Pluto-The King of Kuiper Belt

Pluto is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object directly orbiting the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris. Pluto is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It was the first and the largest Kuiper belt object to be discovered. After Pluto was discovered in 1930, it was declared to be the ninth planet from the Sun. Beginning in the 1990s, its status as a planet was questioned following the discovery of several objects of similar size in the Kuiper belt and the scattered disc, including the dwarf planet Eris. This led the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 2006 to formally define the term “planet”—excluding Pluto and reclassifying it as a dwarf planet.

Some facts about Pluto

Diameter- 2300km

Orbital period- 247.8 yrs

Length of a Day- 6.39 days

Axis tilt- 123 degrees

Distance from the Sun- 39.5AU (5.9billion km)

Moons- 5

Special features

Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small—one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume. It has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU (4.4–7.4 billion km) from the Sun. This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance with Neptune prevents them from colliding. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance (39.5 AU).

Natural satellites

Pluto has five known moons: Charon, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos and Styx. This moon system might have formed by a collision between Pluto and other similar-sized bodies early in the history of the solar system.

Charon, the biggest of Pluto’s moons, is about half the size of Pluto itself, making it the largest satellite relative to the planet it orbits in our solar system. It orbits Pluto at a distance of just 12,200 miles (19,640 kilometers). For comparison, our moon is 20 times farther away from Earth. Pluto and Charon are often referred to as a double planet. Charon’s orbit around Pluto takes 153 hours—the same time it takes Pluto to complete one rotation. This means Charon neither rises nor sets, but hovers over the same spot on Pluto’s surface. The same side of Charon always faces Pluto, a state called tidal locking.

Pluto’s other four moons are much smaller, less than 100 miles (160 kilometers) wide. They’re also irregularly shaped, not spherical like Charon. Unlike many other moons in the solar system, these moons are not tidally locked to Pluto. They all spin and don’t keep the same face towards Pluto.

Structure and Atmosphere

Pluto is about two-thirds the diameter of Earth’s moon and probably has a rocky core surrounded by a mantle of water ice. Interesting ices like methane and nitrogen frost coat its surface. Due to its lower density, Pluto’s mass is about one-sixth that of Earth’s moon. Pluto’s surface is characterized by mountains, valleys, plains, and craters. The temperature on Pluto can be as cold as -375 to -400 degrees Fahrenheit (-226 to -240 degrees Celsius).

Pluto has a thin, tenuous atmosphere that expands when it comes closer to the sun and collapses as it moves farther away—similar to a comet. The main constituent is molecular nitrogen, though molecules of methane and carbon monoxide have also been detected.

When Pluto is close to the sun, its surface ices sublimate (changing directly from solid to gas) and rise to temporarily form a thin atmosphere. Pluto’s low gravity (about six percent of Earth’s) causes the atmosphere to be much more extended in altitude than our planet’s atmosphere. Pluto becomes much colder during the part of each year when it is traveling far away from the sun. During this time, the bulk of the planet’s atmosphere may freeze and fall as snow to the surface.

Exploration

The New Horizons spacecraft, which flew by Pluto in July 2015, is the first and so far only attempt to explore Pluto directly. Launched in 2006, it captured its first (distant) images of Pluto in late September 2006 during a test of the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager. The images, taken from a distance of approximately 4.2 billion kilometers, confirmed the spacecraft’s ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects.

https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-pluto-k4.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto

Uranus- The Planet on its Sides

Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. Its name is a reference to the Greek god of the sky, Uranus, who, according to Greek mythology, was the great-grandfather of Ares (Mars), grandfather of Zeus (Jupiter) and father of Cronus (Saturn). It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar System. Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune, and both have bulk chemical compositions which differ from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn. For this reason, scientists often classify Uranus and Neptune as “ice giants” to distinguish them from the other giant planets.

Some facts about Uranus

Diameter- 51,118 km

Orbital period- 84yrs

Length of a Day- 17hrs

Axis tilt- 97.7 degrees

Distance from the Sun- 19.2 AU

Moons- 27

Special features

Uranus was discovered by William Herschel in 1781. Like the other giant planets, Uranus has a ring system, a magnetosphere, and numerous moons. The Uranian system has a unique configuration because its axis of rotation is tilted sideways, nearly into the plane of its solar orbit. Its north and south poles, therefore, lie where most other planets have their equators. In 1986, images from Voyager 2 showed Uranus as an almost featureless planet in visible light, without the cloud bands or storms associated with the other giant planets. Voyager 2 remains the only spacecraft to visit the planet. Observations from Earth have shown seasonal change and increased weather activity as Uranus approached its equinox in 2007. Wind speeds can reach 250 metres per second (900 km/h; 560 mph).

Natural satellites and Rings

Uranus has 27 known natural satellites. The names of these satellites are chosen from characters in the works of Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. The five main satellites are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon. The Uranian satellite system is the least massive among those of the giant planets. The largest of Uranus’s satellites, Titania, has a radius of only 788.9 km (490.2 mi), or less than half that of the Moon, but slightly more than Rhea, the second-largest satellite of Saturn, making Titania the eighth-largest moon in the Solar System. Uranus’s satellites have relatively low albedos; ranging from 0.20 for Umbriel to 0.35 for Ariel (in green light). They are ice–rock conglomerates composed of roughly 50% ice and 50% rock.

The Uranian rings are composed of extremely dark particles, which vary in size from micrometres to a fraction of a metre. Thirteen distinct rings are presently known, the brightest being the ε ring. All except two rings of Uranus are extremely narrow – they are usually a few kilometres wide. The rings are probably quite young; the dynamics considerations indicate that they did not form with Uranus. The matter in the rings may once have been part of a moon (or moons) that was shattered by high-speed impacts. From numerous pieces of debris that formed as a result of those impacts, only a few particles survived, in stable zones corresponding to the locations of the present rings.

Structure and Atmosphere

Uranus’s atmosphere is similar to Jupiter’s and Saturn’s in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium, but it contains more “ices” such as water, ammonia, and methane, along with traces of other hydrocarbons. It has the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System, with a minimum temperature of 49 K (−224 °C; −371 °F), and has a complex, layered cloud structure with water thought to make up the lowest clouds and methane the uppermost layer of clouds.

The standard model of Uranus’s structure is that it consists of three layers: a rocky (silicate/iron–nickel) core in the centre, an icy mantle in the middle and an outer gaseous hydrogen/helium envelope. The core is relatively small, with a mass of only 0.55 Earth masses and a radius less than 20% of Uranus’; the mantle comprises its bulk, with around 13.4 Earth masses, and the upper atmosphere is relatively insubstantial, weighing about 0.5 Earth masses and extending for the last 20% of Uranus’s radius. Uranus’s core density is around 9 g/cm³, with a pressure in the centre of 8 million bars (800 GPa) and a temperature of about 5000 K.The ice mantle is not in fact composed of ice in the conventional sense, but of a hot and dense fluid consisting of water, ammonia and other volatiles. This fluid, which has a high electrical conductivity, is sometimes called a water–ammonia ocean.

Exploration

In 1986, NASA’s Voyager 2 interplanetary probe encountered Uranus. This flyby remains the only investigation of Uranus carried out from a short distance and no other visits are planned. Launched in 1977, Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on 24 January 1986, coming within 81,500 km (50,600 mi) of the cloud tops, before continuing its journey to Neptune. The spacecraft studied the structure and chemical composition of Uranus’s atmosphere, including its unique weather, caused by its axial tilt of 97.77°.The possibility of sending the Cassini spacecraft from Saturn to Uranus was evaluated during a mission extension planning phase in 2009, but was ultimately rejected in favour of destroying it in the Saturnian atmosphere.It would have taken about twenty years to get to the Uranian system after departing Saturn.

^{Uranus – Wikipedia}
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Saturn- The Jewel

Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius of about nine and a half times that of Earth. It only has one-eighth the average density of Earth; however, with its larger volume, Saturn is over 95 times more massive. Saturn is named after the Roman god of wealth and agriculture.

Some facts about Saturn

Diameter- 120,536 km

Orbital period- 29.4yr

Length of a Day- 10hrs 39min

Axis tilt- 26.7degrees

Distance from the Sun- 9.58AU

Moons- 82

Special features

The planet’s most famous feature is its prominent ring system, which is composed mostly of ice particles, with a smaller amount of rocky debris and dust. At least 82 moons are known to orbit Saturn, of which 53 are officially named; this does not include the hundreds of moonlets in its rings. Titan, Saturn’s largest moon and the second largest in the Solar System, is larger than the planet Mercury, although less massive, and is the only moon in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere

The outer atmosphere is generally bland and lacking in contrast, although long-lived features can appear. Wind speeds on Saturn can reach 1,800 km/h (1,100 mph; 500 m/s), higher than on Jupiter but not as high as on Neptune.

Natural satellites and Rings

Saturn has 82 known moons, 53 of which have formal names. In addition, there is evidence of dozens to hundreds of moonlets with diameters of 40–500 meters in Saturn’s rings, which are not considered to be true moons. Titan, the largest moon, comprises more than 90% of the mass in orbit around Saturn, including the rings. Saturn’s second-largest moon, Rhea, may have a tenuous ring system of its own,along with a tenuous atmosphere.

Saturn is probably best known for the system of planetary rings that makes it visually unique.The rings extend from 6,630 to 120,700 kilometers (4,120 to 75,000 mi) outward from Saturn’s equator and average approximately 20 meters (66 ft) in thickness.The particles that make up the rings range in size from specks of dust up to 10 m. While the other gas giants also have ring systems, Saturn’s is the largest and most visible.

There are two main hypotheses regarding the origin of the rings. One hypothesis is that the rings are remnants of a destroyed moon of Saturn. The second hypothesis is that the rings are left over from the original nebular material from which Saturn was formed.

Structure

Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of Saturn’s mass is not in the gas phase, because hydrogen becomes a non-ideal liquid when the density is above 0.01 g/cm³, which is reached at a radius containing 99.9% of Saturn’s mass. The temperature, pressure, and density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core, which causes hydrogen to be a metal in the deeper layers.
Standard planetary models suggest that the interior of Saturn is similar to that of Jupiter, having a small rocky core surrounded by hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of various volatiles. This core is similar in composition to Earth, but is more dense. The examination of Saturn’s gravitational moment, in combination with physical models of the interior, has allowed constraints to be placed on the mass of Saturn’s core. In 2004, scientists estimated that the core must be 9–22 times the mass of Earth, which corresponds to a diameter of about 25,000 km. This is surrounded by a thicker liquid metallic hydrogen layer, followed by a liquid layer of helium-saturated molecular hydrogen that gradually transitions to a gas with increasing altitude. The outermost layer spans 1,000 km and consists of gas.

Exploration

Pioneer 11 made the first flyby of Saturn in September 1979, when it passed within 20,000 km of the planet’s cloud tops. Images were taken of the planet and a few of its moons, although their resolution was too low to discern surface detail.
In November 1980, the Voyager 1 probe visited the Saturn system. It sent back the first high-resolution images of the planet, its rings and satellites. Surface features of various moons were seen for the first time. Voyager 1 performed a close flyby of Titan, increasing knowledge of the atmosphere of the moon.
The Cassini–Huygens space probe entered orbit around Saturn on 1 July 2004. In June 2004, it conducted a close flyby of Phoebe, sending back high-resolution images and data. Cassini’s flyby of Saturn’s largest moon, Titan, captured radar images of large lakes and their coastlines with numerous islands and mountains. The orbiter completed two Titan flybys before releasing the Huygens probe on 25 December 2004. Huygens descended onto the surface of Titan on 14 January 2005.

Saturn – Wikipedia
https://space-facts.com/saturn/#:~:text=Saturn%20Facts%20%20%20Equatorial%20Diameter%3A%20%20,30%2B%20%287%20Groups%29%20%205%20more%20rows%20

Jupiter- The Giant

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined. Jupiter is the third-brightest natural object in the Earth’s night sky after the Moon and Venus. It has been observed since prehistoric times and is named after the Roman god Jupiter, the king of the gods, because of its observed size.More than eleven Earths would fit across its diameter. It’s also the most massive. More than 1,300 Earths could fit inside Jupiter, with room to spare.

Some facts about Jupiter

Diameter- 142,984 km

Orbital period- 11.8yrs

Length of a Day- 10 hours

Axis tilt- 3degrees

Distance from the Sun- 779 million km(5.2AU)

Moons- 79known moons

Special features

Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen, but helium comprises one quarter of its mass and one tenth of its volume. It likely has a rocky core of heavier elements,but like the other giant planets, Jupiter lacks a well-defined solid surface. The on-going contraction of its interior generates heat greater than the amount received from the Sun. Because of its rapid rotation, the planet’s shape is that of an oblate spheroid; it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator. The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes, with turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries. A prominent result of this is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century, when it was first seen by telescope. Surrounding Jupiter is a powerful magnetosphere. Jupiter’s magnetic tail is nearly 800 million km long, covering the entire distance to Sa turn’s orbit. Jupiter has almost a hundred known moons and possibly many more, including the four large Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610. Ganymede, the largest of these, has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury.

Natural Satellites and Rings

Jupiter has 79 known natural satellites. Of these, 60 are less than 10 km in diameter. The four largest moons are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, collectively known as the “Galilean moons” Jupiter has a faint planetary ring system composed of three main segments: an inner torus of particles known as the halo, a relatively bright main ring, and an outer gossamer ring.These rings appear to be made of dust, rather than ice as with Saturn’s rings

Structure

The composition of Jupiter is similar to that of the Sun—mostly hydrogen and helium. Deep in the atmosphere, pressure and temperature increase, compressing the hydrogen gas into a liquid. This gives Jupiter the largest ocean in the solar system—an ocean made of hydrogen instead of water. Scientists think that, at depths perhaps halfway to the planet’s center, the pressure becomes so great that electrons are squeezed off the hydrogen atoms, making the liquid electrically conducting like metal. Jupiter’s fast rotation is thought to drive electrical currents in this region, generating the planet’s powerful magnetic field. It is still unclear if, deeper down, Jupiter has a central core of solid material or if it may be a thick, super-hot and dense soup. It could be up to 90,032 degrees Fahrenheit (50,000 degrees Celsius) down there, made mostly of iron and silicate minerals (similar to quartz).

Exploration

Pioneer 10 was the first spacecraft to visit Jupiter, making its closest approach to the planet in December 1973. Jupiter has since been explored on a number of occasions by robotic spacecraft, beginning with the Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions from 1973 to 1979, and later by the Galileo orbiter, which arrived at Jupiter in 1995. In 2007, Jupiter was visited by the New Horizons probe, which used Jupiter’s gravity to increase its speed and bend its trajectory en route to Pluto. The latest probe to visit the planet, Juno, entered orbit around Jupiter in July 2016. Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include the probable ice-covered liquid ocean of the moon Europa.

Jupiter – Wikipedia
https://www.bing.com/aclk?ld=e8k-pfHbjv-CV55VIl5abb_DVUCUz1ts_eBtiemCSpraSEheuOBIFn5ofp1EnODk3SRfdK9SS4VsZF0jXe2iaYVanAC3oPv4jWNaaOu2_WiBmnrz2FMCaeSWYay3tpoO2zWh3uJDSzpxMp8qmzs861Enln4hcX7sqAsEd3hHsHVrTQMqLN&u=aHR0cHMlM2ElMmYlMmZ3d3cuc2VsZmdhbGF4eS5jb20lMmYyMDIxJTJmMDQlMmZpbnRlcmVzdGluZy1mYWN0cy1hYm91dC1qdXBpdGVyLmh0bWw&rlid=5011e8abaa201a3eeb5488755f08da0f&ntb=1

Mars- The Red Planet

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, being larger than only Mercury. Mars is often referred to as the “Red Planet ”, which refers to the effect of the iron oxide prevalent on Mars’s surface, which gives it a reddish appearance distinctive among the objects visible to the naked eye.Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.94, which is surpassed only by Venus, the Moon and the Sun.

Some facts about Mars

Diameter- 6,780km

Orbital period- 1.88yrs

Length of a Day- 24hr, 37min

Axis tilt- 25 degrees

Distance from the Sun- 228 million kilometer ( 1.52AU )

Moons- Phobos and deimos

Special features

Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, with surface features reminiscent of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth. The days and seasons are comparable to those of Earth, because the rotational period as well as the tilt of the rotational axis relative to the ecliptic plane are similar. Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System. The smooth Borealis basin in the Northern Hemisphere covers 40% of the planet and may be a giant impact feature. Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped.

Exploration

Mars has been explored by several uncrewed spacecraft. Mariner 4 was the first spacecraft to visit Mars; launched by NASA on 28 November 1964, it made its closest approach to the planet on 15 July 1965. The Soviet Mars 3 mission included a lander, which achieved a soft landing in December 1971; however, contact was lost seconds after touchdown. On 20 July 1976, Viking 1 performed the first successful landing on the Martian surface. On 4 July 1997, the Mars Pathfinder spacecraft landed on Mars and on 5 July released its rover, Sojourner, the first robotic rover to operate on Mars. The Mars Express orbiter, the first European Space Agency (ESA) spacecraft to visit Mars, arrived in orbit on 25 December 2003. In January 2004, NASA’s Mars Exploration Rovers, named Spirit and Opportunity, both landed on Mars. NASA landed its Curiosity rover on August 6, 2012, as a part of its Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission to investigate Martian climate and geology. On 24 September 2014, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) became the fourth space agency to visit Mars when its maiden interplanetary mission, the Mars Orbiter Mission spacecraft, arrived in orbit. China National Space Administration (CNSA)’s Tianwen-1 spacecraft arrived in Martian orbit on 10 February 2021. NASA’s Perseverance rover and Ingenuity helicopter successfully landed on Mars on 18 February 2021. On 14 May 2021, CNSA’s Tianwen-1 lander and Zhurong rover successfully landed on Mars.The Zhurong rover was successfully deployed on 22 May 2021, which makes China the second country to successfully deploy a rover on Mars, after the United States.

Phobos and Deimos

Phobos has a diameter of 22.2 km (13.8 mi) and a mass of 1.08×10¹⁶ kg, while Deimos measures 12.6 km (7.8 mi) across, with a mass of 2.0×10¹⁵ kg. Phobos orbits closer to Mars, with a semi-major axis of 9,377 km (5,827 mi) and an orbital period of 7.66 hours; the semi-major axis of Deimos’s orbit is 23,460 km (14,580 mi), with an orbital period of 30.35 hours.

Atmosphere

Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes, so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, lowering the atmospheric density by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. The atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen along with traces of oxygen and water. The atmosphere is quite dusty, containing particulates about 1.5 µm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface. It may take on a pink hue due to iron oxide particles suspended in it.

Structure

Mars has a dense core at its center between 930 and 1,300 miles (1,500 to 2,100 kilometers) in radius. It’s made of iron, nickel, and sulfur. Surrounding the core is a rocky mantle between 770 and 1,170 miles (1,240 to 1,880 kilometers) thick, and above that, a crust made of iron, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, and potassium.

Mars – Wikipedia
In Depth | Mars – NASA Solar System Exploration

Earth- Sweet Home

11]Earth- Sweet Home

Earth is the third planet from the Sun. We have learnt about Earth since childhood. Here I will cover some facts and provide quick glances at the basic information which everyone must know about our home planet.

Some facts about Earth:

Diameter- 12,742 km

Orbital period- 365.25 days

Day- 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds

Axis tilt- 23.5 degrees

Distance from sun- 1AU

Hydrosphere:

Earth is the only object known to harbor and support life in the universe so far. About 29.2% of Earth’s surface is land consisting of continents and islands. The remaining 70.8% is covered with water, mostly by oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and other water bodies, which together constitute the hydrosphere. Much of Earth’s polar regions are covered in ice and many glaciers are present.

Lithosphere and Structure of Earth

Earth is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest and most massive of the four rocky planets. Earth’s outer layer is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over many millions of years, while its interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates Earth’s magnetic field, and a convective mantle that drives plate tectonics. The Earth’s crust ranges from 5–70 kilometres (3.1–43.5 mi) in depth and is the outermost layer. Earth’s mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the planet’s thickest layer.

Atmosphere

Earth’s atmosphere consists of various gases which are (by volume) -78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. The atmosphere has various layers. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:

Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles)
Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)
Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles)
Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles)
Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)

Gravity and Orbit

The gravitational acceleration on Earth’s surface is considered to be 9.8 ms^-2 . Earth’s gravity interacts with other objects in space, especially the Moon, which is Earth’s only natural satellite. Earth orbits around the Sun in about 365.25 days. Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing seasons on Earth. The gravitational interaction between Earth and the Moon causes tides, stabilizes Earth’s orientation on its axis, and gradually slows its rotation.

History of Earth and Life

According to radiometric dating estimation and other evidence, Earth formed over 4.5 billion years ago. Within the first billion years of Earth’s history, life appeared in the oceans and began to affect Earth’s atmosphere and surface, leading to the proliferation of anaerobic and, later, aerobic organisms. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1 billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth’s distance from the Sun, physical properties, and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive. In the history of life on Earth, biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by mass extinctions. Over 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct. Almost 8 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and natural resources for their survival. Humans increasingly impact Earth’s surface, hydrology, atmospheric processes, and other life.

Our responsibility

Recently, Earth has been facing many problems due to human activities. It is the responsibility of humans to fix these problems- Global warming and climate change. Carbon emissions and overpopulation is leading to the creation of many environmental as well as social problems. We must stand up for our Earth and contribute as much as we can, since every step matters.

Structure of Earth – Wikipedia
https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/index.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth

Venus- Earth’s Twin

Venus is the second planet from the Sun. in our Solar System. It is the brightest natural object in Earth’s night sky after the Moon. Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, meaning that it is a rocky body like Earth. It is similar to Earth in size and mass, and is often described as Earth’s “sister” or “twin”. The diameter of Venus is 12,103.6 km (7,520.8 mi)—only 638.4 km (396.7 mi) less than Earth’s—and its mass is 81.5% of Earth’s. Conditions on the Venusian surface differ radically from those on Earth because its dense atmosphere is 96.5% carbon dioxide, with most of the remaining 3.5% being nitrogen. The surface pressure is 9.3 megapascals and the surface temperature is 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F), above the critical points of both major constituents and making the surface atmosphere a supercritical fluid(distinct gaseous and liquid phases do not exist).

Some facts about Venus:

Diameter- 12,103.6 km

Orbital period- 224.7 days

Length of a day- 117 days

Axis tilt- 177.3 degrees

Distance from the Sun- 108 million km (0.72AU)

Moons- none

Atmosphere and climate

Venus has an extremely dense atmosphere composed of 96.5% carbon dioxide, 3.5% nitrogen—both exist as supercritical fluids at the planet’s surface—and traces of other gases including sulfur dioxide. The mass of its atmosphere is 92 times that of Earth’s, whereas the pressure at its surface is about 93 times that at Earth’s—a pressure equivalent to that at a depth of nearly 1 km (⁵⁄₈ mi) under Earth’s oceans.

Studies have suggested that billions of years ago, Venus’ atmosphere could have been much more like the one surrounding the early Earth, and that there may have been substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface. After a period of 600 million to several billion years, solar forcing from rising luminosity of the Sun caused the evaporation of the original water. A runaway greenhouse effect was created once a critical level of greenhouse gases (including water) was added to its atmosphere. Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any Earth-like life that may have formed before this event, there is speculation on the possibility that life exists in the upper cloud layers of Venus, 50 km (30 mi) up from the surface, where the temperature ranges between 303 and 353 K (30 and 80 °C; 86 and 176 °F) but the environment is acidic. The apparent detection of phosphine in Venus’ atmosphere, with no known pathway for abiotic production, led to speculation in September 2020 that there could be existing life currently present in the atmosphere.

Structure

The similarity in size and density between Venus and Earth suggests they share a similar internal structure: a core, mantle, and crust. Like that of Earth, the Venusian core is most likely at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate, although a completely solid core cannot be ruled out. The slightly smaller size of Venus means pressures are 24% lower in its deep interior than Earth’s. The predicted values for the moment of inertia based on planetary models suggest a core radius of 2,900–3,450 km.

Missions to Venus:

Many missions have been sent to Venus in the past decades. Venera 4 and 5, were the first to enter the atmosphere and send information. Venera 9 sent back the first images from Venus. Some other missions include- The Magellan Mission( a thirteen-year-long Venus radar mapping project ), The Pioneer Venus orbiters and Venus Express.

References: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus#Atmosphere_and_climate https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluid

Humanity’s Strongest Weapon- Hope

What does the word hope mean to you? Hope means many different things to different people. For some, hope is about expecting to get promoted. For some, hope is about living in better conditions, or the next day being better than today. Hope is an optimistic state of mind which is based on an expectation of positive outcome. Hope is humanity’s weapon against suffering and doom. You might have heard about the ‘Pandora’s box’. In Greek mythology, Pandora’s box was an artifact. Pandora’s curiosity led her to open a box, which released many curses on humanity. In the end when Pandora was depressed and regretted her decision, Hope came out. This tells us the importance and power of hope. Hope stands alone against all the evils.

Hope gives us the strength to stay strong and face the challenges. But why are we talking about hope? During the pandemic, when we feel that we are lost, doomed, bent to suffering, hope can lift us up. The hope that we will make it out, the hope that these days too shall pass, will surely enable us to sail through these dark times.

Emily Dickinson once said- “ Hope is the thing with feathers that perches in the soul and sings the tune without the words and never stops at all.”

I believe this is a very beautiful way to express the meaning of hope. Hope lifts our soul when we feel low. To further our understanding of hope, I wish to share a story.

Image result for Hope. Size: 266 x 160. Source: www.uhsinc.com

Long time ago, there lived a poor orphaned girl, Belia. Only once had she seen her parents, that too when they left her in the hands of mother nature at the age of 4. She lived in an old hut along with another girl, Susan, who too had been abandoned by her once mother. Now they lived in destitute conditions in the lonely woods.

“Susie! Come.” called Belia. They headed to the river to gather some berries, if there were any left. Day by day, man was growing fond of exploiting nature. Last year, they strolled in the meadows and made beautiful garlands. But now, the meadows were cleared, leaving hardly any flowers for the girls. As they walked past the cleared meadow, Belia said, “I tell you Susie, one day, we will have our flowers back.” Susan sighed and replied, “Lia, please stop dreaming. They are gone forever. They are never coming back.” Belia smiled and rushed to the river. “I don’t know how or when, but I know they surely will, Susie.” said Belia.

Seasons changed, the girls found themselves famished. There were hardly any berries left, or money. They became fragile and lethargic due to starvation. Susan burst out into tears, ”No one cares if we live or die. I can’t bear this anymore.” Belia consoled her, ”Susie, don’t worry, someday soon we will have lots of food. Let’s go to the town to see if we find any.” Susan had lost her strength, ”No! We will die of starvation. I no longer wish to survive.” Saying this she lay down. Belia was too hopeful to give up, ”If you are unable to walk, I will go and bring some food. I know, I will find some.” Belia set out to the town. She sang merrily in her journey, as if she was a princess. She came by a big house. There she requested them to give some bread. After a long while of seeking their charity, the house Mistress gave her two pieces of bread. She rejoiced and turned back to her hut.

Unfortunately, while crossing the river back home, her foot slipped and her basket fell into the river. She put in all of her remaining energy in chasing it. It was futile. She was panting, and fell to the ground with despair. She looked at the sky and begged for food. She heard a dulcet melody. She followed the song. The melody was coming from a few miles away. She walked and walked. Whenever the thought of giving up came to her mind, the melody relit the hope within her. Finally, she reached a pond, surrounded by trees, from whose branches hung red apples, however the melody had stopped. She jumped with joy and plucked an apple. She relished her apple. Then plucked a few more, tied them in her frock and hurried to the hut.

Susan lay there on the cold ground. Belia tried waking her up. However, Susan lay there still. She truly had given up.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/hope

The World of Extremes- Mercury

The closest planet to the Sun is Mercury. Everyone knows that. But did you know that Mercury has the Caloris Basin which is 1,550-kilometer-wide! Mercury is the smallest planet in the solar system. It has no moons of its own. If you stand on the surface of Mercury, the Sun would appear three times larger than seen from earth. Mercury is smaller than Ganymede and Titan. It is 2400km in radius. It is a rocky world, one of the terrestrial planets, and has a weak magnetic field generated by its core. It has a very thin, almost nonexistent atmosphere. Its landscape is more cratered than any other terrestrial planets(lots of bombardment from solar debris). Are you ready to learn more about this small yet exciting planet?

Image result for Mercury. Size: 170 x 160. Source: www.universetoday.com

Some facts about Mercury:

Radius- 2440 km

Orbital period (Length of a year)- 88 Earth days

Length of a day- 59 Earth days

Surface temperatures- -183°C(-300°F) to 430°C(800°F)

Axis tilt- 0 degrees

Distance from the Sun- 0.39AU

Moons- none

Gravity- 0.38 Earth’s gravity

Mercury’s History

Mercury was formed from rocky materials that could withstand the high temperatures close to the Sun. Early Mercury lost most of its original atmosphere due to the constant lashes of the solar wind. Mercury was subject to impacts from incoming solar system debris during a period called the “Late Heavy Bombardment,” which ended about 3.8 billion years ago. Mercury has retained many of the craters from that era of its history. It is assumed that, the more craters on the surface of a planet or object, the older the planet or object is. So, Mercury’s surface is quite old. The Caloris Basin was created as a result of a 100-kilometer-wide asteroid crashing into the surface, about 4 million years ago.

Missions to Mercury

Mariner 10 was the first mission to visit Mercury in 1973 and circled the planet three times. Through its specialized equipment, it measured Mercury and sent the first-ever close-up images of its surface.

In 2011, the MESSENGER(Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Geochemistry and Ranging ) spacecraft entered into Mercury’s orbit for a multi-year mission. The data from MESSENGER is remarkable.

Mercury’s secrets uncovered

There is strong evidence of water at the poles. Mercury’s core is larger than expected- it takes up 85 percent of the planet! The core is probably solid and surrounded by a liquid layer of molten iron, a layer of iron sulfide above that, and silicate rocks that make up the crust. Mercury is the densest of all the terrestrial planets. Volcanism helped shape Mercury’s surfaces. Its landscape is split by large cliffs called scarps, which formed as the surface broke apart. It is made up of 60 percent iron which is twice as much as Earth has, and 40 percent other minerals. Mercury’s very thin atmosphere contains- hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium and water vapor. Scientists found traces of dark materials which could be organic compounds(carbon-based). It is possible that these organic compounds and the ice deposits were delivered by comets which bombarded it.

I hope you learnt something more about Mercury than it just being the closest planet to the Sun.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet)
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/mercury/overview/

Living With A Star- The Sun

We have our own star- the mighty Sun. The Sun is the biggest source of heat and light in our solar system. It is one of the several trillion stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. Though it is massive, it is classified as a yellow dwarf star. Without it, life might not exist, and that makes it very important to us.

To ancient people, the Sun was something to worship. Various religions around the world venerated the Sun as a god with various names.

Image result for Sun. Size: 160 x 160. Source: www.physics.upenn.edu

Solar Physics

Our sun is very special to us and the solar system. So, we have a separate branch of physics specially for our dear Sun.Solar physicists seek to explain how the sun works and how it affects the rest of the solar system They take measurements of the temperature and have assigned it a stellar ‘type’ based on their measurements. They figure out its structure. Their studies help us to know more about the other stars.

Structure of the sun

The Sun is basically a big sphere of superheated gas. It has an outer solar atmosphere, which is called the corona (not the virus of course). It’s an incredibly thin layer of superheated gas having over a million degrees temperature. Below that lies the chromosphere. It’s a thin, reddish-hued layer of gases and its temperature changes from 3500℃ at the base to 35000℃ where it transitions up to the corona. Next is the photosphere, where temperatures range from 4000°C to 5700℃ . When you look at the sun, the photosphere is actually what you see. The sun is actually white(believe me), but it appears yellowish because its light travels through our atmosphere, which removes blue and red wavelengths from the incoming light. After the photosphere, we have the convective zone. It contains bubbles, which are currents moving through the Sun. The next layer is the radiative zone. This region truly does radiate heat from the center of the Sun up to the convective zone. The final layer is the solar core. This is a huge nuclear furnace where nuclear fusion happens. The temperature here is 15million degrees celsius. The rest of the Sun pressing down on it provides a pressure 340 billion times the earth’s atmospheric pressure at sea level (the poor core has a lot of pressure indeed!). The Sun fuses about 620 metric tons of hydrogen to helium each second, and that’s what gives out all that heat.

Heliopause

The solar wind from the sun extends out about 100 astronomical units, and creates a bubble that surrounds the solar system. The bubble’s inner edge is called the heliopause.

Sun spots

The surface of the sun is dotted with dark regions called sun. Look who has acne problems! Well, these are not really acne. These are areas threaded with magnetic fields and look dark because they are cooler than the surrounding regions. Sunspots appear in eleven year cycles. As the Sun reaches solar minimum and solar maximum through the solar cycle, the spots change darkness. These sunspots are related to solar activity.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/solar-system/sun/in-depth/

The Solar Family

The universe is a big place. We have been granted a family in this vast dark nothingness- our solar system. So, what is so cool about it? There are thousands of such systems, but how is ours special? It is special since we ‘live’ here. It is the only known place to have life so far.

The solar system contains the sun, eight planets, many dwarf planets, comets, moons and asteroids. The Sun is our star. It is the source of energy and heat. It makes up 99.8 percent of the solar system’s entire mass, yet it is not that big of a star.

What is a planet?

The early sky gazers called planets as ‘planetes’ (wanderers). So, is a planet just a round object orbiting around the sun? Or perhaps is it an object having moons and a large size? The definition of planets is a little more complex than that. A planet is defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as a celestial body that has its primary orbit around the Sun, has sufficient mass for its own gravity to mold it into a round shape, and has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit by sweeping up all the planetesimals, which means that it’s the only body of its size in its orbit (got me breathless there).This complex definition excludes comets, asteroids, and smaller worlds that aren’t rounded by their own gravity. The IAU also defined another class called dwarf planets. These are objects that meet the first two criteria for planets but have not yet cleared their orbits.

Inner solar system

The area surrounding the sun, and bounded by the asteroid belt is the inner solar system. Here lie the first four planets of the solar system- Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These planets are also referred to as “terrestrial” planets from the word ‘terra’ which is Latin for ‘earth’. It indicates that these planets have a similar rocky composition to Earth.

Asteroid belt

It is a collection of rocky objects (asteroids) of various sizes orbiting the Sun, located roughly between the orbits of the planets Jupiter and Mars.

Outer solar system

It lies beyond the asteroid belt. It consists of the gas giants- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. These planets consist mostly of small rocky cores buried deep within massive spheres of liquid metallic hydrogen and some helium, covered by cloudy atmospheres. Neptune and Uranus are sometimes called as ‘ice giants’ as they contain significant amounts of super cold oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and possibly some water. Each gas giant has a set of rings. Saturn’s is the most extensive and beautiful.

Kuiper belt

It extends from the orbit of Neptune out to a distance of well beyond 50AU from the sun. Think of it as a very distant and much more extensive version of the asteroid belt. It contains the dwarf planets- Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris – as well as many other smaller icy worlds.

Oort cloud

The entire solar system is surrounded by a shell of frozen bits of ice and rock called the Oort cloud. It stretches out to about a quarter of the way to the nearest star.

The solar system is about 4.6 billion years old and will continue to remain for another 1 or 2 billion years. Till then, this is our family, a huge one but is a family after all.

https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System

Astronomy- The Science of Space

When you look at the night sky, you admire the fascinating beauty of millions of stars and galaxies of the universe. Humans have looked in awe and wondered what those twinkling dots of light are, since ancient times. Due to their inborn curiosity, humans have found answers to their questions and ventured deeper into the unknown.

Today, many spacecrafts have been sent beyond our little world -earth -and humans have even walked on the moon! All this has been possible only because of our thirst to know more. So, space has its own separate branch of science- Astronomy.

What is astronomy?

Astronomy is the branch of science dealing with the study of the universe. There are two major types of astronomy- observational and theoretical. In observational astronomy, many different types of electromagnetic waves like X-rays , gamma rays, microwaves, UV rays, infrared and visible light. Theoretical astronomy mainly deals with simulations and creating theoretical models to predict the observations.

Distance in astronomy

We know that the universe is a very very large place. So, to measure distance in the cosmos we need bigger units of length than kilometers:

Astronomical unit(AU): It is used to define the distance between Earth and the Sun. 1AU is equivalent to 149 million kilometers (93 million miles).

Light year(ly): It is defined as the distance travelled by light in one year. The speed of light is 300,000 kilometers per second. So 1ly is equal to 9.5 trillion kilometers(a lot right!).

Parsec: It is defined as the distance at which the mean radius of the earth’s orbit subtends an angle of one second of arc. 1 parsec is equal to 3.26light years.

Some fun facts:

The limit of the visible universe is about 46.5billion light years(radius) which equals to 4.4* 10^26metres (humongous!).
The universe is about 13.8billion light years old.
The universe formed as a result of the Big Bang-literally a single point expanded to form the universe!
The universe is expanding at the rate of 72 kilometers per second.
There are more than one hundred thousand million stars in our galaxy (the milky way). Imagine if there are trillions of galaxies like our own, how many stars would that be!
The death of the universe is not completely predicted yet. Some say that it will become a dark and cold place when all the stars die. Others say that the universe will end with “the Big Crunch”.
When you look at the sun, you look about 8 minutes into the past, since light has taken 8 minutes to reach us.
The milky way has a supermassive black hole at its center- Sagittarius A*

Are we alone?

We haven’t found any other life in the universe but the search is on. Since there are billions of stars, the chances of them having earth like planets are high. So, there probably are “aliens” out there, we just haven’t found them yet or they haven’t found us yet. Sadly, the chances of having contact with a developed alien life like us are very low. However, that won’t stop us from looking. Hopefully, we will find them soon (and let them be friendly!).

Astronomy is a diversified branch with biology, geology, chemistry, mathematics and physics, all different types of fields coming together. There is a lot of scope for a great career in this discipline. Besides, who wouldn’t want to find out the secrets of the universe.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/astronomy.htm

IS TIME TRAVEL POSSIBLE?- Yes and No.

Avengers endgame, back to the future, and so many amazing sci-fi movies are based on time travel. Apparently, everyone loves them, but have you ever wondered if it could happen in real life? Most people would say no and answer that it is just some fantasy. However, physicists would say differently.

There is something called ‘time dilation’ in relativity according to which time can slow down or move faster depending upon velocity(special relativistic time dilation) or gravity(gravitational time dilation).

Special relativistic time dilation

First, let’s talk about special relativistic time dilation. According to Einstein’s special theory of relativity, time in a moving frame appears to run slower. You may have heard this famous spaceship example. If you travel in a spaceship with speed closer to that of light, and return after 10 years of travel, on earth about 30 years would have passed! Talking in scientific terms, in a particular frame of reference, suppose that two events occur at the same point in space. The time interval between these events, as measured by an observer at rest in this same frame (which we call the rest frame of this observer), is Δt₀ . Then an observer in a second frame moving with constant speed relative to the rest frame will measure the time interval to be Δt where-

The denominator is always smaller than 1( u<c), so Δt is always larger than Δt₀.Thus we call this effect time dilation(time getting elongated).

Now, let’s come to the other type of time dilation- gravitational. Gravitational time dilation is a form of time dilation, where the difference in elapsed time is due to the gravitational potential. The lower the gravitational potential (the closer the clock is to the source of gravitation), the slower time passes, speeding up as the gravitational potential increases (the clock getting away from the source of gravitation). Albert Einstein originally predicted this effect in his general theory of relativity and it has since been confirmed by tests of general relativity. For example, imagine that you are approaching a black hole which has gravity due to its mass(the gravitational potential is decreasing as you are moving towards the source of gravity). If your friends observe your clock, it would be seen as running slower and slower as you move ahead. Since the gravity is so strong, for them it would appear that you are moving towards the event horizon forever! In simple terms, the closer you are to some strong source of gravity, the slower time passes for you.

Earlier, in our spaceship example, the spaceship is moving at very high velocity, and when it returns back, there is a 20 year gap. We can say that the spaceship traveled 20 years back in time. I get it, not quite fulfilling your expectations.

You see, time travelling has consequences. To further limit the possibility of time travel, we have Einstein’s equation- E=mc² . To travel at high speeds we need a lot of energy to be synthesized within a fraction of a second, which is not possible currently.

Conclusion

So, time travel is ‘possible’, we just haven’t figured it out yet. Don’t let down your childhood fantasies . Remember that once mobile phones were a fantasy but now they are a reality. I am sure that the future won’t let us down.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_dilation
http://www.exactlywhatistime.com/physics-of-time/relativistic-time/#:~:text=In%20relativity%2C%20time%20is%20certainly%20an%20integral%20part,must%20be%20flexible%20and%20relative%20to%20accommodate%20this.

Special Relativity Made Easy

Does the word “special relativity” strike fear in your heart? It might seem tough at first glance but it is very easy to understand.

Postulates

Special theory of relativity is a theory regarding space and time, given by Albert einstein. The main postulates of this theory are:

1]The Principle of Relativity : The laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference.

2]The Principle of Invariant Light Speed :The speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial frames of reference and is independent of the motion of the light source.

Now, let us understand these two postulates. The first postulate basically means that physical laws, for example, Newton’s laws of motion and laws of electromagnetism, are independent from the choice of inertial systems. If the laws differed, that difference could distinguish one inertial frame from the others or make one frame somehow more “correct” than another. However, all frames of reference are correct in their own way. Suppose you watch two children playing catch with a ball while the three of you are aboard a train moving with constant velocity. Your observations of the motion of the ball, no matter how carefully done, can’t tell you how fast (or whether) the train is moving. If seen from outside, all three appear to be moving with the train at constant velocity. This is because Newton’s laws of motion are the same in every inertial frame.

Let’s think about what the second postulate means. Suppose two observers measure the speed of light in vacuum. One is at rest with respect to the light source, and the other is moving away from it. Both are in inertial frames of reference. According to the principle of relativity, the two observers must obtain the same result, despite the fact that one is moving with respect to the other. Now suppose a spacecraft moving with constant velocity turns on a searchlight. An observer on the spacecraft measures the speed of light emitted by the searchlight and obtains the value. According to Einstein’s second postulate, the motion of the light after it has left the source cannot depend on the motion of the source. So the observer on earth who measures the speed of this same light must also obtain the same value. This result contradicts our elementary notion of relative velocities, and it may not appear to agree with common sense. But “common sense” is intuition based on everyday experience, and this does not usually include measurements of the speed of light.

Speed of light as a constant

Einstein’s second postulate immediately implies the following result: It is impossible for an inertial observer to travel at c, the speed of light in vacuum. We can prove this by showing that travel at c implies a logical contradiction. Suppose that the spacecraft is moving at the speed of light relative to an observer on the earth, so that If the spacecraft turns on a headlight, the second postulate now asserts that the earth observer measures the headlight beam to be also moving at c. Thus this observer measures that the headlight beam and the spacecraft move together and are always at the same point in space. But Einstein’s second postulate also asserts that the headlight beam moves at a speed relative to the spacecraft, so they cannot be at the same point in space. This contradictory result can be avoided only if it is impossible for an inertial observer, such as a passenger on the spacecraft, to move at.

Hopefully, now you can brag that you know the special theory of relativity.

https://cosmo.nyu.edu/hogg/sr/sr.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity

Makar Sankranti – Sweets and Fun

Makar Sankranti is a festival in the Hindu calendar dedicated to the Sun God- Surya. Makar Sankranti is one of the few ancient Indian festivals that has been observed according to solar cycles. Makar Sankranti is set by the solar cycle of the Hindu lunisolar calendar, and is observed on a day which usually falls on 14 January of the Gregorian calendar, but sometimes on 15 January. This festival signifies the arrival of longer days. As per a legend, Lord Surya forgave his son Shani and his son visited him on Sankranti. And that’s why people distribute everyone sweets and urge them to let go of any negative or angry feelings

Every twelve years, Hindus organize the kumbh mela on makar sankranti which is one of the world’s largest pilgrimages, with about 40 to 100 million people attending it(too crowded right? Do not get lost!). At this event, they pray to the sun god and bathe in the ganga river.

The festivities associated with Makar Sankranti are known by various names such as Magh Bihu in Assam, Maghi in Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, popular amongst both the Hindus and Sikhs, Sukarat in central India, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Uttarayan in Gujarat, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh, Ghughuti in Uttarakhand, Makar Sankranti in Odisha, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa, West Bengal, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh or as Sankranthi in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

Celebrations:

On makar sankranti people conduct various social festivities such as decorating houses, singing songs in rural areas, organizing fairs(melas), performing dances, kite flying(my favourite) and feasts. Children go house to house distributing sweets.

In Maharashtra on Makar Sankranti, people exchange multicoloured halwa (those yummy sugar granules coated in sugar syrup) and til-gul laddoos. Puran poli with pure ghee is also cooked . While exchanging til-gul as tokens of goodwill people greet each other. Married women invite friends and neighbours and celebrate Haldi-Kunku. Guests are given til-gul and some small gifts, as a part of the ritual. While distributing sweets, the famous line “til gul ghya aani god god bola” (which means eat sweet and speak sweet words) is used in Maharashtra.

My experience:

I remember dressing up in new clothes and then going to each and every house asking for sweets, receiving chocolates and laddoos. My friends and I would wish everyone with “tilgul ghya aani gol gol bola” and it worked, just for a few days, after which the same old bitter quarrels began. Anyways, flying kites was certainly the best part. You can cut others’ kites and avenge yourself(or just have some good fun). You can compete with your neighbours to see who can fly the kite better. However, be careful with those deadly strings. They are truly fatal if you mess with them. Once my friends and I competed to see who could get the most candies, and whoever won would get the candies collected by others. It definitely did not go that well for us except my clever friend who won(she was kind and did not take our candies so phew). Makar sankranti is all about fun!

I would love to know your experiences in the comments below!

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankranthi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makar_Sankranti

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Special relativistic time dilation

Conclusion

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Postulates

Speed of light as a constant

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