddiqui et al., 2018).

· Situational Prevention Factors and Social Bond Factors: Safa et al. (2018), by examining information security concerns for organisations, suggested that situational prevention factors and social bond factors such as a commitment to organisational policies and procedures, involvement in information security activities, and personal norms for organisations promoted the adoption of negative attitudes toward misbehaviour, which influenced the employees’ intentions towards engaging in misconduct positively, and this, in turn, reduced insider threat behaviour. In addition, surveillance in cyberspace may contribute to preventing situational crime. Testa et al. (2017) suggested that a situational deterring indication reduced the probability of system trespassers with fewer administration privileges on the attacked computer system entering activity commands. In contrast, these indications in the attacked system did not affect the probability of system trespassers with the administration level of privileges to enter activity commands. Moeller et al. (2016) suggested that gaining access to counter-surveillance information and human capital by cybercriminals that directly affect people’s success in online forums reduces the likelihood of capture and diminishes informal threats of burglaries. They also proposed that the fear of sanctions may motivate some criminals to cut off their ties to unfamiliar people and reinforce ties to other criminals due to restrictive prevention that emphasises a behaviour change.

· Data Privacy Prevention: Data are valuable assets for an organisation and represent constituents that are the most targeted by cybercriminals. Fraudulent access to organisation data without authorisation can lead to data breaches. Martin et al. (2017) estimated that data breaches are bad for performance, and the effect of data breaches reaches a worse level when a firm is affected more than one time. Thomas et al. (2017) also estimated that data breaches at primary online services had become a regular occurrence in recent years. Based on a survey, 26% of adults affirmed that they had received a notice related to a data breach in the past year. Alotaibi et al. (2016) suggested that the very high cost of cybercrimes affects many consumers through the breach of data privacy and may drive them to use mobile gaming applications in the creation and learning of cybersecurity awareness. Therefore, it is vital to limit access to sensitive data by granting access only to authorised entities and monitoring any existing data storage system access. Besides, organisations should adopt an information assurance approach to ensure data protection regarding confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and availability. Muller and Lind (2020) suggested that compliance with information security rules among information assurance professionals may prevent organisational data from risks.

· Alerts and Anti-phishing: Anti-phishing methods are more used and taught in security awareness training, such as interactive game methods to allow users to identify risky emails and websites. The importance of human factors in the fight against cybercrimes is essential in reducing cyberattacks by learning security best practices and security awareness training. Phishing is an activity that consists of stealing sensitive information online, such as usernames, passwords, and online banking details, from its victims (Arachchilage et al., 2016). Martin et al. (2018) suggested that understanding and quantifying end-user phishing susceptibility relative to their failure to incorporate expectation factors are crucial preconditions for developing adequate protection. Besides, Arachchilage et al. (2016) suggested that cybercriminals use the technique of phishing to attack victims. Therefore, alerting end-users about any phishing activity may prevent them from opening any phishing emails (Jansen & Leukfeldt, 2016). Thus, alerts are a way to avoid phishing, which contributes to the prevention of cybercrimes.

· Honeypot: A honeypot is a system intentionally initiated to probably target cyberattacks and designed to attract intruders’ attention and gather and report information. Litchfield et al. (2016) suggested that honeypots derive much value from their ability to fool attackers into believing they are authentic machines. According to the Pothumani and Anuradha (2017) decoy method, a new technique to detect the insider attacker and reduce the amount of focus information to the attacker and redirect the attacker from the original data appears as the best method to solve the threats of data security. Honeypots are vital in terms of keeping away data from any inside or outside intrusion.

Conclusion

In conclusion, cybercrime is a trend and still very rampant among youths or students in Nigerian universities, considering what it has contributed negatively to the society. Though it cannot be eradicated, it can be adequately controlled if law enforcement agencies are trained on the use of technology, as the constraints confronting them in doing the needful should be critically addressed by the policymakers. Nigerian law enforcement agencies are endowed with certain responsibilities in controlling the spread of cybercrime among youths or students in Nigeria, as this will sensitise them to collaborate with other sister agencies in controlling cybercrime effectively. With the increase of cybercrimes, individuals, organisations, businesses, and governments are seeking relevant and efficient solutions to prevent or fight against their data being compromised.

Recommendations

1. To reduce the prevalence of cybercrime among youths or students at Nigerian universities, there should be adequate technological training for law enforcement agents in the forensic department. Nevertheless, in the process of recruiting law enforcement agents, those with computer know-how should be enlisted adequately. It is important and timely to adopt and create new law enforcement agencies that will be saddled to regulate and control certain cyber activities, as apprehending cybercriminals becomes difficult due to the complexity in cyberspace.

2. There should be a more proactive approach that will allow law enforcement agencies to track and investigate students involved in cybercrime within and outside the institution. Besides, most of these students that practice such acts can be easily tracked within their hostels in the institutions.

3. School management should be allowed to report students detected to be involved in cybercrime to avert its escalation, because by doing so it will reduce the perpetration of cybercrime within the school. This can only be achieved through effective collaboration between school management and law enforcement agencies.

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Examining the Role of the AU in Combating Xenophobia in Africa

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Citation

Nwokoroeze, C. N. (2026). Examining the Role of the AU in Combating Xenophobia in Africa. International Journal for Social Studies, 12(1), 24–35. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijss/2

Nwokoroeze, Chinonye Nnenna

Department of Political Science,

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Agbani Email: chinonye.nwokoroeze@esut.edu.ng

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0449-9036

Abstract
The AU goal of a cohesive and integrated continent is greatly impeded by xenophobia. Xenophobic views and violent crimes remain in many African countries, harming social cohesiveness, socioeconomic stability, and continental integration despite the AU’s efforts to promote unity. The results illustrate how xenophobia effects a number of socioeconomic aspects, such as work, education, and resource accessibility for both African migrants and host communities. Migrants, generally considered as economic threats, face exclusion from labour opportunities and critical utilities, resulting to ruined livelihoods and repeated cycles of poverty. Despite the AU’s stated opposition to xenophobic violence and support for protective regulations, critics contend that its policies lack enforcement and proactive steps to prevent xenophobia at its root. The study’s findings demonstrate that xenophobia continues to be a major hurdle to the African Union’s aim of a united and prosperous continent. To foster long-lasting unity, the AU must reaffirm its commitment to inclusivity and cooperation among member states. It is therefore recommended that the AU and its member states implement educational campaigns promoting Pan-Africanism and the economic contributions of migrants to reshape public perceptions, strengthen anti-discrimination laws, and enhance border and migration policies that would facilitate smoother integration and reduce community tensions.

Keywords: AU, African mobility, Migrants, Violence, Xenophobia

Introduction

The AU has been engaged in regional integration for decades via regional strategic visions and policy frameworks. Bilal (2016) pointed out that after decades of policy frameworks and academic discussion on African governance, the objective of African integration remains unattainable. This is a result of neo-colonialism, political instability, weak political leadership, xenophobic or Afrophobic acts and policies, uneven integration efforts, and the general failure of true integration on the continent. Onditi (2021) underlined that xenophobia affects trade, politics, security, and cultural exchanges, rendering it Africa’s most major integration obstacle. Okem, Asuelime, and Adekoye (2015) argued that African leaders have yet to identify and address the damaging impact of xenophobia on Africa’s integration trajectory. Ottuh (2020) says this is accurate since xenophobic violence also damages local native people who are mistakenly thought to be “foreign” or from another nation. Durokifa and Ijeoma (2017) claim that xenophobia has happened in Africa at numerous intervals, obvious through attacks, harassment, and prejudice directed toward immigrants in South Africa, Nigeria, Ghana, Zambia, Kenya, Zimbabwe, and Egypt. In Egypt, xenophobia targeted refugees, asylum seekers, and other migrants originating from Sub-Saharan Africa. Xenophobic violence has also hurt Somali immigrants and communities in Kenya. Piracy and terrorism in Kenya made Somali immigrants and natives prejudiced and violate other people’s rights as they were perceived to be pirates and terrorists (Human Rights Watch, 2014). When Kwame Nkrumah was thrown out, Ghana became increasingly xenophobic. Kofi Busia’s new government kicked out immigrants from Nigeria and Burkina Faso and put them in deplorable conditions due of the severe Aliens Compliance Order. Hundreds of Ghanaians were transported back to Ghana from Nigeria in the early 1980s because of this (Ucham, 2014). In 2019, some South Africans attacked, killed, robbed, or stole from foreign citizens, especially from Nigeria and other African nations, because they thought they were damaging their jobs and the economy (Ezeji & Mbagwu, 2020).Ottuh (2020) states that apartheid and colonialism were two of the social issues that Africa confronted in the late 20th century. To address these issues, they employed a “integrative approach.” Sadly, the dissolution of African states is being made worse by violence against other Africans that is rooted on hatred for foreigners. This violence is prompted by people’s discontent over how things are being handled. In light of the aforementioned circumstances, the AU ought to confront the escalation of xenophobic crimes in Africa to create continental unity. The AU and intellectuals both speak out against racism, although there are moments when xenophobic events occurs in Africa. They also haven’t been able to cope with how xenophobia damages Africa’s overall economic and social freedom.

AU Initiatives on Xenophobia

The African Union’s (AU) goal of a unified and integrated Africa is significantly hampered by xenophobia. Xenophobic violence is viewed by the African Union, an organization dedicated to promoting peace, security, and socioeconomic integration across the continent, as a direct attack on its fundamental principles of unity and solidarity among African nations. Xenophobia limits the free movement of people, labour, and goods, impeding the AU’s aspirations of economic cooperation and integration as envisioned in Agenda 2063 (Ndaba, 2023). The challenge of attaining these integration aims in the face of xenophobic beliefs has been underlined by incidences of anti-immigrant violence, especially in nations grappling with significant levels of unemployment and economic inequity (Massay & Susan, 2023). AU has regularly condemned xenophobic crimes, including pronouncements that urge on member states to protect foreign nationals and reject acts of violence against immigrants. In rare instances, AU delegates have travelled to affected nations in an effort to foster dialogue and collaboration with local authorities over the most effective ways to protect migrant rights and safety. The African Union has also underlined that xenophobia runs opposed to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, which demands the protection of all Africans, regardless of nationality (Makaya, 2023). However, sceptics claim that these measures have largely been flimsy and reactive, with the AU reacting to individual violent incidences rather than putting long-term strategies in place to deal with the core reasons of xenophobia (Olofinbiyi, 2022).One of the issues the AU has in addressing xenophobia is its lack of enforcement resources. The AU can suggest and encourage member states to establish anti-xenophobia policies, but it lacks the capacity to impose legally binding judgements (Makaya, 2023). As a result, many governments may fail to take serious action against xenophobia, especially when it encompasses politically sensitive themes such to unemployment, public resources, or immigration (John-Langba, 2022). To reinforce its position, the AU should consider adopting more rigorous frameworks that enable it to monitor and review member states’ compliance with anti-xenophobia laws. For instance, an independent monitoring agency may be established to catalogue xenophobic events across the continent, holding governments accountable when they fail to secure refugees.Furthermore, there is an urgent need for targeted action plans to counter xenophobia even as frameworks like the African Charter and the AU’s Migration Policy Framework encourage inclusive policies and human rights. These initiatives should describe preventative steps, including education programs targeted at strengthening Pan-African solidarity and eradicating detrimental misconceptions about immigration. Furthermore, Gächter (2022) argues that the AU can press member states to develop legislative protections for migrants, such as anti-discrimination statutes that relate directly to xenophobic behaviour, insuring that violators suffer sufficient punishments. In the long run, improved mechanisms—such as monitoring systems, economic incentives for member states that support anti-xenophobia measures, and tighter migration policies—could assist boost the AU’s efforts and affirm its commitment to African unity.

Impact of xenophobia in Africa

Xenophobia has had major socio-economic implications across Africa. It has sparked conflicts amongst African countries and has the potential to further isolate them if left ignored. According to Mkhize (2019), Zambia took a stand by postponing a planned friendly football game with South Africa in Lusaka following the racist attacks on immigrants in 2019. Madagascar promptly came in to replace Zambia but later withdrew over same grounds. Hot FM, a popular local radio station, announced that it will stop playing South African music until further notice, and Zambian student protestors staged a rally that resulted in the closure of commercial hubs in the capital (Mkhize, 2019). The relationship between these nations is badly impacted by this trend, which also has economic repercussions.During demonstrations in Lubumbashi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), demonstrators looted South African-owned companies and broke the windows of the South African embassy (Mkhize, 2019). Meanwhile, after then-foreign minister Geoffrey Onyeama expressed strong emotional disapproval, the Nigerian government withdrew from the 2019 World Economic Forum in Cape Town. Additionally, the Nigerian government called back its high commissioner in South Africa (Durokifa & Ijeoma, 2017). Prominent Nigerian musician Tiwa Savage cancelled her gig in South Africa in protest, while Adams Oshiomhole, then-national chairman of Nigeria’s ruling All Progressives Congress, called for a boycott of South African goods and services. He also threatened to nationalise South African-owned companies like MTN and revoke landing privileges for South African Airways until the xenophobic violence ceased. “Nigeria needs to show that we are not chickens to be molested” was his response (Durokifa & Ijeoma, 2017). The economic devastation during this period was severe.Xenophobic ideologies often perceive immigration as a risk to local economic stability. According to Szaflarski and Bauldry (2019), this approach results in discrimination in the workplace, as migrants are either refused employment possibilities or compelled to work in informal or precarious occupations with minimal job security or legal protection. According to the International Organisation for Migration (IOM, 2001) in countries where xenophobia is prevalent, migrant workers are often blamed for high unemployment rates or declining wages, despite evidence that they contribute positively to the economy by creating jobs and supporting businesses. Xenophobic violence, such as the targeting of migrant-owned companies, exacerbates these difficulties. Okunade and Awosusi (2023) discovered that when stores and institutions held by migrants are damaged or stolen, the subsequent economic disturbance radiates across local economies, harming both the migrants and the local population. Because enterprises are forced to close and economic activity slows down, this not only results in the loss of livelihoods but also badly influences the general economic health of the affected areas. Addressing these socio-economic aspects of xenophobia is vital for fostering more integration and unity among African states.

The conceptual picture of xenophobia

In Africa, prejudiced beliefs and actions directed towards foreigners, especially immigrants, refugees, and non-citizens, are referred to as xenophobia. According to Marumo, Chakale, and Mothelesi (2019), it occurs when people are shunned, rejected, and demonised because of their perceived differences from the local population or their foreignness. Okem, Asuelime, and Adekoye (2015) state that xenophobia is typified by anti-foreign attitudes, a pervasive hate of other countries, an irrational fear of foreigners, and an excessive dependence on strong nationalism. Akinola (2017) defines xenophobia as acts of discrimination against those who are perceived as outsiders or different from those who are thought to be the original occupiers or citizens of a certain location or political system.According to Adeola (2015), xenophobia has been a persistent problem in the African environment, with its roots in hostile attitudes, discriminating language, and violent acts against immigrants from surrounding nations. Particularly in areas where immigrants are perceived as a threat to the social or economic well-being of the native population, these beliefs often result in widespread hostility, violent attacks, and the expulsion of foreigners. Everatt (2011) believes that historical bloodshed, township competition, tremendous structural economic and social disparities, bad housing, and the exploitation of cheap labour are the key reasons of xenophobia in Africa. Akinola (2020) points out that the failure of regional institutions like the African Union (AU), poor political governance, and political instability exacerbate xenophobic sentiments.Several studies have linked xenophobia in Africa to various historical and economic contexts. One well-known instance of xenophobic policies is the conflict between Ghana and Nigeria in the 1960s. The “Alien Compliance Order” was issued in 1969 by Ghana’s then-prime minister, Kofi Abrefa Busia, with the purpose of driving out illegal immigrants, especially in light of the country’s economic collapse following political upheaval following Dr. Kwame Nkrumah’s resignation. Immigrants, particularly Nigerians, were scapegoated for the country’s economic troubles. Brobbey (2018) highlights that the widespread hatred toward migrants in Ghana was motivated by economic concerns, such as the notion that foreigners were taking over local enterprises. Similar to this, Nigeria deported approximately two million migrants in 1983—mostly Ghanaians—in reaction to political and economic issues. The “Ghana Must Go” campaign, which related to the large deportation of Ghanaians from Nigeria and the attacks on Nigerians in Ghana, called attention to the long-lasting antagonism between the two countries.The deportation of Asian migrants from Uganda in 1972 under Idi Amin’s dictatorship and the 1978 expulsion of Beninese nationals from Gabon are more examples of xenophobic actions with economic underpinnings (Paalo, Adu-Gyamfi & Arthur, 2022). Similarly, in Ivory Coast, the institutionalisation of “Ivorian identity” in the 1980s, driven by tensions between indigenous Ivorian farmers and Burkinabe migrants, led to the deportation of around 12,000 Burkinabes (Wiafe-Amoako, 2015). According to Adebajor (2011), the belief that DRC citizens were misusing Angola’s natural resources contributed to their deportation.In South Africa, xenophobia has garnered the highest academic interest. The country’s history of colonialism and apartheid has tremendously shaped modern xenophobic sentiments. Landau, Ramjathan-Keogh, and Singh (2005) suggest that large-scale immigration from other African nations, together with South Africa’s tough history, has contributed to the spike in xenophobic violence. Millions of South Africans were herded into ethnically split townships by the Apartheid-era Group Areas Act, which fostered racial and ethnic tensions that today show up in xenophobic violence against African migrants. Concerns about economic competition and the belief that foreigners were taking jobs and depleting public resources led black South Africans to start using violence against black non-natives when apartheid ended (Steenkamp, 2009).Xenophobia in South Africa, as in other African countries, is caused by a combination of economic and societal forces. Steenkamp (2009) adds that economic competitiveness, the notion that foreigners are criminals or burdens on the economy, and the demand on public services have been important causes of xenophobic beliefs. For instance, during the 2008 xenophobic attacks, nearly 60 foreign nationals, including Zimbabweans, Mozambicans, Somalis, and Ghanaians, were slaughtered in violent assaults (Kersting, 2009). Swaziland, Lesotho, and Botswana migrants in South Africa frequently confront less hatred compared to migrants from Zimbabwe or Mozambique, due to the latter’s perceived competition for resources (Steenkamp, 2009).While economic concerns, such as unemployment and underdevelopment, are often highlighted as important contributing causes to xenophobia in Africa, Steenkamp (2009) believes that migrants are often viewed as scapegoats for deeper structural problems generated by inadequate governance. The demonisation of foreigners as the root of social problems may result from national complaints about bad economic management and governance. Beyond the economic cause, additional aspects could create xenophobia. For example, Bordeau (2010) says that prejudices against foreigners—what he calls “Afrophobia”—usually stem from views that immigrants are to blame for social ills including the development of sickness, criminality, and job theft. According to Adeola (2015), sensationalist reporting in the media contributes significantly to the spread of xenophobia by creating negative feelings toward immigrants. Media coverage in South Africa, Ghana, and Nigeria, for instance, occasionally perpetuates misconceptions about migrants, making them targets of public resentment.Adeola (2015) asserts that colonial legacies continue to influence xenophobia in Africa. The “foreign/other” dichotomy is maintained by phoney national identities that have been developed as a result of colonial powers’ artificial borders. Kersting (2009) concurs, pointing out that nationalism, bolstered by colonial restraints, has often blocked other socioeconomic groups from receiving state resources, which is then utilised as a basis for xenophobic attitudes. In conclusion, even while economic problems like underdevelopment and unemployment are still important, other social, political, and historical causes also play a major role in the continuance of xenophobia in Africa. The media’s role, colonialism’s legacy, and the current issues of state governance all contribute immensely to the xenophobic views that still obstruct African unity and integration.

Conclusion

Africa’s unity, shared integration vision, and financial stability remain seriously threatened by xenophobia. Coordinated action against xenophobia is necessary and urgent for the African Union (AU) and its member states, not only to maintain the rights and dignity of African migrants but also to satisfy the continent’s wider goals of unity and sustainable development. The AU can contribute to the creation of an Africa where national boundaries operate as bridges rather than obstacles to African unity by implementing audacious, inclusive policies that promote tolerance and respect for one another.To establish a united, inclusive Africa, the AU’s commitment to fighting xenophobia must extend beyond policy declarations to genuine, enforceable measures. This requires improving social and economic possibilities for both migrants and host communities, establishing protective frameworks, and promoting a collective sense of Africa’s shared identity and interdependence. These tactics will help eliminate the situations that give rise to xenophobic emotions and replace them with chances for collaboration, reciprocity, and growth. The integration, peace, and prosperity promised in Agenda 2063 are on the horizon for an Africa free of xenophobia. A future where xenophobia no longer stands in the way of Africa’s integration will be shaped by the AU’s leadership and unwavering dedication. By emphasising the security of all Africans, regardless of ethnicity, and assuring that xenophobia has no place in the sociopolitical atmosphere of the continent, the AU can establish the framework for a truly robust and cohesive Africa.

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