Geography as a university discipline got recognition in the early decades of the 19th century in the German universities and subsequently in the French and British universities.

During the period of evolution, geography, like all other sister social science disciplines, faced many philosophical and methodological problems. Geography did not develop as a well-regulated activity.

It followed a process of varying tensions in which tranquil periods, characterized by steady accretion of knowledge, are followed by crisis which can lead to upheaval within subject discipline and breaks in continuity. In each phase of tranquillity and crisis, geographical literature was and has been written with changing philosophies and methodologies; the philosophy and methodology being largely governed by the individual beliefs of the author, the political system, the social requirements of the people of the region and its economic institutions.

The last twenty-five years can be regarded as a period in which enormous geographical literature has been produced. This literature in the shape of books, research papers and monographs pertains to teaching, research, professional employment and pragmatic plans for the public and private bodies. Geography up to the Second World War, however, was regarded as a discipline providing general information about topography, relief features, weather, climate, mountains, rivers, routes, towns, cities and seaports.

Geography for most of the people was nothing but general knowledge. In the recent past, geographers have, however, adopted a new strategy in the restructuring of their courses and designed the syllabi around the theme of social welfare, making the subject the principal source of awareness of local surroundings, regional milieu, environmental pollution and world environment.

Geographers are venturing into the areas of environmental management and problems of pollution to make the social environment conducive for the proper development of individuals and societies. In order to achieve the welfare target, geographers are attacking social problems and exploring the causes of socio-economic backwardness, environmental pollution, and uneven levels of development in a given physical setting. Now, the main objective of geographical teaching and research is to train students in the analysis of phenomena, so that they can take up subsequently the problems of society as the fields of their research and investigation, thereby helping the local, state and national administration to overcome the regional and intra-regional problems.

 Geology (in Greek, Geo means Earth, Logos means Science) is a branch of science dealing with the study of the Earth. It is also known as earth science. The study of the earth comprises of the whole earth, its origin, structure, composition and history (including the development of life) and the nature of the processes.

The word was first used in 1778 in the work of Jean Andrea de Luc (a Swiss-born scientist who lived at Windsor for much of his life as adviser to Queen Charlotte) and at much the same time in the work of Swiss Chemist, S.B. Saucer.

Geology is a fascinating subject.

Geology feels the pulse of the earth.

Geologists contribute their part to the nation through the discovery of new deposits of rocks and minerals of economic value.

A student should know what lies beneath the crust and how long back the earth came into existence.

For studying the earth in detail, the subject of Geology has been divided into various branches as follows:

(i) Physical Geology:

As a branch of geology, it deals with the “various processes of physical agents such as wind, water, glaciers and sea waves”, run on these agents go on modifying the surface of the earth continuously. Physical geology includes the study of Erosion, Transportation and Deposition (ETD).

The earth is a planet belonging to the solar system of the Milky Way Galaxy, with a natural satellite, the moon. It is the third planet from the Sun. The planet on which we live is called the earth. There is a lot of disagreement between the scientists regarding the shape of the earth. In recent times a new phrase being used is that the earth is like a GEOID (Greek, GEO = earth, OID = like) i.e., our planet is like the earth.

They believe that the interior of the earth is shrinking day by day. This shrinkage may be either due to loss of heat or reorganization of molecules under enormous pressure and high temperature. It is thus obvious that the outer portion must shorten its circumference to adjust the shrunken interior.

 History is the study of past events leading up to the present day. It is a research, a narrative, or an account of past events and developments that are commonly related to a person, an institution, or a place.

Focusing on the people involved in a time, place, and series of events makes history. Biographies and historical fiction may popularize these entities/figures with descriptions of people who lived in the past or events that happened in the past. Such Historical figures and events include King Leopold II of Belgium and The Scramble of Africa in the late 19th century. Among other things, King Leopold II of Belgium (1835-1909), is known for the exploitation of Congo and the mass murder of its citizens as told in King Leopold?s Ghost by Adam Hochschild. King Leopold II of Belgium, created and ironically erased history by ultimately slashing the area’s population by ten million during his reign in the Congo, and still managed to shrewdly foster a reputation as a great humanitarian.

Knowing our family history is essential to understanding ourselves and basic humanity and diversity. Family history helps to keep memories alive and allow each generation to have an idea of who they are and where they come from. It helps to provide meaningful connections to our ancestors. Old photos, letters, and journals give us a glimpse into what our ancestors were really like. Family histories are passed down to generations in the form of stories.

Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.” A. C. Clarke (Clarke). Throughout history, people have relied on technology to aid them. Technology has played an important role throughout time as a tool that has allowed people to achieve accomplishments never before possible. Technology has been crucial to survival as it has been used in warfare

 Management, unlike other subjects such as economics, philosophy, political science is of a recent origin and hence, a relatively new subject. Being an evolving concept (George 1972), it is still in its developing stage. So far as the meaning of management is concerned, like other socio-economic terms, it has also been defined differently by different authorities.

Having gone through the above definitions of management, now it can be simply defined as management is getting things done along with others/ subordinates. In other words, it is a process of various functions like planning, organizing, leading, and controlling the business operations in such a manner as to achieve the objectives set by the business firm. It consists of all activities beginning from business planning to its actual survival.

Characteristics of Management:

The salient characteristics of management that flow from above definitions are:

1. Management is a purposeful activity.

2. It is getting things done through and with others in a desired manner.

3. It concerns with the efforts of people working in the enterprise.

4. It relates to decision-making.

5. It is a process consisting of various functions such as planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

6. Management is both the science and art. It is science because it has developed certain principles and laws. At the same time, it is an art also because it is concerned with the application of knowledge or principles for the solutions of the organizational problems.

 Law is one of the most important elements that transform humans from mere beasts into intelligent and special beings. Law tells us what is right and wrong and how we, humans, should act to achieve a peaceful society while enjoying individual freedoms. The key to a successful nation is a firm, strong, and fair code of high laws that provides equal and just freedom to all citizens of the country. A strong government is as important as a firm code of law as a government is a backbone of a country and of the laws. A government is a system that executes and determines its laws.

However, is every law evil because it restricts us from being able to do whatever we want? Interestingly, not all laws limit our rights and what are naturally ours. Rather, many laws take active roles in protecting our rights and properties from unwanted external threats, so we can harmoniously and happily function and interact with other human beings. True freedom is not a freedom from external influences dictating what we need to do. Influential British philosophers John Locke and Thomas Hobbes indicate that true freedom means being able to continue our daily and peaceful routines and to keep our rightful properties securely. Without a code of laws effectively halting evil oppressors from harming our qualities of lives, the offenders can do whatever they please, putting innocent people further into the chaotic states.

However, it is based on the natural human values which we all, Americans, Kabulistanis, British, Russian…etc, share. As Locke and Hobbes famously shared, every single human being is selfish to a certain degree. The reason we have been forming societies around the world and living right next to each other is not that we have lost our senses of selfishness. Rather, we have grown to learn that we cannot achieve a harmony and a peace individually, so we have agreed to put down our natural selfishness and to cooperate with each other to achieve those two necessities. If we are able to live and defend ourselves perfectly from any unwanted external influences individually, no man would be living within a fenced and limited society. Selfishness is a virtue we cannot fix. Therefore we need to construct a system of government that will limit harms resulted from our innate feature. A government plays a crucial role of carrying out necessary duties and judging who is right and who is wrong as most objectively as possible

 Since I can remember I have always been interested in automobiles. When I was young however I wasn’t to sure how I wanted to use that interested and make a career out of it. I juggled around a few ideas: bus driver, gas station employee, taxi driver, etc. It wasn’t until I got older however that I realized how low down those jobs were. So I looked around to find a higher-class job that paid more money. My older brother mentioned to me about Mechanical Engineering and designing cars. Of course that would be the perfect career for me, decent pay, easy job, and for me it would be an enjoyable job.

Besides designing cars a Mechanical Engineer can do many different jobs. Their takes may include researching, developing, designing, manufacturing, and testing mechanical devices, such as engines, machines, and other mechanical devices. Many times Engineers of this field will use computer programs like CAM and CAD to help them design many of their projects. There are several Engineers working in agriculture, transportation, manufacturing, and government positions.

For a person to get into this field it is usually required to go to college for four years or more depending on the exact position you would like. People going into this career path need to have skills in math, science, and be able to work well with you your mind. People in this field need to be able to solve complex problems as well being able to apply math equations.

The job outlook from now “til 2010 is to grow as machinery becomes more complex and harder to understand. In 2000 Mechanical Engineering held about 221,000 jobs. Most of the positions held were in the manufacturing industry.

As far as salary goes it depends on experience and education. It is usually necessary for you to have 5 years experience making it hard to get into this career field. Bachelor’s degree 48,426, master’s degree 55,994, and Ph.D. 72,096. The average salary however was honoured.

 Medical Science:-

Health is one of the biggest points of the human race. It keeps us healthy, working and most importantly, alive. Without proper research in health science our lives would be much more disease riddled and just overall much worse. This is where the role of the medical scientist comes in. They find new ways the treat or even prevent health issues. Without medical scientists in the picture our growth as a race would virtually stop.

The field of medical science is a vital and ever changing one. Since diseases are always changing medical scientists must keep their eyes peeled for any virus or bacteria that could threaten people. For that reason they are usually conducting research aimed to improve people’s lives. When they are not doing research they are using medical trials or experiments to test their findings (BLS). When a medical scientist proves their drug can help human health the FDA has to clear it to be put on the market for the public. Without new prescriptions always being produced the diseases they prevent could be able to harm people. This is why medical scientists are so essential to everyone’s life.

The career that we call medical science is nothing like what it was a century ago. Even in the early 1900’s people still believed a combination of herbs and spices would cure anything. People paid lots of money for a special blend to cure any of their ailments. The people that made these concoctions went by different names around the world but the practice was relatively the same. The natives in North America were called medicine men and often wore elegant clothing and headdresses as a symbol of high authority and importance to the village. Medicine men also usually held a governing position due to their respected intellect .

 Whenever people think about deep, fundamental questions concerning the nature of the universe and ourselves, the limits of human knowledge, their values and the meaning of life, they are thinking about philosophy. Philosophical thinking is found in all parts of the world, present, and past.

In the academic world, philosophy distinguishes a certain area of study from all other areas, such as the sciences and other humanities. Philosophers typically consider questions that are, in some sense, broader and/or more fundamental than other inquirers’ questions: e.g., physicists ask what caused some event; philosophers ask whether causation even exists; historians study figures who fought for justice; philosophers ask what justice is or whether their causes were in fact just; economists study the allocation of capital; philosophers debate the ethical merits of capitalism.

When a topic becomes amenable to rigorous, empirical study, it tends to be “outsourced” to its own field, and not described in the present day as “philosophy” anymore: e.g., the natural sciences were once called “natural philosophy,” but we don’t now just think about whether matter is composed of atoms or infinitely divisible: we use scientific experiments. And most of the different doctoral degrees are called “Doctor of Philosophy” even when they’re in sociology or chemistry.

Philosophical questions can’t be straightforwardly investigated through purely empirical means:e.g., try to imagine a lab experiment testing whether societies should privilege equality over freedom—not whether people believe we should, but whether we actually should. What does moral importance look like in a microscope?

The main method of academic philosophy is to construct and evaluate arguments (i.e. reasons intended to justify some conclusion). Such conclusions might be that some theory is true or false or might be about the correct analysis or definition of some concept. These arguments generally have at least some conceptual, intellectual, or a priori, i.e., non-empirical, content. And philosophers often incorporate relevant scientific knowledge as premises in arguments

 Psychology has become a very important and popular subject today. It deals with many problems of everyday life. Psychology helps us to understand the behaviour of people around us, to find out why they behave differently and what forces are responsible to make them so different from others.

It tries to explain wide array of factors involved in what we human beings do. The principles explained by psychology give us a rational basis of understanding of what we and others do. Psychology has been defined in many ways. In ancient days people were analysing the behavioural aspects on the basis of philosophy. They believed that there is a soul in every individual and this is responsible for all our activities.

This view led to the opinion that the subject matter of psychology must be the study of soul. But this definition could not answer the questions regarding the existence of soul and its accessibility for study. This condition led to a new definition by Greek philosophers who defined psychology as a ‘science of mind’. But this definition was also rejected on the same grounds as soul was rejected.

Later, Wilhelm Wundt a psychologist who established the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany defined psychology as the study of consciousness. EB Titchener the disciple of Wundt, proposed the method of Introspection to study consciousness. But because of its subjectivity and unscientific method of study, this definition was also rejected.

Gradually, as a result of the development of scientific outlook people started thinking on scientific basis and began to define psychology as a science of behaviour. Finally, it is JB Watson (1913) defined psychology as a science of behaviour of human as well as animal beings.

 We must, at this stage, also be clear that Public Administration has to do with people and not with things. There is a school of thought which holds that in the future the tendency will be from the administration of persons towards the administration of things.

That is not a correct view and hardly appeals to logical mind. Things may be arranged but ultimately it is the par­ticipation of the human element that matters. Things, no doubt, are of great importance to the administrator who arranges them but they cannot be administered by him.

Administration has to do with human beings for which it is meant. It is managed by human beings, and it serves human beings. It is essentially a matter of social relationships. It must not also be forgotten that the administrator is neither a philosopher nor a politician but the non-political aspect of the executive.

He should administer law as it is. It is none of his business to criticize the acts and policies of the government. He should accept an exile from party politics and devote his atten­tion to the sincere performance of his duties.

According to modern authorities, the subject Public Administration is being put to two usages it is an activity and it also refers to the discipline of intellectual inquiry and study. For instance, enforcement of law and order is an activity and is part of Public Administration.

Pub­lic Administration is also discipline like Economics, Sociology, and Political Science etc. and as such is a subject of study. It studies these activities and functions, frames concepts, formulates theories and shapes models. Nigros’ summarizing of the meaning of Public administration seems more impressive.

 Statistics:-

Moreover, when persons have to present the solution to this or that question or decide how to act in the definite situation they also use the statistical data on the issue as one of the main arguments which can influence the further development of the case. That is why statistics can be defined as the science which deals with the data’s collection and its interpretation according to the certain task, and the results of the research can be effectively used in many spheres. From this point, the relative value of statistics for the everyday life is in the fact that people have the opportunity to plan their actions according to the statistical data with references to those results which can satisfy or not their expectations.

People are usually interested in the average temperature and the weather forecasts, in the amount of people who prefer this or that product which they usually purchase. These persons listen to the economical news in which the data of statistics on the state’s development are presented and pay attention to the risks of the transport incidents before going out the house. The statistical data influence all the aspects of the people’s life during the whole day.

When an individual wants to learn about the latest news he concentrates on the information which is interesting for him personally, and these facts are often given in the form of numbers. The average results in different fields and areas from the average level of incomes in the country and the average level of attendance the local library till the average data on the consumers’ preference of brands and services can provide the basics for the people’s choices and usual decisions which are made as a part of the daily rituals and routines.

One more effective advantage of statistics is the possibility to offer the prognoses of the development of definite situations and processes. People are inclined to use the statistical prognoses when they plan such significant changes in their life as the search of the new job, new investments in companies, travelling, and long-term projects. Statistics as the science is based on the strict mathematical calculations and formulas (Bluman, 2009). That is why its methods can be discussed as the effective ways of interpreting the collected quantitative information on any aspect of the life.

It is possible to analyze the tendencies of the world’s development with references to the statistical approach and use this approach as the means to organize the everyday life according to these trends. Furthermore, many people focus on the results of the statistical researches not only at the elementary level in their daily life but also as the part of their work. Thus, accounting, economics, logistics, and many other spheres of the knowledge use statistics (Black, 2009). Moreover, working with their computers, people often refer to the statistical analysis of the data in order to receive the average result or form the picture of the process’s development (Mann, 2010).

 Zoology:-

Zoology is the branch of life sciences that deals with the animal organisms as contrasted to botany, the science that is concerned with the plant organisms. Zoology and botany make up the science of biology or the study of living things.

All the sciences are inter-related. Although biology uses physics, chemistry and other physical sciences in explaining its phenomena, biological principles are not merely an application of physicochemical laws. The laws of many life processes have no counterparts in physics or chemistry.

Many biological concepts can be expressed mathematically but others cannot. Biological sciences at present are often restricted to mere descriptive statements of general phenomena without quantitative connotation.

Biological systems are represented by many levels of organisation, not all of which have been resolved into concise concepts and testable theories. Many branches of study serve to connect biology to other sciences, such as paleontology, biophysics and biochemistry. There has been a marked trend for some time towards a synthesis of the biological sciences with other sciences.

Our ever-increasing knowledge in zoology has enabled us to apply this science in human benefit, ranging from prevention of diseases to production of various items for our use, introduction and stabilisation of new hybrids and in many other fields.

1. Medicine:

A knowledge of animals producing various diseases, viz. malaria, filaria, dengue, liver rot, etc., is essential for proper treatment. Further knowledge on anatomy and physiology of experiment animals like rabbit, monkey and others enables us not only to test the drugs but in the manufacture of hormones, enzymes, vaccines, etc.

2. Fibre:

The beautiful silk is really the secretion from the silk glands of the silkworm Bombyx mori. The larva builds a hard protective cocoon around it, within which it pupates. The silk thread is obtained from this cocoon.

 The operation of insurance companies is largely based on the degree of risk they undertake and the returns that they generate from it. Which is why, they require employing advanced analytical and statistical skills to gauge risks and returns associated with each proposal they receive. Here is where an insurance actuary comes into the picture.

An actuary is a professional who specialises in the field of analysing financial risks by implementing statistical, financial and mathematical theories. In insurance, actuaries aid in assessing risks which help companies in the estimation of premiums for their policies.

It is ideal for insurance companies to create policies that bear minimal risk and can generate stable returns. Estimating risk and return from each proposal also in turn aids in assuring policyholders that their claims will be settled.

With regards to insurance, actuarial practices involve analysing factors related to a customer’s life expectancy, construction of mortality tables that help one to have a measurement of predictability and offering insight to brokers.

Actuarial science mostly finds its application in the life insurance mortality analysis. However, they can also be applied in case of other general insurance fields like property and liability insurance.

Sometimes recommendations for the determination of premium for insurance policies made by actuaries can also have a positive impact on the behaviour of policyholders. For instance, premium payable by non-smokers for life insurance policies is often significantly lesser than that for smokers. This might push individuals to quit smoking to avail their life insurance policies at a lower premium.

As per the Appointed Actuary regulations put forth by the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India, any insurer or insurance company should mandatorily appoint an actuary to manage financial risks and uncertainty of the insurance business.

To be appointed as an actuary with any insurance company, an individual has to fulfil the following criteria, as put forth under regulations:

He/she should be a resident of India.

Should be a fellow member as per the Actuaries Act, 2006.

In the case of life insurance:

He/she should have passed a specialisation subject related to life insurance. Currently, specialisation refers to a Specialist Application subject as put forth by the Institute of Actuaries in India.

A prospective candidate should have at least 3 years of post-fellowship experience pertaining to the annual statutory value of life insurers.

A minimum of 10 years’ experience in the life insurance industry, out of which, at least 5 years should be that of the post-fellowship experience.

 Importance of Earth Geography:-

Earth is splendid terrestrial haven. It is imperative to know physical geography through its display of environmental diversity. In scientific studies, it is established that Geography is a word that originated from two Greek roots. Geo-denotes to “Earth,” and graphy stands for “picture or writing.” Geography is the study of earth as the home of present day human being (Sagmit, 1998).The main objective of geography is the assessment, and explanation of Earth, its variability from place to place, the way places and features transform over time, and the processes responsible for these variations and changes. Geography is termed as the spatial science because it incorporates recognizing, analysing, and explaining the variations, similarities, or differences in phenomena situated on the surface of Earth. Geography is unique among the sciences by virtue of its characterization and central purpose. It describes the values and attitudes towards environment and sharpen intellectual and practice skill.

Earth’s structure is divided into three zones that include crust, Mantle and core. Crust is the solid outer layer of the Earth, and its depth is usually never more than 1 per cent of the Earth’s radius, or averaging 40–50 km, but this varies significantly around the sphere. These are two different types: oceanic and continental. Mantle is the region within the Earth’s interior that range from 25 to 70 km below the surface, to a depth of ~2,900 km. It is composed mainly of silicate rocks, rich in iron and magnesium. At the base of the mantle, temperatures may reach up to 5,000°C. These high temperatures may help to generate convection currents which drive plate tectonics. Core is the very centre of the Earth and is composed of iron and nickel. It consists of an outer core (semi-molten) and inner core (solid). The temperature at the very centre of the Earth (~6,300 km below surface) may reach 5,500°C.

Geographic knowledge and studies often start with locational information. The location of a feature usually uses one of two methods: such as absolute location, which is articulated by a coordinate system (or address), or relative location, which recognizes where a feature exists in relation to something else, usually a fairly well-known location.

Physical geographers are more concerned in exploring the environmental features and processes that merge to make a place unique, and they are also involved in the shared characteristics between places. Another feature of the characteristics of places is analysing the environmental benefits and challenges that exist in a place. When there is a need to know how features are arranged in space, geographers are generally engrossed in two spatial factors. Spatial distribution means the extent of the area or areas where a feature exists. Spatial pattern denotes to the arrangement of features in space that are regular or random, clustered together or broadly spaced.

 Globalization has virtually diminished the distances and connected the whole world. Read here to know the effect of globalization on Indian society.

Globalization is a term used to describe how trade and technology have made the world a more connected and interdependent place. Globalization also captures in its scope the economic and social changes that have come about as a result.

In today’s world, consumers have a wide choice of goods and services before them. The latest models of digital cameras, mobile phones, and televisions made by the leading manufacturers of the world are within the reach. Every season, new models of automobiles can be seen on Indian roads. Gone are the days when Ambassador and Fiat were the only cars on Indian roads.

Today, Indians are buying cars produced by nearly all the top companies in the world. A similar explosion of brands can be seen for many other goods: from shirts to televisions to processed fruit juices. Such a wide-ranging choice of goods in our markets is a relatively recent phenomenon.

One wouldn’t have found such a wide variety of goods in Indian markets two decades back. In a matter of years, our markets have been transformed! How do we understand these rapid transformations? What are the factors that brought about these changes? And, how did these changes affect the lives of the people? The answer to all these questions starts with ‘globalization’.