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What is Building Performance and Simulation
Energy Performance Evaluation
Energy performance evaluation is a crucial aspect of building design and operation, aimed at assessing and optimizing a building’s energy consumption and efficiency. It involves using various tools, techniques, and simulations to analyze how a building uses energy for heating, cooling, lighting, and other systems. The goal is to identify opportunities for energy savings, make informed design decisions, and improve the overall sustainability of the building.
Here’s an overview of the steps involved in energy performance evaluation:
Data Collection: Gather information about the building’s design, construction, and systems. This includes architectural drawings, specifications of building components, HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) system details, lighting specifications, and occupancy patterns.
Energy Modeling: Create a computer-based energy model of the building using specialized software. This model simulates the building’s energy consumption based on factors such as its orientation, location, climate, insulation levels, and the performance characteristics of its systems and components.
Simulation: Run simulations using the energy model to predict how the building will perform under different conditions, such as varying outdoor temperatures, occupancy patterns, and lighting schedules. Simulations can help identify peak energy demand times, potential areas of energy waste, and opportunities for improvement.
Baseline Comparison: Compare the simulation results with a baseline scenario, which typically represents a standard or minimum energy efficiency requirement. This comparison helps gauge the effectiveness of energy-saving measures.
Energy Conservation Measures (ECMs): Identify and evaluate various energy-saving strategies and technologies that can be implemented to improve energy efficiency. These measures could include upgrading insulation, optimizing HVAC systems, using energy-efficient lighting, installing renewable energy sources (such as solar panels), and improving building envelope performance.
Sensitivity Analysis: Conduct sensitivity analyses to understand how changes in different parameters affect energy consumption. This helps prioritize which measures have the most significant impact on energy performance.
Cost-Benefit Analysis: Evaluate the costs associated with implementing energy conservation measures against the expected energy savings over the building’s lifespan. This analysis helps in making informed decisions about which measures are financially viable and provide the best return on investment.
Recommendations: Based on the simulation results, sensitivity analysis, and cost-benefit considerations, generate a set of recommendations for improving the building’s energy performance. These recommendations may vary depending on the project’s goals, budget, and timeline.
Monitoring and Verification: After implementing energy-saving measures, continue to monitor the building’s energy consumption to verify the actual performance and compare it to the predicted results. This step helps ensure that the building is achieving the intended energy savings.
Iterative Process: Energy performance evaluation is often an iterative process, with designers and engineers refining their strategies and simulations as the design progresses or as new data becomes available.
By conducting thorough energy performance evaluations, architects, engineers, and building owners can make informed decisions that result in more energy-efficient buildings, reduced operational costs, and a lower environmental impact.
What is Building Performance and Simulation
When used appropriately, building performance simulation has the potential to reduce the environmental impact of the built environment, to improve indoor quality and productivity, as well as to facilitate future innovation and technological progress in construction. Since publication of the first edition of Building Performance Simulation for Design and Operation, the discussion has shifted from a focus on software features to a new agenda, which centres on the effectiveness of building performance simulation in building life cycle processes.
A new round of simulation tools puts the power of building-performance analysis—long the domain of engineers and energy consultants—into the hands of architects.
Predicting a building’s post-occupancy performance early in the design process gives teams the greatest opportunities to optimize a project and understand which decisions will have a significant impact on carbon footprint. Generally speaking, tools that provide real-time feedback and order-of-magnitude comparisons are best suited for the conceptual and schematic design phases, given the rate of design changes. In later phases of the design process, accuracy takes precedence over immediacy as a building becomes more defined.
In the past, designers seeking performance-analysis software had to sacrifice accuracy for ease of use. High-end simulation engines, such as DOE-2.2 and EnergyPlus, required a lot of detailed information and time to compute—two things that are in short supply in the early design phases. Recognizing these constraints, several software companies have developed tools and plug-ins that integrate almost seamlessly into existing BIM software and facilitate early-and-often checks on building performance. Below are five such products to consider for your next project.
Vabi Software provides a suite of apps for calculating and visualizing a project’s environmental, financial, and programmatic performance. The Thermal Comfort Optimizer calculates ideal heating and cooling set points for each room in a building, while the Daylight Ratio Evaluator calculates the amount of daylight a space is receiving and highlights rooms that do not meet requirements. The Energy Assessor, which is forthcoming, estimates the project’s monthly and yearly energy use and costs.
Results from all of the developer’s apps are summarized on a single interface, Vabi’s building performance dashboard, which tallies an overall score based on each criteria for a project. While Vabi Apps do not provide as much detail as some of the other products listed here, their affordability and ease of use are a plus.
Green Building Studio (GBS) is available as a standalone cloud-based service or as part of Revit’s add-on Energy Analysis tools. Using the DOE-2.2 analysis engine, this service provides a very detailed analysis and, as a cloud service, runs quickly on Autodesk’s servers.
Ordinarily, the DOE-2.2 engine requires a thorough description of a building’s envelope and mechanical systems. However, GBS makes assumptions for many of these parameters using ASHRAE standards, allowing architects to focus on the design areas that have the most significance on the building’s overall energy footprint without getting bogged down in technical details. In addition to calculating energy consumption, electricity use, and annual carbon emissions, GBS also estimates the building’s Energy Star score, points for glazing factor and water credits for the U.S. Green Building Council’s LEED rating system, and solar energy potential.
One downside to the cloud-based approach is that the analysis is provided in a report format rather than interactively in the model itself. However, the GBS report viewer does allow for side-by-side comparisons of simulation results.
What is Energy Conservation Building Code ECBC
What is Energy Conservation Building Code ECBC
What is Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC)
The Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) set minimum energy performance standards for commercial buildings. Under section 14 (p) of the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Central Government has powers to prescribe ECBC for non-residential buildings, having connected load of 100 KW and above or a contract demand of 120 KVA and above or recommended built-up area of 1000 sqm and above. or building complex for efficient use of energy and its conservation. The state governments have the flexibility to modify ECBC to suit local or regional needs. Energy performance standards for the following building systems will be included in the ECBC:
- Building Envelope
- Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning
- Lighting
- Service Water Heating
- Electric Power and Distribution
The salient features of the ECBC for the Composite Climate Zone are as under:
1. Building Envelope:
| Heat/Moisture Losses | Walls | Roof | Window |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minimize Conduction Losses | Use insulation with low U-value | Use insulation with low U-value | Use material with low U-factor |
| Minimize Convection Losses & Moisture Penetration | Reduce air leakage & use vapor barrier | Reduce air leakage & use vapor Barrier | Use prefabricated windows and seal the joints between windows and walls. |
| Climate Zone | Hospitals, Hotels, Call Centres, (24-hours) | Other Building types (Daytime) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maximum U-factor of the overall assembly (W/sq.m-0 C) | Minimum R-value of insulation alone (W/sq.m-0 C) | Maximum U-factor of the overall assembly (W/sq.m-0 C) | Minimum R-value of insulation alone (W/sq.m-0 C) | |
| Composite | U-0.261 | R-3.5 | U-0.409 | R-2.1 |
| Climate Zone | Hospitals, Hotels, Call Centres, (24-hours) | Other Building types (Daytime) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maximum U-factor of the overall assembly (W/sq.m-0 C) | Minimum R-value of insulation alone (W/sq.m-0 C) | Maximum U-factor of the overall assembly (W/sq.m-0 C) | Minimum R-value of insulation alone (W/sq.m-0 C) | |
| Composite | U-0.440 | R-2.10 | U-0.440 | R-2.10 |
| Climate | Maximum U-factor | Maximum SHGC WWR < 40% | Maximum SHGC 40% < WWR <60% |
|---|---|---|---|
| Composite | 3.3 | ||
| Composite | 3.3 | ||
| Minimum Visible Light Transmittance | |||
| Window –Wall-Ratio | |||
| <30% | |||
| 31%-40% | |||
| 41%-50% | |||
| 51%-60% |
| Clear Glass | Tinted Glass | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Frame Type | Glazing Type | U- Factor(W/m2-0C) | SHGC | VLT | U-Factor | SHGC | VLT |
| All frame types | Single Glazing | 7.1 | 0.82 | 0.76 | 7.1 | 0.70 | 0.58 |
| Wood, vinyl, of fiberglass frame | Double Glazing | 3.3 | 0.59 | 0.64 | 3.4 | 0.42 | 0.39 |
| Metel and other frame type | Double Glazing | 5.1 | 0.68 | 0.66 | 5.1 | 0.50 | 0.40 |
| Daytime Occupancy | 24- Hour Occupancy | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| U – Factor | SHGC | U – Factor | SHGC | |
| Mass Walls | 6.01 | – | 13.85 | – |
| Curtain Walls, Other | 15.72 | – | 20.48 | – |
| Roofs | 11.93 | – | 24.67 | – |
| North Windows | -1.75 | 40.65 | -4.56 | 58.15 |
| Non-North Windows | -1.25 | 54.51 | 0.68 | 86.57 |
| Skylights | -96.35 | 311.71 | -294.66 | 918.77 |
| Thermal Requirements | Physical Manifestation |
|---|---|
| Reduce Heat Gain in Summer and Reduce Heat Loss in Winter | |
| Decrease exposed surface area | Orientation and shape of building. Use of trees as wind barriers |
| Increase thermal resistance | Roof insulation and wall insulation |
| Increase thermal capacity (Time lag) | Thicker walls |
| Increase buffer spaces | Air locks/Balconies |
| Decrease air exchange rate | Weather stripping |
| Increase shading | Walls, glass surfaces protected by overhangs, fins and trees |
| Increase surface reflectivity | Pale color, glazed china mosaic tiles, etc. |
| Reduce solar heat gain | Use glazing with lower SHGC and provide shading for windows. Minimize glazing in East and West |
| Promote Heat Loss in Summer/Monsoon | |
| Increase air exchange rate ( Ventilation) | Courtyards/wind towers/ arrangement of openings |
| Increase humidity levels in dry summer | Trees and water ponds for evaporative cooling |
| Decrease humidity in monsoon | Dehumidifiers/ desiccant cooling |
Source:- Nayak and Prajapati (2206), Handbook on Energy Conscious Buildings.
2. Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC):
| Equipment Class | Minimum COP | Minimum IPLV | Test Standard |
|---|---|---|---|
| Air Cooled Chiller <530KW (<150 tons) | 2.90 | 3.16 | ARI 550/590-1998 |
| Air Cooled Chiller>=530KW(>=150 tons) | 3.05 | 3.32 | ARI 550/590-1998 |
| Centrifugal Water Cooled Chiller <530KW(<150 tons) | 5.80 | 6.09 | ARI 550/590-1998 |
| Centrifugal Water Cooled Chiller >=530KW and =150 tons and <300 tons) | 5.80 | 6.17 | |
| Centrifugal Water Cooled Chiller >=1050KW(>=300 tons) | 6.30 | 6.61 | ARI 550/590-1998 |
| Reciprocating Compressor, Water Cooled Chiller all sizes | 4.20 | 5.05 | |
| Rotary Screw and Scroll Compressor, Water Cooled Chiller <530KW(<150 tons) | 4.70 | 5.49 | ARI550/590-1998 |
| Rotary Screw and Scroll Compressor, Water Cooled Chiller>=530 and =150 and <300 tons) | 5.40 | 6.17 | |
| R Rotary Screw and Scroll Compressor, Water Cooled Chiller>=1050KW(>=300 tons) | 5.75 | 6.43 | ARI 550/590-1998 |
ii) Unitary Air
| Equipment Class | Minimum COP | Minimum IPLV | Test Standard |
|---|---|---|---|
| Unitary Air Cooled Air Conditioner >=19 and =5.4 and <11 tons) | 3.08 | ARI 210/240 | |
| Unitary Air Cooled Air Conditioner >=40 to =11 to <20 tons) | 3.08 | ARI 340/360 | |
| Unitary Air Cooled Air Conditioner >=70KW(>=20 tons) | 2.93 | 2.99 | ARI 340/360 |
| Unitary Water Cooled Air Conditioner<19KW(<5.4 tons) | 4.10 | ARI 210/240 | |
| Unitary Water Cooled Air Conditioner>=19 and =5.4 and <11 tons) | 4.10 | +++ | ARI 210/240 |
| Unitary Water Cooled Air Conditioner>==11 tons) | 3.22 | 3.02 | ARI 210/240 |
3. Lighting:
| Building Area Type | LPD (W/sq.m) | Building Area Type | LPD (W/sq.m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Automotive facility | 9.7 | Multifamily | 7.5 |
| Convention Center | 12.9 | Museum | 11.8 |
| Court House | 12.9 | Office | 10.8 |
| Dining: Bar Lounge/Leisure | 14.0 | Parking Garage | 3.2 |
| Dinging: Cafeteria/Fast Food | 15.1 | Performing Arts Theater | 17.2 |
| Space Function | LPD (W/sq.m) | Space Function | LPD (W/sq.m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lobby | 14.0 | Hospital | |
| For Hotel | 11.8 | Emergency | 29.1 |
| For Performing Arts Theater | 35.5 | Recovery | 8.6 |
| For Motion Picture Theater | 11.8 | Nurse Station | 10.8 |
| Exterior Lighting Applications | Power Limits |
|---|---|
| Building entrance (with canopy) | 13 W/m2 (1.3 W / ft2) of canopied are |
| Building entrance (without canopy) | 90 W/lin m (30 W/lin f) of door width |
| Building exit | 60 W/lin m (20 W/lin f) of door width |
| Building facades | 2 W/m2 (0.2 W/ ft2) of vertical facade area |
| Space Function LPD (W/m2) | Space Function LPD (W/m2) | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Office-enclosed | 11.8 | For Reading Area | 12.9 |
| Office- open plan | 11.8 | Hospital | |
| Conference/Meeting/Multipurpose | 14.0 | For Emergency | 29.1 |
| Classroom/Lecture Training | 15.1 | For Recovery | 8.6 |
| Lobby | 14.0 | For Nurse Station | 10.8 |
| For Hotel | 11.8 | For Exam Treatment | 16.1 |
| For Performing Arts Theater | 35.5 | For Pharmacy | 12.9 |
| For Motion Picture Theater | 11.8 | For patient Room | 7.5 |
| Audience/Seating Area* | 9.7 | For Operating Room | 23.7 |
| For Gymnasium | 4.3 | For Nursery | 6.5 |
| For Convention Center | 7.5 | For Medical | 23.7 |
| Audience/Seating Area* | 9.7 | For Operating Room | 15.1 |
| Atrium –first three floors | 6.5 | For Low Bay (<8m celling) | 12.9 |
| Atrium-each additional floor | 2.2 | For High Bay (>8m ceiling) | 18.3 |
| Lounge/Recreation* | 12.9 | For Detailed Manufacturing | 22.6 |
| For Hospital | 8.6 | For Equipment Room | 12.9 |
| Dining Area* | 9.7 | For Control Room | 5.4 |
| For Hotel | 14.0 | Hotel/Motel Guest Rooms | 11.8 |
| For Motel | 12.9 | Dormitory- Living Quarters | 11.8 |
| For Bar Lounge/Leisure Dining | 15.1 | Museum | |
| For Family Dining | 22.6 | For General Exhibition | 10.8 |
| Food Preparation | 12.9 | For Restoration | 18.3 |
| Laboratory | 15.1 | Bank office- Banking Activity Area | 16.1 |
| Restrooms | 9.7 | Retail | |
| Dressing/Locker/Fitting Room | 6.5 | For Sales Area | 18.3 |
| Corridor/Transition* | 5.4 | For Mall Concourse | 18.3 |
| For Hospital | 10.8 | Sports Arena | |
| For Manufacturing Facility | 5.4 | For Ring Sports Area | 29.1 |
| Stairs-active | 6.5 | For Court Sports Area | 24.8 |
| Active Storage* | 8.6 | For Indoor Field Area | 15.1 |
| For Hospital | 9.7 | Warehouse | |
| Inactive Storage* | 3.2 | For Fine Material Storage | 15.1 |
| For Museum | 8.6 | For Medium /Bulky Material Storage | 9.7 |
| Electrical /Mechanical Facility | 16.1 | Parking Garage- Garage Area | 2.2 |
| Workshop | 20.5 | Transportation | |
| Convention Center- Exhibit Space | 14.0 | For Airport- Concourse | 6.5 |
| Library | For Air/Train/Bus- Baggage Area | 10.8 | |
| For Card File & Cataloging | 11.8 | For Ticket Counter Terminal | 16.1 |
| For Stacks | 18.3 |
4. Service Water Heating:
Mandatory Requirements
a) Solar water heater or heat recovery for at least 20% of the design capacity
Minimum efficiency for service water heating equipment
Piping insulation
What is Green Building
What is Green Building
Green building refers to both a structure and the application of processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building’s life-cycle: from planning to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition.
What is Green Building
What is Green Building
What is green building? A green’ building is a building that, in its design, construction or operation, reduces or eliminates negative impacts, and can create positive impacts, on our climate and natural environment. Green buildings preserve precious natural resources and improve our quality of life. There are a number of features which can make a building green’. These include: Efficient use of energy, water and other resources Use of renewable energy, such as solar energy Pollution and waste reduction measures, and the enabling of re use and recycling Good indoor environmental air quality Use of materials that are non toxic, ethical and sustainable Consideration of the environment in design, construction and operation Consideration of the quality of life of occupants in design, construction and operation A design that enables adaptation to a changing environment Any building can be a green building, whether it’s a home, an office, a school, a hospital, a community centre, or any other type of structure, provided it includes features listed above. However, it is worth noting that not all green buildings are and need to be the same.
Different countries and regions have a variety of characteristics such as distinctive climatic conditions, unique cultures and traditions, diverse building types and ages, or wide ranging environmental, economic and social priorities all of which shape their approach to green building. Green buildings could become one of the main factors to preserve our rapidly decaying environment. There is no easy way to define a green building, but a green building is essentially a structure that amplifies the positives and mitigates the negatives throughout the entire life cycle of the building Kriss, 2014 . There are many definitions for a green building, but all of them include the planning, designing, constructing, and operating of the building while taking into huge considerations of the energy use, water use, indoor air environment, materials used and the effect it has on the site the green building is being built on. The first green buildings dates back to as far as the 1970’s, when solar panels went from experiments to reality. Green buildings were not as popular as they are today due to their extremely high pricing. With technology rapidly growing, solar panels are becoming cheaper and cheaper, making the transition to creating green buildings more affordable. This is the primary reason for the increased growth of green buildings today. A modern company that is paving the way to the growth of green buildings named LEED, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, focuses primarily on new and effective ideas for environmentally friendly buildings projects.
With more than 60,000 commercial projects worldwide and 1. 7 million square feet being certified every day, LEED is one of the leading groups for promoting green buildings. Buildings require air, water, energy and space for its occupants. These are provided by systems in place like the ventilation system, the water supply system and the electricity supply system. The materials which are used in the construction of the building also produce environmental impact like carbon footprint, pollution through wastes and slurry, and the consumption of water and power. Buildings are one of the major sources of pollution that cause air pollution and are responsible for climate change. The objective of green building concept is to develop buildings which use the natural resources to the minimal at the time of construction as well as operation. Green buildings emphasize on the resource usage efficiency and also press upon the three R’s Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. The technique of green building maximizes the use of efficient construction materials and practices boosts the use of natural sources and sinks in the building’s surroundings minimizes the energy usage to run itself uses highly proficient equipment for the indoor area uses highly proficient methods for water and waste management. The indoor equipment includes lighting, air conditioning and all other needed equipment. Green Building is a team effort and the designing and construction include consultants from architecture and landscaping, air conditioning, plumbing, energy and electrical areas. These consultants have to assess the impact of the each and every design on the environment, keeping in mind the cost involved. The final design needs to be feasible and should minimize the negative impacts that the building would have on the environment. Implementation of the green building concept can lead to a reduction of carbon emission by thirty five percent, water usage by forty percent, solid waste reduction by seventy percent and reduction in energy consumption by fifty percent. Green Building concept also emphasizes on the fact that an area with high biodiversity should be avoided as a site for the construction of a building. To ensure minimum negative impact on the environment by the construction and operation of a building, the factors which are to be kept in mind are to preserve the external environment to the building location to improve the internal area for the residents of the building and also preserve the areas which are not close to the building. Saving Energy Energy saving through green building concept occurs in two ways.
First is reduction in the amount of energy that is consumed in lighting, air conditioning and other building operations. Second is the usage of energy sources which do not produce any greenhouse gases and are renewable in nature. Green Buildings emphasize more on natural lighting and concepts of temperature control and efficient design to further reduce the carbon footprint as well as reduce cost of operation. Saving water Green Buildings use various methods to reduce water usage, treat and reuse waste water and filter water from sourced from precipitation. The target is to be able to achieve zero water table negative impact from the green building. Reducing Waste Waste reduction is one of the most important issues that are to be dealt with. In the US alone, the waste from construction and demolition of buildings accounts for sixty percent of the total non industrial waste. Green Building concept emphasizes on improving the design of the product, re using and recycling materials. It results in tremendous waste reduction and also helps to reduce the environmental impact of the building. Improving Health and Productivity Hygiene and proper conditions inside the building also help in boosting human productivity. Hence various businesses concentrate on this aspect. Green Building concept provides for cleanliness and sound working conditions for employees and other inhabitants. Green Building concept in USA: Green building markets in the United States of America USA , account for five to ten percent of the total building market. The largest organisation for green building in USA is the US Green Building Council USGBC . It has over twelve thousand member organizations and is around a financial worth of over twelve billion dollars. Some of the rating systems that have been developed for green building concept are: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design LEED , Green Globes, Building Owners and Managers Association BOMA , National Association of Home Builders NAHB , International Codes Council and American National Standards Institute.
In USA, the existing buildings are accounting for forty percent of total energy consumption, twelve percent of total water usage, sixty eight percent of electricity usage, thirty eight percent of carbon dioxide emission and sixty percent of non industrial waste generation. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design LEED Rating System: LEED rating system was developed in USA by the US Green Building Council in the year 1998. It provides a set of standards for environmentally sustainable construction of building using a market based rating system. This rating system is being followed in the US and many other countries for the evaluation of sustainable building. LEED can be defined for new constructions, existing buildings, commercial buildings and schools. Buildings which have been recognized to be eligible for LEED are offices, retail establishments, institutional buildings and service establishments. LEED rating system provides a variety of benefits and cost savings. The benefits include reducing the operating costs, reducing resource utilizations in terms of water and electricity, reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. The other cost savings includes the tax rebates and zone allowances
What is Solar Architecture
What is Solar Architecture
What is Solar Achitecture
Solar architecture is an architectural approach that takes in account the Sun to harness clean and renewable solar power. It is related to the fields of optics, thermics, electronics and materials science. Both active and passive solar housing skills are involved in solar architecture. The use of flexible thin-film photovoltaic modules provides fluid integration with steel roofing profiles, enhancing the building’s design. Orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air also constitute solar architecture. Initial development of solar architecture has been limited by the rigidity and weight of standard solar power panels. The continued development of photovoltaic (PV) thin film solar has provided a lightweight yet robust vehicle to harness solar energy to reduce a building’s impact on the environment.
In the past, we’ve seen solar panels as a necessary evil. They used to be clunky, awkward objects placed haphazardly around a building. Solar panels have evolved in their design and so to has their presence in the world of architecture and design. The major development in solar panels is that they no longer need to be perfectly flat. This has opened up a world of opportunities in their use in more abstract architectural projects. They have their limits, however. It’s hard for solar panels to soak up as much sunlight on an angle.
Architects have managed to take solar panels leaps and bounds. Panels have been incorporated into roofing without simply being placed in rows along a roof. Clients who choose to focus on solar energy can work with architects to designate flat, unused spaces throughout a property to place solar panels without drawing too much attention. More creatively, solar panels have been incorporated into awnings. They have also been incorporated into the landscaping of properties, dividing gardens and filling in empty spaces in the surrounding environment.
The effectiveness of solar architecture is largely determined by the creativity of the architect and the flexibility of the client. A clever architect will be able to incorporate solar panels into the design of a building without making them look bulky and awkward. The more a client is willing to be flexible with the amount of solar energy generated, the more subtly the panels can be incorporated into the design.Solar panels have been widely available for purchase since the 1980s but have yet to be widely adopted in residential housing.
Some barriers to the widespread adoption of solar panels include worries about the cost of the panels, the impact on jobs, and their appearance.
“Economics is the biggest barrier, and aesthetics are the second,” Gardzelewski says. He says these two things stand in the way of solar becoming the standard for architecture design, rather than a risky and costly add-on.
The economic aspect of solar panels is multifaceted. First, there’s cost and risk perception, and then there’s the larger impact on the economy, such as the creation of green-collar jobs. Some people think that their home’s resale value is at risk when they install solar. One appraiser Gardzelewski spoke to said: “I won’t give a house with solar panels any more value in an appraisal. The appraisal will be the same with or without them.” Because the appraisal industry itself is ambivalent about assigning value to solar panels, many homeowners fear that installing them could actually decrease the value of their home—despite potential savings for buyers on future energy bills.
The initial cost of installing solar panels is notoriously exorbitant. Gardzelewski insists that the actual price of the panels has decreased tremendously, so there is no reason that solar-panel installation costs should remain so high. “Solar-panel installers will give you a quote to put solar panels on your home, and they will tell you it costs a lot more than it should cost or what it needs to cost,” he says. “The panels themselves have come down to where they’re just a fraction of the overall expense.”
One reason solar installation remains such a high-ticket item is that builders haven’t wholeheartedly adopted it. “Once solar integrates into the home-building industry, the price of labor will go down because the contractor is going to manage that pretty tightly,” Gardzelewski says. “If you manage the cost and the labor of solar-panel installation, there’s no room for the price to get jacked way up.”
In coal-industry-driven states, there is also some fear that the rise of solar energy will hurt the economy and take away jobs. But Gardzelewski disagrees. He believes that the long-standing blue-collar jobs of the coal industry could become the long-standing green-collar jobs of the solar industry.
BERG’s 5-Strategy Taxonomy for Solar Architecture
1. Legibility
This refers to revealing and celebrating the building systems to see how they work. This is an industrial look with the “guts” of the building exposed. In this paradigm, seeing the inner workings, wiring, structure, and connection of the solar panels fits in with the overall industrial design.
An energy-systems plan (including a radiant-floor heating system, insulation, seasonal shade structures, a ground-source heat pump, and design-integrated solar) for the Fox House in Pavilion, WY. Courtesy of UW-BERG.
An energy-systems plan (including a radiant-floor heating system, insulation, seasonal shade structures, a ground-source heat pump, and design-integrated solar) for the Fox House in Pavilion, WY. Courtesy of UW-BERG.2. Material Planes
Gerrit Rietveld’s Schroder House and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s Barcelona Pavilion are two examples of buildings focused on planar composition. In the case of the Barcelona Pavilion, Mies used planar composition to celebrate the richness of materials such as glass, marble, onyx, and travertine. With this strategy, the material aspect of a solar panel is celebrated, too. “We really love looking at the crystals and the wiring and all the intricacies of a solar panel,” Gardzelewski says.
3. Form Follows
From the principle “form follows function,” this concept means designing a building that adapts its shape to the path of the sun. This strategy is obvious when a design is altered to provide optimal orientation for a large number of solar panels, often with a stretched-out or swooping form on the south roof. “A solar panel is a huge module of 3 1/2 feet by 5 1/2 feet, and this can seriously influence the size of your roof,” Gardzelewski says. Designing a roof to fit this module can make the actual solar installation not only easier and more effective but also much better looking.
4. Shading Through Solar Architecture
Solar panels can provide shade for the building itself or the adjacent outdoor space; this method is a good solution for a difficult existing roof. “If you build an exterior structure and you can pull out an enclosed porch—a space that you’re not trying to fit onto the existing roof—you can use it to shade a small space outside,” he says. “You can add solar panels to this new area, and it won’t have to blend into the rest of the roof, because it is a completely separate thing.”
A 3D model of the Fox House in Pavillion, WY. Courtesy of UW-BERG.
A 3D model of the Fox House in Pavillion, WY. Courtesy of UW-BERG.5. Disguised Solar-Panel Design
In this approach, the solar panels are hidden through either compositional strategy or design innovation. This strategy is best used in conjunction with “form follows,” as architecture designed around the size and shape of a solar panel is best suited to disguise the panel (like these solar rooftops from Tesla). “If you can fit them perfectly onto your roof, then you can float or frame the solar panels so you don’t see all of the infrastructure under it—you just see the reflective glass,” Gardzelewski says.
Getting the economic equation for solar panels to work for average middle- and working-class families may take some time. But incorporating BERG’s architectural taxonomy, which integrates solar panels in the design phase, is something architects can do now. Even if a client isn’t going to install solar right away, the taxonomy can help home and building owners incorporate solar panels more aesthetically down the road. And by considering solar as an early constraint that influences building design, architects may be able to usher in an era when solar is finally ubiquitous.
Solar architecture
The term solar architecture refers to an approach to building design that is sensitive to Nature and takes advantage of climatic conditions to achieve human comfort rather than depending on artificial energy that is both costly and environmentally damaging. Unlike the conventional design approach that treats climate as the enemy which has to be kept out of the built environment, solar architecture endeavours to build as part of the environment using climatic factors to our advantage and utilising the energy of Nature itself to attain required comfort levels. Nature’s energies can be utilised in two ways – passiveand active and consequently solar architecture is classified as passive solar and active solar architecture.
Passive solar architecture
It relies upon the design or architecture of the building itself to ensure climate control by way of natural thermal conduction, convection and radiation. The rudiments of solar passive design were developed and used through the centuries by many civilisations across the globe; in fact, many of these early civilisations built dwellings that were better suited to their climatic surroundings than those built today in most developed and developing countries. This has been largely due to the advent of cheap fossil fuels that allowed for artificial temperature and light control at the cost of natural light and cooling. A substantial share of world energy resources is therefore being spent in heating, cooling and lighting of such buildings. The use of solar passive measures such as natural cross ventilation, sufficient day-lighting, proper insulation, use of adequate shading devices coupled with auxiliary energy systems that are renewable and environment friendly can considerably bring down the costs as well as the energy needs of the building.
Passive solar systems
The term passive solar refers to systems that absorb, store and distribute the sun’s energy without relying on mechanical devices like pumps and fans, which require additional energy. Passive solar design reduces the energy requirements of the building by meeting either part or all of its daily cooling, heating and lighting needs through the use of solar energy.
Passive heating
Heating the building through the use of solar energy involves the absorption and storage of incoming solar radiation, which is then used to meet the heating requirements of the space. Incoming solar radiation is typically stored in thermal mass such as concrete, brick, rock, water or a material that changes phase according to temperature. Incoming sunlight is regulated by the use of overhangs, awnings and shades while insulating materials can help to reduce heat loss during the night or in the cold season. Vents and dampers are typically used to distribute warm or cool air from the system to the areas where it is needed. The three most common solar passive systems are direct gain, indirect gain and isolated gain. A direct gain system allows sunlight to windows into on occupied space where it is absorbed by the floor and walls. In the indirect gain system, a medium of heat storage such as wall, in one part of the building absorbs and stores heat, which is then transferred to the rest of the building by conduction, convection or radiation. In an isolated gain system, solar energy is absorbed in a separate area such as greenhouse or solarium, and distributed to the living space by ducts. The incorporation of insulation in passive systems can be effective in conserving additional energy.
Passive cooling
Passive solar technology can also be used for cooling purposes. These systems function by either shielding buildings from direct heat gain or by transferring excess heat outside. Carefully designed elements such as overhangs, awnings and eaves shade from high angle summer sun while allowing winter sun to enter the building. Excess heat transfer can be achieved through ventilation or conduction, where heat is lost to the floor and walls. A radiant heat barrier, such as aluminium foil, installed under a roof is able to block upto 95% of radiant heat transfer through the roof.
Water evaporation is also an effective method of cooling buildings, since water absorbs a large quantity of heat as it evaporates. Fountains, sprays and ponds provide substantial cooling to the surrounding areas. The use of sprinkler systems to continually wet the roof during the hot season can reduce the cooling requirements by 25%. Trees can induce cooling by transpiration, reducing the surrounding temperature by 4 to 14 degrees F.
Active cooling systems of solar cooling such as evaporative cooling through roof spray and roof pond and desiccant cooling systems have been developed alongwith experimental stratergies like earth-cooling tubes and earth-sheltered buildings. Desiccant cooling systems are designed to dehumidify and cool air. These are particularly suited to hot humid climates where air-conditioning accounts for a major portion of the energy costs. Desiccant materials such as silica gels and certain salt compounds naturally absorb moisture from humid air and release the moisture when heated, a feature that makes them re-useable. In a solar desiccant system, the sun provides the energy to recharge the desiccants. Once the air has been dehumidified, it can be chilled by evaporative cooling or other methods to provide relatively cool, dry air. This can greatly reduce cooling requirements
Evaporative cooling
Evaporation occurs whenever the vapour pressure of water is lesser than the water vapour in the surrounding atmosphere. The phase change of water from liquid to the vapour state is accompanied by the release of a large quantity of sensible heat from the air that lowers the temperature of air while its moisture content increases. The provision of shading and the supply of cool, dry air will enhance the process of evaporative cooling. Evaporative cooling techniques can be broadly classified as passive and hybrid.
Passive direct systems include the use of vegetation for evapotranspiration, as well as the use of fountains, pools and ponds where the evaporation of water results in lower temperature in the room. An important technique known as ‘Volume cooler’ is used in traditional architecture. The system is based on the use of a tower where water contained in a jar or spray is precipitated. External air introduced into the tower is cooled by evaporation and then transferred into the building. A contemporary version of this technique uses a wet cellulose pad installed at the top of a downdraft tower, which cools the incoming air.
Passive indirect evaporative cooling techniques include roof spray and roof pond systems.
Roof spray
The exterior surface of the roof is kept wet using sprayers. The sensible heat of the roof surface is converted into latent heat of vaporisation as the water evaporates. This cools the roof surface and a temperature gradient is created between the inside and outside surfaces causing cooling of the building. A reduction in cooling load of about 25% has been observed. A threshold condition for the system is that the temperature of the roof should be greater than that of air.
There are, however, a number of problems associated with this system, not least of which is the adequate availability of water. Also it might not be cost effective, as a result of high maintenance costs and also problems due to inadequate water proofing of the roof.
Roof pond
The roof pond consists of a shaded water pond over an non-insulated concrete roof. Evaporation of water to the dry atmosphere occurs during day and nighttime. The temperature within the space falls as the ceiling acts as a radiant cooling panel for the space, without increasing indoor humidity levels. The limitation of this technique is that it is confined only to single storey structure with flat, concrete roof and also the capital cost is quite high.
Earth cooling tubes
These are long pipes buried underground with one end connected to the house and the other end to the outside. Hot exterior air is drawn through these pipes where tit gives up some of its heat to the soil, which is at a much lower temperature at a depth of 3m to 4m below the surface. This cool air is then introduced into the house.
Special problems associated with these systems are possible condensation of water within the pipes or evaporation of accumulated water and control of the system. The lack of detailed data about the performance of such systems hinders the large-scale use of such systems.
Earth-sheltered buildings
During the summer, soil temperatures at certain depths are considerably lower than ambient air temperature, thus providing an important source for dissipation of a building’s excess heat. Conduction or convection can achieve heat dissipation to the ground. Earth sheltering achieves cooling by conduction where part of the building envelope is in direct contact with the soil. Totally underground buildings offer many additional advantages including protection from noise, dust, radiation and storms, limited air infiltration and potentially safety from fires. They provide benefits under both cooling and heating conditions, however the potential for large scale application of the technology are limited; high cost and poor day-lighting conditions being frequent problems.
On the other hand, building in partial contact with earth offer interesting cooling possibilities. Sod roofs can considerably reduce heat gain from the roof. Earth berming can considerably reduce solar heat gain and also increase heat loss to the surrounding soil, resulting in increase in comfort.
Active solar architecture
It involves the use of solar collectors and other renewable energy systems like biomass to support the solar passive features as they allow a greater degree of control over the internal climate and make the whole system more precise. Active solar systems use solar panels for heat collection and electrically driven pumps or fans to transport the heat or cold to the required spaces. Electronic devices are used to regulate the collection, storage and distribution of heat within the system. Hybrid systems using a balanced combination of active and passive features provide the best performance.
Active solar systems
Active heating
In active systems, solar collectors are used to convert sun’s energy into useful heat for hot water, space heating or industrial processes. Flat-plate collectors are typically used for this purpose. These most often use light-absorbing plates made of dark coloured material such as metal, rubber or plastic that are covered with glass. The plates transfer the heat to a fluid, usually air or water flowing below them and the fluid is used for immediate heating or stored for later use. There are two basic types of liquid based active systems- open loop and closed loop. An open loop system circulates potable water itself, through the collector. In closed loop systems, the circulating fluid is kept separate from the system used for potable water supply. This system is mainly used to prevent the freezing of water within the collector system. However, there is no need to go in for such a system in India, as freezing of water is not a possibility. Also closed loop systems are less efficient as the heat exchanger used in the system causes a loss of upto 10 degrees in the temperature of water, at the same time, one has to reckon with the extra cost of the heat exchanger as well as the circulating pumps. Compared to these, thermosiphon systems are more convenient and simple.
In Thermosiphon systems, the water circulates from the collector to the storage tank by natural convection and gravity. As long as the absorber keeps collecting heat, water keeps being heated in the collector and rises into the storage tank, placed slightly above (at least 50 cm). The cold water in the tank runs into the collector to replace the water discharged into the tank. The circulation stops when there is no incident radiation. Thermosyphon systems are simple, relatively inexpensive and require little maintenance and can be used for domestic applications.
Solar ponds have been developed ,which harness the sun’s energy that can be used for various purposes including production of electricity.
Other devices such as solar cookers, water distillation systems, solar dryers, etc. have been developed which can be used to reduce energy requirements in domestic households and in industrial applications.
Active cooling
Absorption cooling systems transfer a heated liquid from the solar collector to run a generator or a boiler activating the refrigeration loop which cools a storage reservoir from which cool air is drawn into the space. Rankine steam turbine can also be powered by solar energy to run a compressed air-conditioner or water cooler.
Solar refrigeration is independent of electric supply and without any moving parts, for example, Zeolite refrigerator.
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