Technology-Driven Food Waste Management at Crown Regency Hotel, Cebu City

Citation

Talamo, R. S., Reblora, R. M., Diaz, W. D. B.-O., & Macuto, M. T. V. (2026). Technology-Driven Food Waste Management at Crown Regency Hotel, Cebu City. International Journal of Research, 13(3), 139–157. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/10

Main Author:

Roselio Serafina Talamo
Co- Author:
Rona Marie Reblora
Welou Dil Bato-On Diaz
Maria Trinidad Victoria Macuto

University of Cebu Main Campus

Abstract

Crown Regency Hotel in Cebu City, Philippines. The hotel industry faces significant food waste challenges due to overproduction, inefficient inventory management, and lack of real-time data. Traditional practices like portion control and food repurposing have limited success in addressing the problem. This research focuses on the implementation of digital tools such as AI-driven forecasting, IoT-based monitoring, and digital inventory systems to minimize food waste across various stages of the supply chain, including procurement, storage, food preparation, and service.

The study applies the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Technological-Organizational-Environmental (TOE) Framework, and Circular Economy (CE) Model to evaluate the adoption of these technologies at Crown Regency Hotel. It also examines legal policies and barriers to adoption, including cost, technical complexity, and organizational resistance. A survey of hotel staff assesses the effectiveness of the technologies in reducing food waste and improving supply chain efficiency.

Results indicate that while technology can enhance operational efficiency and reduce waste, challenges in cost and implementation persist. The study provides recommendations to overcome these barriers and promote the adoption of food waste reduction technologies. It aims to contribute to sustainable practices in the hospitality sector, offering valuable insights for similar establishments and policymakers.

Keywords: Food Waste Management, Technology Adoption, Hospitality Industry

Rationale

In the Philippine hotel industry, especially in Cebu’s tourism-driven economy, food waste is both a financial liability and a sustainability issue. Crown Regency Hotel, with its extensive buffet and event catering services, operates at a scale where inefficiencies can lead to significant food losses.

Despite implementing traditional practices such as portion control and repurposing, food waste persists due to overproduction, poor inventory tracking, and lack of real-time data. Technological solutions such as digital inventory systems, AI-driven forecasting, and IoT-based monitoring are becoming increasingly relevant. However, the extent of their use at Crown Regency Hotel, their effectiveness, and barriers to adoption remain underexplored.

As a former chef, the researcher brings direct industry experience and a grounded understanding of operational realities in hotel kitchens. This case study seeks to bridge the gap between theory and practice, examining how technology can be more effectively leveraged to reduce food waste within the operational context of a high-profile hotel in Cebu.

Theoretical Background

Food waste in the Philippines is a crisis. It threatens food security. It weakens economic stability. It harms environmental sustainability. Technology is the game-changer. Digital solutions are emerging as the key to cutting waste across the food supply chain. This section explores the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as the anchor theory. It is reinforced by the Technological-Organizational-Environmental (TOE) Framework and the Circular Economy (CE) Model. Relevant legal policies and research findings are also examined.

Anchor Theory: Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)

Technology adoption isn’t random. It follows a pattern. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989) explains this. Two factors drive adoption: perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. If a technology isn’t useful or user-friendly, it won’t be adopted.

In the Philippine food industry, digital tools like AI-driven forecasting, blockchain for food traceability, and IoT-based monitoring systems are potential solutions. But adoption depends on whether farmers, retailers, and supply chain managers see real value. Studies confirm this. Sarmiento & Concepcion (2021) found that agribusinesses embrace tech only when they see increased efficiency and cost savings. However, there are roadblocks. Digital illiteracy. Weak infrastructure. These barriers slow adoption. Identifying them is crucial. Addressing them is even more critical.

Technological-Organizational-Environmental (TOE) Framework

Technology adoption doesn’t happen in isolation. It’s influenced by three factors:

Technology – Are AI inventory systems available? Are smart sensors in place? Are digital donation platforms accessible?

Organization – Are food suppliers and logistics companies willing to invest in tech? Are they ready for integration?

Environment – Are government policies supportive? Is market demand pushing adoption? Do environmental concerns force change?

The Philippine government is making moves. The National Food Policy (Republic Act No. 11337) promotes food security and waste reduction. Public-private partnerships are on the rise (Panganiban, 2020). But is it enough? Adoption gaps remain. Solutions need acceleration.

Circular Economy (CE)

Model The Circular Economy (CE) Model (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013) disrupts the wasteful “take-make-dispose” system. It introduces a new mindset: reuse, repurpose, regenerate. In food waste management, CE principles push for:

● Food upcycling – Turning overripe fruits into jams. Converting surplus vegetables into powders.

● Waste-to-energy projects – Transforming food waste into biogas or fertilizers.

● Redistribution strategies – Using mobile apps to redirect surplus food to communities in need.

It’s already happening. Organizations like The Philippine Food Bank Foundation and Good Food Grocer use technology to redistribute excess food, cutting both waste and hunger (Castillo, 2022). The impact is real. But scale is the challenge.

Laws shape the landscape. Key policies include:

● Republic Act No. 11337 (2019) – Establishes food waste reduction frameworks.

● Republic Act No. 10611 (2013) – Regulates food safety and waste management.

● Department of Agriculture Administrative Order No. 26 (2020) – Pushes digital solutions in agriculture.

● Republic Act No. 11293 (2019) – Promotes innovation in food supply chains.

Laws exist. But are they enforced? Are they effective? Implementation remains a challenge. Research backs these theories.

● Sarmiento & Concepcion (2021) – IoT sensors in supermarkets reduce spoilage.

● Panganiban (2020) – Blockchain improves traceability and cuts food loss.

● Castillo (2022) – Mobile food rescue apps fight hunger.

● Reyes & Santos (2021) – AI-driven forecasting minimizes overproduction.

● Technology works. Data proves it. Adoption is the next battle.

The evidence is clear. Technology can reduce food waste in the Philippines. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) explains adoption behaviors. The TOE Framework highlights critical adoption factors. The Circular Economy Model stresses sustainability. Supported by legal policies and research, this study aims to drive real change. The goal? Less waste. More efficiency. A sustainable future!

Statement of the Problem

Food waste remains a significant concern in the hospitality industry, impacting food security, environmental sustainability, and operational efficiency. Hotels, especially those with large-scale food and beverage operations, face challenges in managing inventory, forecasting demand, and minimizing spoilage.

At Crown Regency Hotel in Cebu, like many hospitality establishments, food waste may occur across different stages of its supply chain — from sourcing and storage to preparation and service. While technological innovations such as AI-driven forecasting, IoT monitoring, and digital inventory systems offer solutions, implementation can be hindered by cost, technical complexity, and organizational resistance.

This study investigates how technology is being utilized at Crown Regency Hotel to reduce food waste across its supply chain. It aims to uncover the effectiveness of these tools, the challenges faced, and the demographic factors that may influence adoption and implementation.

Specifically, it seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. What is the demographic profile of Crown Regency Hotel staff and management involved in the food supply chain, in terms of:

1.1 age;

1.2 gender;

1.3 industry sector;

1.4 level of technological adoption;

1.5 role in the supply chain?

2. What technological solutions are currently used at Crown Regency Hotel to reduce food waste in procurement, storage, food preparation, and service?

3. How effective are these technologies in minimizing food loss and improving supply chain efficiency in terms of:

3.1 reduction in food spoilage and waste;

3.2 improved inventory and demand forecasting;

3.3 enhanced supply chain coordination and transparency;

3.4 cost savings and operational efficiency?

4. What challenges does Crown Regency Hotel face in adopting and implementing technology-driven food waste solutions?

5. Is there a significant relationship between the respondents’ demographic profile and their adoption of food waste reduction technologies?

6. Is there a significant difference in the perceived effectiveness of technology-driven food waste solutions across different demographic groups?

7. Based on the findings, what strategies can be proposed to enhance the adoption of technology in reducing food waste across the supply chain?

Statement of the Null Hypotheses

At a 0.05 level of significance, the following null hypotheses will be tested:

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between the demographic profile of Crown Regency Hotel staff and their adoption of food waste reduction technologies.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the effectiveness of technology-driven solutions when grouped according to demographic profiles.

Significance of the Study

● Crown Regency Hotel Management: Findings will inform strategies to reduce food waste, enhance efficiency, and promote sustainability within hotel operations.

● Hospitality Industry: Insights can be applied to similar establishments seeking to optimize food service operations through technology.

● Technology Providers: The study will highlight specific needs and barriers within the hotel setting, helping developers tailor their solutions.

● Policy Makers: Data may support localized policy-making and initiatives for food waste reduction in Cebu’s tourism sector.

● Consumers and Guests: Reducing waste leads to better resource use, potentially improving food quality and reducing costs.

● The Researcher: Offers an opportunity to connect practical experience as a former chef with empirical academic research.

● Future Researchers: Provides a case-based foundation for further studies on sustainable food systems in hotels and resorts.

Research Design

This study will employ a descriptive-correlational research design to examine how technology is used to reduce food waste at Crown Regency Hotel and to determine the relationship between demographic profiles and the adoption and effectiveness of food waste technologies. The descriptive aspect will document current practices, technologies used, and levels of effectiveness, while the correlational aspect will analyze possible relationships between demographic variables and technology adoption or perceived effectiveness.

INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT DIAGRAM

Research Environment

The research will be conducted at Crown Regency Hotel in Cebu City, Philippines. The hotel is a well-known hospitality establishment offering various food and beverage services, including buffets, in-room dining, and function catering. Given its large-scale operations, Crown Regency serves as an ideal environment to explore the role of technology in managing and minimizing food waste across different stages of its food supply chain.

Research Respondents/Subjects

The respondents of the study will include kitchen staff, food and beverage supervisors, procurement officers, inventory personnel, and management-level staff involved in food-related decision-making at Crown Regency Hotel. A total of 100 respondents will be purposively selected to ensure that participants have relevant roles in the food supply chain. Respondents will be categorized according to their department, years of service, age, and role in the supply chain to enable comparative and correlational analysis.

Research Instrument

The primary research instrument will be a structured survey questionnaire developed by the researcher and validated by field experts. The questionnaire will be divided into the following sections:

1. Demographic Profile – Includes age, gender, department, role, years of service, and level of technological engagement.

2. Technologies Used – Identifies the technological systems currently in place for food procurement, inventory, preparation, and service.

3. Perceived Effectiveness – Utilizes a Likert scale to measure perceptions of how effective the technologies are in reducing food waste.

4. Challenges and Barriers – Captures common obstacles in the implementation and usage of these technologies.

The instrument will undergo content validation by three experts in hospitality and research methodology before actual distribution.

Research Procedures

Gathering of Data

1. Approval and Permissions – A formal request will be submitted to the management of Crown Regency Hotel to conduct the study and gather data from relevant staff.

2. Validation of Instrument – The questionnaire will be reviewed by experts to ensure relevance, clarity, and reliability.

3. Distribution – Once approved, questionnaires will be distributed either in printed form or via a digital platform, depending on accessibility and the hotel’s preference.

4. Consent and Confidentiality – Informed consent will be obtained from all respondents. Participation will be voluntary, and data will be treated with strict confidentiality.

5. Collection and Screening – Completed surveys will be collected, checked for completeness, and encoded for analysis.

Treatment of Data

Data will be analyzed using the following statistical tools:

● Frequency and Percentage – To describe the demographic profile of the respondents.

● Weighted Mean – To determine the level of effectiveness and perception of food waste reduction technologies.

● Pearson r – To determine the correlation between demographic profiles and the adoption or perceived effectiveness of food waste technologies.

● ANOVA or t-test – To identify significant differences in perceptions and usage when grouped according to demographic variables.

All statistical analyses will be conducted using SPSS or another appropriate statistical software.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

To ensure clarity and precision in this study, the following key terms are defined operationally within the context of this research:

1. Food Waste – The disposal of food that is still fit for human consumption, occurring at various stages of the supply chain, including production, distribution, retail, and consumption, due to inefficiencies, spoilage, or mismanagement.

2. Supply Chain – The entire process of food production, processing, distribution, retail, and consumption, including the stakeholders and logistical systems involved in ensuring food reaches consumers.

3. Technological Solutions – Innovations and digital tools used to mitigate food waste, such as artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, and the Internet of Things (IoT), which enhance supply chain efficiency and minimize losses.

4. Artificial Intelligence (AI) – Computer-driven systems that analyze data and provide predictive analytics for demand forecasting, inventory management, and food waste reduction.

5. Blockchain Technology – A decentralized digital ledger system used to enhance supply chain transparency by securely recording transactions and food tracking data to reduce inefficiencies and waste.

6. Internet of Things (IoT) – A network of interconnected devices that monitor food storage conditions, track supply chain logistics, and provide real-time data to reduce spoilage and food loss.

7. Predictive Analytics – The use of AI and data analytics to forecast supply and demand patterns, helping businesses optimize inventory management and reduce excess food production. 8. Inventory Management – The systematic control of food stock levels through digital tools and technology to prevent overstocking, spoilage, and unnecessary waste.

9. Supply Chain Transparency – The ability to track food products throughout the supply chain using technologies such as blockchain to ensure accountability and reduce inefficiencies leading to food loss.

10. Operational Efficiency – The extent to which businesses optimize their resources, reduce costs, and streamline processes through technology to minimize food waste and improve supply chain management.

11. Demographic Profile – The characteristics of the study’s respondents, including age, gender, industry sector, level of technological adoption, and role within the supply chain, which influence their interaction with food waste reduction technologies.

12. Adoption of Technology – The extent to which businesses and stakeholders within the food supply chain implement and integrate digital solutions for food waste reduction.

13. Food Spoilage – The deterioration of food due to microbial growth, poor storage conditions, or improper handling, resulting in loss before consumption.

14. Cost Savings – The financial benefits businesses gain by using technology to optimize food supply, reduce waste, and improve operational efficiency.

15. Policy Makers and Regulators – Government agencies and industry authorities responsible for creating and enforcing policies that support the adoption of technology to reduce food waste.

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A combination of Zingiber officinale and Allium sativum ethanol extracts prevented liver and kidney toxicities caused by doxorubicin in Wistar rats

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OraekeiDaniel Ikechukwu^1*, Okoye Odinachi Anthony², Mba Ogbonnaya², Abone Harrison Odera³, ObidiegwuOnyeka Chinwuba⁴

¹Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Olivia University, Bujumbura, Burundi.

²Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, PMB 5025 Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.

³Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.

⁴Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria.

Daniel Ikechukwu Oraekei email: oraekeidanielikechukwu@gmail.com

Odinachi Anthony Okoye email: nachi.t.okoye@gmail.com

Ogbonnaya Mba email: mbabte@gmail.com

Harrison Odera Abone email: harrisonabone@gmail.com

Onyeka Chinwuba Obidiegwu email: oc.obidiegwu@unizik.edu.ng

*Corresponding author

Daniel Ikechukwu Oraekei,

¹Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Olivia University, Bujumbura, Burundi.

Email: oraekeidanielikechukwu@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Background: It is the function of the liver and kidneys to deal with processes concerning detoxification, metabolism, and the excretion of waste products. Aim: This study tested the liver and kidney protective effects of a combination of Z. officinale and A. sativum in Wister rats treated with doxorubicin. Methods: The qualitative phytochemical analysis and acute toxicity studies were carried out using standard methods. Bacterial lipopolysaccharide from Escherichia coli was used to induce systemic inflammatory and oxidative stress. The animals were pretreated for 14 days with the combined extracts of Z. officinale and A.sativum alone, the extracts with doxorubicin, and doxorubicin alone. LPS at 1 mg/kg intraperitoneally dissolved in normal saline was given daily to the animals along with the treatments for an additional 14 days. On the last day, the animals were anesthetized with ketamine and xylazine, and blood samples were withdrawn from the retro-orbital plexus of the animals into plain tubes. Serum alanine transaminase, Alkaline phosphatase, Serum creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen were estimated using standard methods. Results: among all tested phytochemicals, Z. officinale lacks tannins, steroids, Steroids and terpenoids, while A. sativum lacks saponins and glycosides. No mortality was observed after the acute toxicity study. Group 4 rats, which were treated with Z. officinae, A. sativun, and doxorubicin, showed lower serum levels of alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, creatinine, and blood urea nitrogen than the control group. Conclusion: Z. officinale-A. sativum combination showed a favorable safety profile and also exhibited significant protective effects against chemotherapeutic liver and kidney toxicities.

Key words: Allium sativum, doxorubicin,kidney toxicity, liver toxicity, Zingiber officinale

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

The liver and kidneys of the human body actively deal with processes concerning detoxification, metabolism, and the excretion of waste products. The protective role of natural products derived from plants against drug-induced damage to the organs has received significant attention. Zingiber officinale and Allium sativum are two widely used herbs in culinary and medicinal fields. They are well studied for their chemoprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. (Oraekei et al., 2024). Z. officinale contains gingerol and shogaol, and A. sativum contains allicin and ajoene, and these are some of the active constituents that have properties to avert oxidative damage and enhance the functions of organs (Mao et al., 2019). Doxorubicin’s molecular composition leads to the production of free radicals and triggers oxidative stress, which is associated with cellular damage (Tacar et al., 2013). Doxorubicin is a chemotherapeutic agent that is effective in treating various cancers; it is known to induce oxidative stress, leading to hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity (Kciuk et al., 2023). Doxorubicin, also known as Adriamycin, is a widely used anthracycline antibiotic that’s actually derived from the bacterium Streptomyces peucetius. (Arcamone et al., 1969). Doxorubicin has been noted to have harmful effects on the liver (Abdulrhaman et al., 2025). It also decreases other protective components like cytochrome P-450 and glutathione in the rat’s liver (Timm etal., 2022). Notably, high glutathione levels have been shown to protect liver cells from Doxorubicin’s toxic effects (Deng et al., 2015). Doxorubicin’s long-term use is limited by severe side effects, including a potentially fatal heart condition that worsens with higher doses. (Belger et al., 2023). The combined use of Z. officinale and A. sativum may offer synergistic effects, potentially mitigating the toxic impact of chemotherapeutic agents like doxorubicin. This study aims to test the liver and kidney protective functions of a combination of Z. officinale and A. sativum in rats treated with doxorubicin. Through biochemical assays, the research seeks to determine whether this herbal blend can mitigate doxorubicin-induced toxicity and support liver and kidney health.

Aim of Study

The aim of the study is to test the liver and kidney protective effects of a combination of Z. officinale and A. sativum in Wister rats treated with doxorubicin.

Scope of Study

This study was narrowed to evaluate the biochemical changes in liver and kidney functions due to doxorubicin toxicity, assess key biomarkers like alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN).

Literature review

Studies have shown doxorubicin to be a highly chemotherapeutic agent used in treating various cancers. Its use is limited due to the toxic effect it causes on various organs, including the liver and kidneys (Alshabanah et al., 2010). Renal and Hepatic functions are assessed by testing biomarkers such as Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), Aspartate aminotransferase (AST), Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), Creatinine levels, and Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (Lala et al., 2023). Treatment with Z. officinale showed significant improvement in AST, ALT, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities (Abdel-Azeem et al., 2013). Z. officinale administered alone at 530 mg/kg body weight had a greater hepato-protective effect than when given in combination with A. sativum (Oraekei et al., 2024); and this study showed that Z. officinale significantly reduced liver and kidney damage, and the combination containing a higher proportion of Z. officinale was most protective than the other tested combinationse. High levels of ALP or BUN may indicate liver disease or a certain bone disorder or kidneys not functioning well (Lowe et al., 2023).

Herbal medicine combination in pharmacotherapy

When herbs are combined, a lot of interactions can occur, but the desirable interactions are those that can result in enhanced therapeutic benefit. The effects of herbal medicine combinations are usually variable. A herb can be used to potentiate the effect of another herb. An example is the combination of ginseng root and aconite daughter root in an anti-shock remedy (Che et al, 2013). In this combination, the aconite daughter root potentiated the effects of ginseng. Herbal drug combinations can also be antagonistic in their actions. An example is the interaction between turnip root and ginseng root, where ginseng is used as a tonic drug, but when used in the presence of turnip root, its effect will be reduced (Che et al, 2013).

Herb-Drug combination

The use of herb-drug combinations can lead to various clinical presentations, such as potentiation, as seen in the potentiation of the effect of oral corticosteroids by liquorice (Kahraman et al., 2021). The impact of herb-drug combinations can also provide effects that may be additive or antagonistic. Herb-drug combinations can lead to alterations in the gastrointestinal functions, which can affect drug absorption (Brantley et al., 2014). It can also cause induction and inhibition of metabolic enzymes and transport proteins (Fasinu et al., 2012). It can also lead to alteration of renal excretion of drugs and their metabolites (Dresser et al., 2002). Long-term use of St. John’s wort can lead to reduced clinical effectiveness of cytochrome P450 subtype CPY3A4 substrate drugs by CPY3A4 induction, which can cause rapid metabolism and a decrease in the dosage of the drugs (Markowitz et al., 2003).

Possible Herb-Drug Interactions

Herb-drug interactions can occur when herbal supplements are taken with prescription drugs and affect how the medications work in the body. There are so many herb-drug interactions like garlic increasing bleeding when taken with an anticoagulant (Hu et al., 2005). Ginseng interacts with anticoagulants and calcium channel blockers reducing their effects (Jiang et al., 2004). St John’s Wort poses high risks with drugs like cyclosporine, oral contraceptives, and indinavir (Roby et al., 2000).

Brief description of Zingiber officinale

Z. officinale is a rhizome that is widely used as a spice and a medicinal herb. It can be used fresh, dried, or in powdered form in the making of teas and cooking. It contains bioactive compounds like gingerol, which have anti-inflammatory or antioxidant properties. It is used in the treatment of nausea and for relief of cold (Mao et al., 2019).

Figure 1: Image of Z. officinale

Brief description of Allium Sativum

A. sativum is a bulbous plant in the onion family. It is widely used as a culinary spice and in traditional medicine. It has a pungent flavor, which comes from sulfur compounds like allicin. It enhances the cardiovascular system, supports the immune system, and has antimicrobial properties. (Ansary et al., 2020).

Figure 2: Image of A. Sativum.

Materials

Animals

Female Wister rats (230 – 240 g) were used for this study. All the animals were obtained from the animal house of the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu State, Nigeria. The animals were housed in standard laboratory conditions of 12 hours’ light, room temperature, 40-60% relative humidity, and fed with rodent feed (Guinea Feeds Nigeria Ltd). They were allowed free access to food and water. All animal experiments were conducted in compliance with the NIH guide for care and use of laboratory animals (National Institute of Health (NIH), 2011) Pub No: 85-23), and animal protocol was approved by Animal care and ethics committee of Enugu State University of Science and Technology with approval number ESUT/2025/AEC/0962/AP 845.

Plant materials

Fresh Z. officinale rhizome and A. sativum bulb were purchased from Ogbete main market in Enugu state, Nigeria.

Drug

Doxorubicin was used for this research.

Equipment

Glass column, flasks, beakers, test tubes, surgical blade, measuring cylinder, forceps, scissors, white transparent paper, Analytical Weighing balance(Metler H30, Switzerland), Electric oven, Water bath (Gallenkamp, England) Water bath, disposable pipette tips (Labcompare USA), intubation tubes, stop watch (Avi Scientific India), BUN and creatinine test kits (Teco Diagnostics, USA), precision pipettes (25, 50, 100, and 300 μl, 1,000 µL) (Labcompare USA), AST test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India), UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Model 752, China), distilled or deionized water (SnowPure Water Technologies USA), micropipette (Finnipipette® Labsystems, Finland), disposable hand gloves (Supermax Malaysia), National Blender (Japan), ALP test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India), ALT test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India), plethysmometer (Biodevices, New Delhi, India).

Methods

Phytochemical analysis

The qualitative phytochemical analysis of the extracts was carried out using standard methods described by Odoh et al. (2019).

Test for alkaloids: The plant extracts (0.2 g) were heated in 20 mL of 2% acid solution (HCL) individually in a water bath for about 2 minutes. The resulting solutions were allowed to cool and then filtered, and then 5 mL of the filtrate was used for Hager’s test. The samples (5 mL) were placed in labeled test tubes, and a few drops of Hager’s reagent (saturated picric acid solution) were added. Formation of a yellow precipitate indicated the presence of alkaloids.

Test for glycosides

The samples were extracted with 1% H2SO4 solution in a hot water bath for about 2 minutes. The resulting solution was filtered and made distinctly alkaline by adding 4 drops of 20% KOH (confirmed with litmus paper). One milliliter of Fehling’s solution (equal volume of A and B) was added to the filtrates and heated on a hot water bath for 2 minutes. Brick red precipitate indicated the presence of glycosides.

Test for saponins

The plant extracts (0.2 g) were dissolved in methanol individually, and the resulting solutions were used for Frothing test. The samples (5 mL) were placed in labeled test tubes, and 5 mL of distilled water was added and the mixtures were shaken vigorously. The test tubes were observed for the presence of persistent froth.

Test for tannins

The plant extracts (0.2 g) were dissolved in methanol individually, and the resulting solutions were used for the test. To 3 mL of each of the samples, a few drops of 1% Ferric chloride were added and observed for brownish green or a blue-black coloration.

Test for flavonoids

Using methanol, 0.2 g of the plant extracts and fractions were dissolved individually, and the resulting solutions were used for Ammonium hydroxide test. A quantity of 2 mL of 10% ammonia solution was added to a portion of each of the samples and allowed to stand for 2 minutes. Yellow coloration at the lower ammoniacal layer indicated the presence of a flavonoid.

Test for steroids and terpenoids

Salkowski test: The plant extracts were dissolved in methanol individually, and the resulting solutions were used for the test. A 5 mL of each of the samples was mixed with 2 mL of chloroform, and concentrated H2SO4 was carefully added to form a layer. A reddish-brown coloration at the interface indicated a positive test.

Acute toxicity studies

Acute oral toxicity of the combination of Z. officinale, A. sativum (6:4) and doxorubicin (318, 212, and 5 mg/kg respectively) was performed according to the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2021) guideline 425 for testing of chemicals (Up and down method). The single combination dose was administered to the animal based on their body weight. The animals were closely observed for the first 30 minutes, then for 4 hours. Food was provided after 2 hours of dosing. After the survival of the first treated animal, 4 more animals were treated with the same dose at an interval of 48 hours each. The control group of rats (n = 5) was administered with distilled water (vehicle used in preparing the herbal mixture) in the same volume as that of the treated group. All the groups were closely observed for 6 hours and then at regular intervals for 14 days. The animals were weighed and observed for mortality, salivation, diarrhea, asthenia, hypo-activity, hyperactivity, piloerection, hyperventilation, aggressiveness, yellowing or loss of hair fur, drowsiness, convulsion, tremor, dizziness, and other obvious signs of toxicity.

Experimental design

Bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Escherichia coli, purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, was used to induce systemic inflammatory and oxidative stress states. The animals were pretreated for 14 days with the combined extracts of Z. officinale and A. sativum alone; the extracts with doxorubicin; and doxorubicin alone. LPS at 1 mg/kg intraperitoneal (I.P) dissolved in normal saline was given daily to the animals along with the treatments for an additional 14 days. Treatment was done 30 minutes before the LPS injection. On the last day, 2 hours after injection of LPS, the animals were anesthetized with ketamine and xylazine, and blood samples were withdrawn from the retro-orbital plexus of the animals into plain tubes.

Animal grouping (5 animals per group)

A total of 25 rats were allocated into five groups of five rats each. Group 1 were uninduced control (Naïve) and were treated with normal saline + 5 ml/kg distilled water via the oral route (p.o.). Group 2 were the negative control and was treated with LPS 1mg/kg i.p + 5 ml/kg distilled water p.o. Group 3 were treated with Z. officinale and A. sativum combination 6:4 (318:212 mg/kg p.o.) + LPS 1mg/kg i.p. Group 4 were treated with Z. officinale: A. sativum: doxorubicin combination (318:212: 5 mg/kg) + LPS 1 mg/kg i.p. While group 5 were treated with doxorubicin 5 mg/kg i. p.

Serum preparation

At the end of the study, blood samples were collected through retro-orbital plexus into a plain covered test tube. The blood samples were allowed to clot by leaving them undisturbed at room temperature for 30 minutes. The clots were removed by centrifuging at 2,000 x g for 10 minutes in a refrigerated centrifuge. The resulting supernatant (serum) was immediately transferred into a clean polypropylene tube using a Pasteur pipette. The samples were maintained at 2–8 °C while handling and apportioned into 0.5 ml aliquots.

Hepatic function tests.

Quantitative determination of alanine aminotransferase (ALT)

Serum alanine transaminase was estimated by the method described by Oraekei et al., (2024) using the ALT test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India). A 0.25 ml of mixture of L-alanine (200 mmol/l), α-oxoglutarate (2.0 mmol/l), and phosphate buffer (100 mmol/l) was added to 0.5 ml of each sample and blank (containing distilled water). They were mixed and incubated at 37 °C for exactly 30 minutes in a water bath. A 0.25 ml of 2,4- dinitrophenylhydrazine was added to the sample and blank test tubes and incubated again at room temperature for 20 minutes. A 2.5 ml of sodium hydroxide (0.4 mol) was then added to all the test tubes, and the absorbance of the sample was read against the blank at 546 nm using a UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Model 752, China). The ALT concentration was extrapolated from a graph of concentration against wavelength absorbance of known ALT concentrations.

Quantitative determination of alkaline phosphatase (ALP)

Alkaline phosphatase was estimated by the method described by Colville (2002) using the ALP test kit (Span Diagnostics Ltd., India). A 0.5 ml of Alkaline Phosphatase substrate was placed in the sample and blank labeled test tubes and equilibrated to 37 °C for 3 minutes. At a timed interval, 0.05 ml each of standard, control (deionized water), and sample was added to its respective test tubes. The mixture was incubated for 10 minutes at 37 °C. A 2.5 ml of alkaline phosphatase color developer (0.1 M Sodium Hydroxide and 0.1 M sodium Carbonate) was added and properly mixed. The absorbance of the samples was read at 590 nm using a UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Model 752, China) and recorded. ALP concentration was calculated using the equation below;

Calculation of ALP concentration

Where Standard Value = 50 IU/L

Renal function tests

Serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were estimated by the method described by Tietz (1976) and Heinegard and Tiderstrom (1973), respectively, using creatinine and BUN test kits (Teco Diagnostics, USA).

Quantitative determination of creatinine

Creatinine working reagent was prepared by combining equal volumes of 10 mM picric acid and Creatinine buffer reagent (10 mM sodium borate, 240 nM sodium hydroxide). Then 3.0 ml of this reagent was added to labelled tubes (test, blank, and standard) to which 100 µl of serum (test), 5 mg/dl of Creatinine (Standard), and distilled water (blank) were added and mixed in their designated test tubes. The tubes were incubated at 37 °C for 15 minutes, and the absorbance was measured spectrophotometrically at 520 nm against a test blank. The concentration of Creatinine (mg/dl) was calculated thus:

Where Abs = Absorbance, Std = Standard

Quantitative determination of blood urea nitrogen

A 1.5 ml of BUN Enzyme reagent (containing 10,000 µ/l Urease, 6.0 mmol/l sodium salicylate, 3.2 mmol/l sodium nitroprusside) was added to 10 µl of Test (serum), Standard (20 mg/dl), and Blank (distilled water) followed by incubation for 5 minutes at 37 °C. At a timed interval, 1.5 ml of BUN color developer (6 mmol/L of sodium Hypochlorite and 130 mmol/l sodium hydroxide) was added to each of the labelled tubes and were incubated for another 5 minutes at 37 °C. The absorbance of the tests and standards was measured spectrophotometrically at 630 nm against a blank. Urea nitrogen concentration (mg/dl) was calculated thus:

Where Abs = Absorbance, Std = Standard

Results

Table 1: Phytochemical analysis of Z. officinale and A.sativum

Phytocompounds	*Zingiber officinale*	*Allium sativum*
Alkaloids	+	+
Saponins	+	–
Tannins	–	+
Flavonoids	+	+
Steroids and terpenoids	–	+
Glycosides	+	–
Yield	44.8 g (11.2%)	62.4 g (15.6%)

Key: + = Present; – = Absent

Acute toxicity study

No mortality was observed throughout the observational period. Reduced physical activities were observed after drug administration, but normalcy was restored 30 minutes later. Other observations were similar to those of the control group that received the vehicle. Delayed signs of toxicity were not recorded within the 14-day observational periods.

Liver and kidney function tests

Figure 1: Serum level of alanine aminotransferase (ALT)

Figure 2: Serum level of alkaline phosphatase (ALP)

Figure 3: Serum level of creatinine

Figure 4: Serum level of blood urea nitrogen (BUN)

Discussion

In the present study, the phytochemical composition and protective effects of a combined extract of Z. officinale and A. sativum against doxorubicin-induced toxicity were investigated, with a particular focus on liver and kidney function biomarkers. The phytochemical analysis revealed that both Z. officinale and A. sativum contain bioactive compounds such as alkaloids and flavonoids, known for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective properties. Z. officinale showed the presence of saponins and glycosides, which were absent in A. sativum, while A. Sativum uniquely contained tannins and a combination of steroids and terpenoids, which were absent in Z. officinale. These differences suggest that the combination of both plants could offer a wider spectrum of protective phytochemicals than each of the herbs alone. A study conducted by Mao et al., (2019) confirmed the presence of bioactive compounds like flavonoids and gingerols in Z. officinale, which exhibited antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

The acute toxicity assessment showed no mortality or significant adverse effects in the treated animals over a 14-day observation period. Although a temporary reduction in physical activity was observed shortly after extract administration, the animals recovered within 30 minutes. This rapid return to normal behavior, coupled with the absence of delayed toxicity signs, suggests that the herbal combination is safe at the administered dosage. Z. officicinale was shown to be safe when administered in rats at doses up to 2000 mg/kg. (Rong et al., 2009)

Biochemical analyses further supported the extract’s protective effects. Doxorubicin, known for its potent chemotherapeutic activity as well as its hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic side effects, significantly elevated serum markers of liver and kidney injury. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), a key indicator of liver cell damage, increased significantly following doxorubicin administration. However, animals pre-treated with the Z. officinale–A. sativum combination exhibited a significant reduction of ALT levels compared to the doxorubicin-only group, indicating a strong hepatoprotective effect of the extracts. Similarly, levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), another marker of hepatic function, were elevated by doxorubicin treatment but attenuated in animals co-treated with the extracts. The extract alone maintained ALP and ALT levels close to those of the healthy control group, suggesting it has no intrinsic hepatotoxicity and may even support liver health under normal conditions.

Renal functions, assessed via serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN), also deteriorated significantly in response to doxorubicin. However, treatment with the Z. officinale-A. sativum combination weakened these effects. Although creatinine and BUN levels remained higher than those of untreated controls, they were significantly lower than in the doxorubicin-only group, indicating nephroprotection. The extract alone maintained creatinine and BUN levels within normal ranges, again reinforcing its safety and potential therapeutic value.

Overall, the results demonstrated that the combined extract of Z. officinale and A. sativum can effectively reduce biochemical signs of liver and kidney toxicity induced by doxorubicin. This protective effect is likely due to the synergistic action of the various phytochemicals present in both plants. Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, tannins, and terpenoids are all known to contribute to antioxidant defense mechanisms and membrane stabilization, which may account for the observed mitigation of organ damage.

Conclusion

From this study, the Z. officinale-A. sativum combination not only showed a favorable safety profile but also exhibited significant protective effects against chemotherapeutic toxicity. These findings suggest that such a combination could serve as a promising adjunct therapy to reduce organ damage in patients undergoing doxorubicin treatment.

Acknowledgement

I am thankful to God for his unwavering support throughout this study. My appreciation also goes to Dr. Ajaghaku Lotenna Daniel and the laboratory technologists of the Pharmacology and Toxicology department, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, for their expertise that enabled the smooth completion of this study.

Disclosure of conflict of interest

Daniel Ikechukwu Oraekei declared no conflict of interest

Odinachi Anthony Okoye declared no conflict of interest

Ogbonnaya Mba declared no conflict of interest

Harrison Odera Abone declared no conflict of interest

Onyeka Chinwuba Obidiegwu declared no conflict of interest

Statement of ethical approval

Maintenance and care of all animals were carried out in accordance with EU Directive 2010/63/EU for animal experiments. Guide for the care and use of Laboratory Animals, DHHS Publ. # (NIH 86-123) were strictly adhered to. Animal protocol was approved by the Animal Care and Ethics Committee of Enugu State University of Science and Technology with approval number ESUT/2025/AEC/0962/AP 845. There was additional approval by the Nnamdi Azikiwe University’s Ethical Committee for the use of Laboratory Animals for Research Purposes (Approval number is NAU/AREC/2025/0077).

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The Concept of Susu and its Impacts on Livelihoods; Real Time Financial Investment and Analysis

Daily writing prompt

How has a failure, or apparent failure, set you up for later success?

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Citation

Danquah, I. O. (2026). The Concept of Susu and its Impacts on Livelihoods; Real Time Financial Investment and Analysis. International Journal of Research, 13(3). https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/8

Isaac Odoi Danquah

diok1982@yahoo.com

Water Resources Engineer, Goldrain Mountain Company Limited, Koforidua, Eastern Region – Ghana.

ABSTRACT

Great riches and richness level attainment is procedural and is based on the concept of Susu. That is measuring according to your ability, strength, inflows and outflows of money in real life and moving to the next level thoughtfully. Moving to the next level is when there is stability in terms of resources and money and then measuring according to the same ability, strength, inflows and outflows of money in business or life. It becomes a continuous chain or cycle up to the highest point of self-actualization level in life. And finally becoming a seed or seed capital or startup capitals unto others for greatness or richness life attainment. This is the reason for this paper focusing on Susu concept and impacts on livelihoods towards greatness and rich life attainment in life. From this research, it is established that little drops of money make a pool of money for big future projects over a given period. A daily contribution of Gh₵500 or $500 on daily basis gives GH₵15000 or $15000 which is 96.774% as investment returns over a period of 31days from Susu principles. And the remaining 3.226% which is GH₵500 or $500 as commission per head amounting to wages for the Susu operator. This research and investment scenario is applicable to all currencies worldwide.

Keywords: Susu, money, investment, capital, livelihoods, operator, World, Bank, United, Nations, Financial, analysis, inflows, outflows, ability.

INTRODUCTION

Meeting daily physiological needs is very important in our lives as food, water and shelter can keep mind, body and soul together towards reaching the self-actualization level in life through hard work. This definition and explanation is as indicated by the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Everybody on the planet earth who is serious in life and has greatness attainment instinct or have the eagerness attitude to make it in life or meet basic needs gets himself/herself with work on daily basis. With this in mind, everyone is a worker whether consciously aware or unconsciously aware of this fact. Even the illegal gold miner is working. This is justified by the declaration, I am going to work as everyone says to someone as he/she lives the house on daily basis. As for the size of the work; wages level, time spent at the work place; wealth generation level at the end of the year, experience level etc. Everything about it is work and the final justification is the wages amount or gross income or net income quantified in terms of real money terms that lands in the bank account at the end of the month is the final output. One main difference in here is the quantification in terms of government work, private work or private business.

Everybody in life receives salary at the end of the month. Whether young or old. The only exception here is justified for that little baby still breastfeeding but the little boy or girl who can talk is also a worker in one way or the other according to a school of thought. As a little girl in the house who sweeps, prepares dinner, fetches water, goes to the market and comes back with all necessary accoutrements for the kitchen and fills the fridge with all kinds of activities, drinks and vegetables does this on daily basis to the end of the month is working. The various task and activities done by this teenager is comparably same to the task and functionality of an employed maid in the house. The task executing ability and functionality of such a girl throughout the month is the same as the maid whose wages or salary will be quantified in real money terms at the end of the month in her account at the Bank. Is this little or teenage girl also not working? Can one not quantify her monthly wages or earning in terms of school fees paid by the father, mother or person she is living with. Is she not going to be feed throughout the month, can one talk about the shelter, health needs, clothing’s, having or living a luxurious life comparable to a graduate who is living in a single room and starting life on his/her own? Or again comparable to an employed graduate who is starting life and now living in a single room and having access to one student mattress with one bucket for water? And even a possibility of not even receiving the first 3 months salary or pay check and hence unable to feed but has to employ the concept of Susu. And that concept of Susu is measuring life at that point according to the inflows and outflows of money into his account or life? Such a little or teenage girls can also be seen as worker or employer by the mother, father, teacher, grandfather, grandmother or person who he or she is living with. Since she is going to work or get things done throughout the month and most of the activities done or accomplished by her will not be done by the father, mother or grandfather. So in a way she is functionally executing all kinds of task and getting work done which will have been the task and roles for a maid in the house. And employing such a maid is based on the concept of Susu. As the gross income or net income for a maid working in a very self-made rich man house will not be the same as the wages/salary in an average income earners rich man house in life.

Susu basically is the ability to measure for an outcome based on intelligent level, resources, inflows and outflows of money or accoutrements towards attainment of an output in life. In terms of finances and banking, Susu is measuring according to once strength, ability, intelligent, the inflows and outflows of money in business. The concept of Susu has been used over the years on daily basis towards saving of money to meet basic physiological needs as determined on the Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs. Everything about life is money and especially in the case of business running and banking, the money needs to be used intelligently and well accounted towards sustainability in business.

The concept of susu has helped a lot of people especially the low-income earner who makes money on daily basis through trading and not having a huge quantum of money for business. So with daily contributions into a susu business or account is subject to receiving some sizable amount of money or huge sums of money which can generate a huge output of results in the future.

This is basically the reason for this research paper at Nsutam and Bonsu communities as one investigates little drops of money forms pool of money towards great projects or great tasks executing in the future. Or on the other hand is looking at the susu concepts and its impacts on livelihoods at Nsutam and Bonsu as one invests a good sizable amount of money on daily basis for a period of thirty-one (31) days and earns a monthly income. This monthly gained income is towards further monthly investments or great tasks or project accomplishments in life. And finally looking at the possibility of obtaining tax component as a government and simulating it over the whole wide world as United Nations and World Bank Project for all. It will be beneficial to all mankind worldwide if one thoughtfully thinks through it so that it can be implemented for every country where taxing the business man/woman or trader is very difficult. This will give funds or money to create jobs for now and future generations.

SUSU CONCEPTS AND ASSESSMENTS OF IMPACTS

2.1 Susu Concept

Susu has been part of Ghana’s micro financial system for at least three centuries (Williams, 2006; Anku, 2013). It forms part of the financial phenomena occurring beyond the functional scope of countries’ banking and other financial sector regulations (Jones et al., 2000; Aryeetey, 1998). Susu is an informal savings mobilisation mechanism where individual savings collectors help savers accumulate savings through daily deposits in consideration of a day’s activity or business of work. It involves a regular pickup of cash with unrestricted rights to withdraw it at a later date (Ashraf et al., 2005; Aryeetey et. al., 1995; Aryeetey 1994; Anku, 2023). Susu is commonly referred to as susu or esusu in West Africa where it is very popular (Alabi et al., 2007; Aryeetey et al., 1995). In Twi, Susu specifically means to measure accordingly to whatever adventure one involves himself or herself in. Central to the susu system is the provision of saving schemes to depositors, purposely to help them accumulate their savings over periods ranging between one month and two years. Even though credit is not the main objective of susu, it is quite common for depositors to be advanced when talking about crediting by a banking facility (Steel et. Al., 2003; Aryeetey, 1994; Anku 2013). In 1997, The World Bank’s report on informal financial markets and financial intermediation in four African countries observed that some susu collectors sometimes advanced monies to their clients before the end of the agreed period. (World Bank Group, 1997). Susu operates primarily on the savings side of the market and is based on a simple system devoid of bureaucratic procedures and complex documentation. It is operated by collectors who are mostly men operating from kiosks which are usually located in the markets. Other Susu operators also go rounds when it comes to daily collection from susu clients or contributors. The collections are often of low but regular value and are usually kept by the collector for each of his clients until the accumulated amount, minus one day’s collection (3.226%) out of 100% (which is 31days of work per head), and 96.774% is returned to the depositor or client. Whilst some collectors hold onto savings collections for safe keeping, others deposit them in their bank accounts. Others still invest them in their businesses or lend them to others (Jones et al 2000; Aryeetey 1994; Anku et al., 2013).

2.2 The Concepts of Susu in Ghana and World

The concepts of Susu have been in existence over several years and I personally an encounter and as a worker in the 2000’s. In Ghana alone, only 5% to 6% of the population is reported to have access to formal banking facilities (Basu et al., 2004). Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs) are commonly believed to have very limited access to deposits, credit facilities and other financial support services provided by Formal Financial Institutions (FFIs). This is still same in the 21^st century and in the Fanteakwa South district as most traders and people have to travel to another town or city before deposits can be made especially during international business transactions. And most traders and business men/women embarking on this on daily basis results in losses when talking about profits and losses in trading or business (Alabi et. al., 2007). The lack of formal banking facilities underpins the development of MSEs to a very large extent. This has serious implications for a country like Ghana where the economy is largely characterized by Micro and Scale Enterprises (MSEs) (Basu et al., 2004). The concept of Susu among the indigenous traders or market women solves this problem as most can access seed money or capital for the next business transaction or buying at the market, get a loan facility to expand business, or the possibility of releasing some sizable quantum of money as startup capital for a needy woman who approaches them for help or being employed in the buying and selling business (Alabi et. al., 2007). The troubling and pressures associated with money and accessing credit facilities from formal systems compel the poor and informal business enterprises to resort to different non-banking and informal arrangements to access funds for their operations and Susu among the traders is one of the strong determining platforms for accessing huge loans that amounts to GH₵20,000 for instance. Informal Financial Institutions operating outside the scope of banking laws and regulations in Ghana include money lenders, rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCA), and Susu savings collectors. These informal financial systems commonly assist Small Business Enterprises (SBE’s) or Medium Scale Enterprises (MSE’s) particularly, market traders, house wives and artisans to accumulate funds through daily or weekly deposits that are returned at the end of a specified period minus a small fee (World Bank, 1994). These arrangements are based on the ‘Susu’ system. The ‘Susu’ system requires no collateral and operates on a predetermined interest rate averaging 3.2258% – 10% depending on the type of Susu savings or money lending business philosophy (Alabi et. al., 2007).

2.3 Susu as a Sourcing Financial platform for SBE and MSB’s

One of the main sourcing financial platforms holding the trading, buying and selling business in Ghana and worldwide is the Susu Investment Business. With this opportunity, the Small Business Enterprise (SBE’s) and the Medium Scale Business (MSB’s) accesses principals, seed money or capital money, profits and loans for business startups for oneself and for others (Alabi et. al., 2007).

In the absence of Bank facilities and other formal sources, “Susu” has been a major source of fund mobilization for many Small Business Enterprise (SBE’s) and Medium Scale Business (MSB’s) in Ghana (World Bank, 1994). “Susu” is believed to have contributed largely to micro enterprise and small businesses enterprises, guaranteeing the depositors of “Susu” companies’ loan advances for their clients after some period of regular deposits normally six months. The 21^st century has seen the Susu Business or cooperative in a better way as most are housed in a better business housing facility for better functionality towards financial gains and accomplishments (Alabi et. al., 2007). Susu is a financial gaining platform for immigrants to establish crediting and debiting instrument in an economically adverse environment. Historically, indigenous savings strategies represent the continuation of economic self-help, which indentured Africans brought to the U.S based on practice and experience to advance their lives in new land or world. Susu has evolved over the years in Ghana. A major component of finance for urban poor entrepreneurs in Ghana, particularly apprentices and artisans has been the daily or weekly contribution of fixed amounts through “susu”. These savings are accessed after a period of time for purchasing tools and equipment necessary for setting various artisans up in their vocational practices. Artisans who normally benefit from these include seamstresses, tailors, hairdressers, fitting mechanics, welders and carpenters among others. For many petty traders, market women, apprentices and artisans, “susu” is believed to have been a trusted, reliable and friendlier means of getting started and also for sustenance as well as growth of their businesses. “Susu” in some cases is believed to be the sole source of getting established for livelihood (World Bank, 1994). Barclays Ghana calls it the “Ghanaian Microfinance” and describes it as an unconventional mobile initiative which extends microfinance to the least affluent in Ghanaian society (Alabi et. al., 2007).

2.3 Susu and Impacts on Youth livelihoods in the Economy

Adulthood is one school of thought overwhelmed by a set of challenges that are not exempt from the youth of Ghana as we all are subject to old age one day. Questions, problems and focus on young people have become a global concern in 1965, when the General Assembly (UN) United Nations adopted the Declaration on the promotion of youth, gender equality, the right to peace, mutual respect and coordination between people; important role hammering young people in today’s world, especially its development costs (UNDPI 1995) (Ofoli, 2015). Young people and their problems have amassed considerable attention from all sectors of the national economy, despite a mantra with little or no understanding of their true ability to national development and how to deal with them as a government. It is on this basis that empowering the young entrepreneurs in Ghana is considered essential for the country’s economic progress (Ofoli, 2015). The youth of every country are very important and hence the need to have a little opportunity for them to anchor or attached great faith around it towards future greatness attainment or enrichment in life.

Traditional financial houses or institutions are indifferent to extend lines of credit to individuals, including youth, because of the risk of law and trapped in business performance that requires little capital, they are also unable to provide the necessary guarantees. This is due to no job, no savings or investment, no collateral and hence justified by the bank or investment institutions not to give in for such commitment as it could result in crush or collapse of their financial institutions (Ofoli, 2015). Susu microfinance programs therefore performs an important role in improving decision through participation in economic decision youth activities such as artistic job creation activities. Microfinance, advancing microcredit and other financial needs of the working poor economy, generally considered the key over the past decades of creation two and a half in terms of how to expand to poor and vulnerable populations (Montgomery Weis, 2006) including young entrepreneur in Ghana. Microfinance savings in terms of progress and has the power to convince young entrepreneurs in improving low developed nations (Schreiner et al., 2001). Low developed nations without resources to establish microfinance institutions or banking sectors highly depends on susu concept for daily and monthly savings, loans and investments. With the inception of the susu concept and its availability to the youth in Ghana today, it has created grounds to access the micro, small and medium enterprises in communities. It allows the entrepreneurs more importantly the youth entrepreneurs to get involved in banking transactions which in effect builds up the economic growth of the citizenship. The social lives of this cluster of people are also enhanced as a result of the susu scheme which enables them to save towards other livelihoods and or monetary demands (Ofoli, 2015).

2.4 Susu as Savings for Net Income or Gross Income

Contribution, investing or savings on daily basis amounts to monthly wages, salary or income. Analysing this or computing on the basis of monthly worker or government earner is justified and can easily amount to a gross income and through deductions for various commitments ends it as net income for the susu contributor. Susu is a popular form of savings in most developing economies. It is practiced in different forms and under different names and conditions in both developing and developed countries. In spite of its contribution to the Gross Domestic Products (GDP) and socio-economic development of both developing and developed countries, it remains under-researched. It shows that Susu is a complex and dynamic social phenomenon. It is discovered that susu shares similarities with other micro savings schemes such as rotating savings and credit schemes, accumulating savings and credit associations as well as Christmas hampers and Christmas clubs in England and the United States respectively. It establishes that similar to other micro savings schemes, the objective, aims and goals of Susu is to help rural, poor and low-income earners meet their economic, social or communal needs. This is because at the local rural settings or level, it is difficult to find a formal financial institutions (rural bank) or banking sector for financial transactions. It is even possible that one may not find a rural bank or international banks in some districts in Ghana in this 21^st century (Ofoli, 2015).

2.5 Susu as an Association to improve Livelihoods

Micro savings in Ghana covers both Susu and group savings schemes also known as susu associations. The group schemes usually operate in the form of rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs) and accumulating savings and credit associations (ASCRAs) (Aryeetey et al., 1995). Steel and Andah (2003), in their study of rural and microfinance regulation in Ghana, identified two additional types of susu savings schemes which they described as susu clubs and susu companies (Anku, 2013). Amongst existing micro savings schemes, susu is the most prominent and widely participated by both low- and middle-income earners in Ghana (Anku, 2013). This is due to inability to access financial institutions for daily business and money transactions. The collectors mobilise a great deal of savings albeit without being prudentially regulated by any governmental body (Steel et. al., 2003). As a microfinance activity, micro savings form part of the financial component of informal economies. Portes, Castells & Benton (1989) refer to this as a phenomenon unregulated by the institutions of society in a legal and social environment in which similar activities are regulated. This is not the case in this 21^st century as Ghana Co-operative Susu Collectors Association is regulating and cooperatively controlling the Susu Business under authorization by Bank of Ghana (BoG) even though there are some aspect of irregularities. The irregularities here is the Susu operators not going through registration process and operating illegally. The susu business or banking sector is improving lives positively as huge sums of money are obtained on daily, weekly and monthly basis to solve problems addressed by great banking sectors or institutions. (Anku, 2013). Little (1957) also identified friendly societies including the susu of Yoruba origin. The aim of these societies was limited to mutual aid and benefit to its members. In Ghana, he observed that the Nanamei Akpee society headquartered in Accra had over 400 members, most of whom were educated or semi-literate women readers. Members of this group paid monthly subscriptions for funeral expenses and other engagements like weddings (Anku, 2013).

Research Zone and Area for Data

The investigating area for this study is at Nsutam and Bunso in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The people of Nsutam and Bunso are involved in gold mining activities, farming, trading. Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana has its activities which looks at various processes involved in the Cocoa industry at Bunso. Some of the farm products produced includes coconut, cocoa, plantain, yam, cassava, sugar cane, cashew nuts and all kinds of vegetables produced during the farming seasons. The huge amount of gold discovered in the Nsutam community has resulted in all kinds of illegal gold mining activities destroying water bodies, forest and lands. The Bunso Junction is the main point or centre stage when it comes to petty trading and Susu business. The Bunso junction is serving as taxi ranks or station for all kinds of travelling in and out of Nsutam and Bunso and for those going to Accra, Kumasi and beyond. The Nsutam community has a population of about 7000 (2021 population census) with the majority being immigrants due to the gold mining business, Linda Dor and Paradise Tourist business operations in the community. The Bunso community has the GPS address E5-1774-2247 at a point in Bunso and Nsutam community four has the GPS address E6-976-6246 at point in Nsutam. This GPS is in accordance with Ghana Post GPS in Ghana.

The illegal gold mining business at Nsutam has destroyed a lot lands resources, water resources, aquatic life’s, forest reserves, has resulted in relocation of most indigenous, leaving people faithless in the future in this 21^st century, etc. The destroyed land needs reclamation process in order to restore the infertile lands back to more fertile rich soils which will support plant growth in order to support the hydrological cycle and exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide between man and plants. Restoration of the degraded lands will also promote afforestation and wildlife existence in the future for future generation and finally crop production. With high yields and better crops, petty trading among the people will be enhanced. Then one can think of doing business and resultant Susu business among all people in the two communities. It will also promote tourist attraction when vegetation’s are groomed and protected with the existence of wildlife’s. Danquah (2023) elaborates on how some of these illegal gold mining sites that have been destroyed can be converted into Eco parks as a tool to reclaim degraded lands whiles making money to help oneself and community and Ghana as a whole. The illegal gold mining canker coupled with the effects and impacts of ‘Akatie’ has affected the Cocoa business drastically and final output on the international market as whole.

Fig. 1: Map Showing the Study area Communities of Nsutam & Bunso

Research Findings and Output

4.1 Susu as Driving force for Traders

Since the inception of daily or weekly susu in the lives of traders at community four, great quantum of wealth and big projects realization has been achieved to a greater extent. The new free senior high school education in Ghana has lessened the burden on parents and guardians. If not, the Susu concept and approach would have been one of the main key parameters to deal with offsetting, school fees, loans and financial burdens. Research findings indicates that petty traders are very much interested in the susu business as most have amassed wealth since its inception. A Susu business which started in March 2025 with 35 clients now stands at 365 clients regardless of being in good standing or not. This is just comparable to banking institutions setting as some people are always working with banks whiles others goes redundance or have the red line when the account becomes dormant. The good standing of the Susu accounts and redundancy has to do with business operations intelligence, the inflows and outflows of money in business, business advices, migrations issues, change of trade or trading interest and others. Depicted in the Table 1 & 2 below is the enrolment patten for the clienteles at Nsutam and Bunso into Glory Susu Business in Ghana.

Table 1: Clients Enrolment on monthly Basis [March – Aug. 2025]

MONTH	March	April	May	June	July	Aug
№ Of Clients	35	97	157	190	199	212

Table 2: Clients Enrolment on monthly Basis II [Sept. – Feb. 2026]

MONTH	sept	oct	nov	dec	jan	FEb
№ Of Clients	125	266	290	302	332	365

From the two Tables above, one can easily see that, Glory Susu at Nsutam started with 35 clients in March 2025 and cumulatively increased on monthly basis and currently at 365 in February 2026. Even though some have clients are not investing on monthly basis, it is comparable to banking sector activities, actions and inactions and impacts. Table 2 recorded decrease in number of clients due to some challenges faced in August after recording a total clientele of 212. Fig 2 below gives graphical representation of the various clientele registration for this research.

Fig 2: Clients accumulation against months of investing in Susu Business

4.2 Loanable funds and impacts

Life is all about relationship and depending on others before independence towards self-sustainability and accountability. And so is the reason for loaning unto another in business, for a project, for a transaction, towards a startup capital. As a mother loans her time, business and money to her baby till adulthood and working time, so will the child who becomes a parent one day loans her time, money and engagement to the mother at her old age.

With this declaration one will definitely go for a loan from an international bank, rural bank, microfinance or from Susu operator. And Glory susu is also involved with loaning to its real customers. Availability of resources either quantified in terms of money or goods and services is one of the main reasons for loaning unto other. By this assertion, even very rich and developed countries do go for loans from underdeveloped countries and these are usually quantified in terms of state resources and its availability.

The loanable funds theory says that market interest rates are determined by the demand and supply of loanable funds rather than just money supply. Supply comes from susu savings and bank while demands is from investment into factories, business, machinery and individual borrowing for large purchases. From Fig 3, it can clearly be seen that as demands for loans from the Banks, from microfinance institutions and from Susu groups increases, interest rates goes high (shift from r₁ to r₂₎). This is seen in the red arrow sign on the diagram above and once such things happens, then there will a lot of pressure in the system as more money are generated in the direction of banks and financial institutions. Traders will get little money after obtaining loanable funds for business at high interest rates and will be expected to pay more money to offset huge amounts of loans obtained from the banks. That will have negative impacts or effects on the Gross domestic Product (GDP) in the country.

On the other hand is the green arrow as can be seen in the diagram below. In a situation where people are willing to start business on loans and work assiduously towards living and doing business without loans over a period of time? Then there will be little pressures on banks, microfinance institutions and on susu groups when it comes to accessing loans for business. In that regard, the banking sector will have no option than to reduce interest rates on loans (shift from r₂ to r₁) and loanable funds will be low. Loanable funds will be low since just a few business men and business women will be approaching loans for business and transactions. And lower and further will the interest rates be as the number of business men/women approaching loans for business will be on a low rate. And hence a justification for low interest rate on the Fig. 3 below. This will see the green arrow in the diagram generating positive results on the economy when it comes to GDP as buying and selling of goods and offering of services, exchange rates will be on the low side. Such conditions in a country usually results in harsh governance but usually yields results for a country which is yearning towards self-independence and self-sustainability. This policy and governance goes for countries willing to build its own country and by that begins on the platform by making use of its internal natural resources and accoutrements and a country like Ghana yearning to be a country comparable to USA, Hong Kong, Germany as an independent developed country needs to do same in this regards towards national development to international standards in this 21^st century.

Fig 3: Loanable Susu Funds and Interest Rates determinants

4.3 Glory Susu Loanable Funds

Table 3 below is explaining the Susu mobilization loanable funds that was accessed by Susu clienteles from July 2025 to February 2026. With Glory Susu and her aims and objective of enrichment unto now and future generations, various needs and demands are met on daily basis through the Glory Susu loan scheme.

Table 3: Charting Loanable funds to Glory Susu Clienteles

MONTH & YEAR	LOANABLE AMOUNT (GH₵)	PAID FULLY
July 2025	19,000	Paid
August 2025	8,900	Paid
September 2025	9,600	Paid
October 2025	6,200	Paid
November 2025	13,500	Paid
December 2025	23,600	Paid
January 2025	22,570	Paid
February 2025	41,070	Month Under Review

Loans from Glory Susu and most Susu operators are interest free for now as all clienteles are seen as part of the principal money or seed capital generating process.But the concept of ‘Susu’ still remains a goal and objective that is always used in every process of business transaction as loans are even given according to once or clienteles inflows and outflows in business, ability to contribute or save to the end of the month. And the principle of do unto others what you want others to do unto you is also another great principle and objective that is used in this business. The least amount of loan given so far as can be seen in the Table 3 is GH₵6,200 in the month of October 2025 and the highest is GH₵41,070 and that is in February 2026 which is the month under review. Various needs and demands are met whenever such loans are accessed at Glory Susu. This includes; as startup capitals for various businesses, education, travels, purchasing of lands, buying of cars/Tricycle (Pragia/Aboboya’s), renting of building appartments or housing systems, completion of building projects etc. All such projects are withing the jurisdiction of the United Nations and World Bank as various Sustainable Development Goals are met towards the goodwill of mankind. I strongly believe as clients acquire these loan facility to meet various demands, it’s their utmost aim of trying to work and live off loans in the future towards self-independence and self-sustainability just like the Sustainable development goals of the United Nations are met with serious work of addressing all needs worldwide.

4.4 Glory Susu Philosophy and Impacts on Livelihoods

Glory Susu and Susu in general wealth generating process basically involves investing an appreciable amount of money on daily basis for 31 days to obtain a return of 96.7742%. The remaining 3.2258% becomes the commission per head accumulating into monthly business profits or wages based on number of customers or clients engaged within that month. The interesting concept involved in the Glory Susu Investment is releasing or investing the money without feeling the economic value and hardship in the economy basing it on the amount of money invested per day. But the happy moments is the total amount of money generated at the end of the month with the sustainability of the business or operating shop not affected to any degree. With the GLORY SUSU INVESTMENT concept is the MINISTRY OF GOLDWAY establishment in government and as a world UNITED NATIONS and WORLD BANK project to serve now and future generations. For instance, an egg seller can contribute Gh₵30 and earn Gh₵900 with the remaining Gh₵30 generated as commission/wages for Glory Susu. On the high level will be the contribution of Gh₵400 to earn Gh₵12000 at the end of the month as sampled and indicated in Table 4. Glory Susu is for anyone willing to reap bumper harvest of money at the end of the month and not afraid of little drops of money makes a pool of money. Everyone has a philosophy or principle upon which his/her huge mansion is built. God believes in laying a strong foundation, laying the first basic unit block and using six days to create the world and finally resting on the seventh day. This is the philosophy of Glory Susu even though working in Glory susu is seven days in a week and 31days in a month.

Table 4: Sampled invested amount and Returns for Client and Glory Susu

Type of Business	Daily Investment [Gh₵]	31 days period Total Earning [Gh₵]	Investor Profit [96.7742%] [Gh₵]	Glory Susu Profit [3.2258%] [Gh₵]
Egg Seller	30	930	900.00	30.00
Hair Stylist	40	1240	1200.00	40.00
Shop Owner	100	3100	3000.00	100.0
Spot Owner	200	6200	6000.00	200.0
Wakye Seller	500	15500	15000.0	500.0
Distribution Points	700	21700	21000.0	700.0

Table 4 gives the clear understanding and various scenarios that can be generated under different investing amounts and the appropriate end of month returns for investors and Glory Susu.

4.5 Glory Susu and its Projections for United Nations and World Bank and impacts

But this same concept can be used to generate income or wages for the seller or trader on monthly basis and effectively generate tax for government projects in Ghana and worldwide. This is where this Glory Susu concept and project is seen as UNITED NATIONS and WORLD BANK project for now and future generations and the establishment of ‘MINISTRY OF GOLDWAY’ WORLDWIDE. This will be collaboratively done with Ghana Revenue Authority and revenue collectors and simulated though out the world as a WORLD project for all. With this understanding, a monthly return after an appreciable amount of investment on daily basis based on measuring investment capability based on business size, inflows and outflows of money in business will be obtained.

Table 5: Sampled invested amount and Returns for Client (workers), Government and for project owner(s)

Type of Business	Daily Investment [Gh₵]	31 days Earning [Gh₵]	Investor Profit [83.4%] (Gh₵)	GoG and Project Owner % [16.6% ] Tax Rate (Gh₵)
Egg Seller	30	930	775.62	154.38
Hair Stylist	40	1240	1034.16	205.84
Shop Owner	100	3100	2585.4	514.6
Spot Owner	200	6200	5170.8	1029.2
Wakye Seller	500	15500	12927	2573.0
Distribution Point	700	21700	18097.8	3602.2

After which there will be a Tax Component out of total amount generated in 31days into government account for government projects and project owners task executions. This is expatiated for better understanding in Table 5 below towards decision makings and conclusions.

Conclusion

From one school of thought is little drops of water to make an ocean of water and little drops of money to make a pool of money towards great riches and great project or objectives attainment in life. This is the same concept of little drops of money resulting in a pool or quantum of money towards addressing specific needs and objectives within a time frame. This is the Susu concept in Ghana and foundation philosophy of Glory Susu at Nsutam, Ghana and Worldwide. And from the great riches and success story of Glory Susu to the United Nations will be to address the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the UN worldwide. Great height attainment in a procedural way and through good standard operating procedure in the financial sector will be attained and great riches generated for all. By simulating this GLORY SUSU and INVESTMENT concept as UNITED NATIONS and WORLD BANK PROJECT under a ministry called the MINISTRY OF GOLDWAY is the ENRICHMENT UNTO GENERATIONS and peaceful creation of a world unto all worldwide for now and unborn generations.

Acknowledgement

Grateful I am to the Most High God for this divine wisdom and revelational knowledge towards the goodwill of mankind worldwide. I am grateful to my Wife, Rita Darko, two sons; Gates and Michael for their support and motivation. I am thankful to the Danquah family at Nsutam and Darko family at Kukurantumi for their encouragement and Support. I am so grateful to GLORY SUSU and her clienteles at Nsutam, Bonsu, Ghana and World wide for given me the opportunity and for being part of this United Nations and World Bank Project. Grateful I am also to the government of Ghana and the governing body. My final appreciation and thanks goes to the United Nations and World Bank worldwide. I am again grateful to Internation Journal of Research, pen2print in India and UK and all their branches worldwide. Bravo!! Hurray!! To us all. Stay blessed.

References

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Effects of Peer Teaching and Inquiry Teaching Strategies on Achievement of Mathematics Students in Delta Central Senatorial District

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Citation

Etagbedavbe, O. B., & Akpokiniovo, R. S. (2026). Effects of Peer Teaching and Inquiry Teaching Strategies on Achievement of Mathematics Students in Delta Central Senatorial District. International Journal of Research, 13(3), 85–103. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/7

Etagbedavbe, Orokaro Blessing

Department of Science Education,

Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria

AND

Akpokiniovo, Rukevwe Samuel PhD

Department of Science Education,

Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria

Correspondent: samuel.akpokiniovo@delsu.edu.ng

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effects of Peer Teaching (PT) and Inquiry-Based Teaching (IBT) strategies on the academic achievement of mathematics students in Delta Central Senatorial District. Four research questions were raised, and corresponding hypotheses were stated and tested at the 0.05 level of significance. The study employed a quasi-experimental, non-equivalent pre-test, post-test control group design. The population comprised 21,147 Senior Secondary II students from 190 public secondary schools during the 2024/2025 session. A sample of 392 students was selected from six mixed secondary schools using a multistage sampling technique. The Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) was the instrument used for data collection. Its reliability was established by administering it to 50 SS II students in two secondary schools outside the study area, yielding a reliability coefficient of 0.81 using the Kuder-Richardson Formula 21. Both pre-test and post-test scores were collected and analyzed. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were used to answer research questions, while inferential statistics (t-test, ANOVA, and ANCOVA) were used to test the hypotheses. Findings shows a significant difference in mean achievement scores among the instructional groups, with students taught using Peer Teaching achieving higher scores than those taught through Inquiry-Based Teaching and those in the control group. However, there were no significant differences in achievement between male and female students, under Peer Teaching or Inquiry-Based Teaching strategies. Additionally, there were no significant interaction effects between instructional strategy and sex or location on students’ mathematics achievement. Based on these findings, it was recommended that mathematics teachers incorporate these strategies—particularly peer teaching into their instructional practices to encourage active learning and peer collaboration.

Introduction

Mathematics is a fundamental field of study that deals with numbers, quantities, shapes, patterns, and relationships. It’s a subject that is essential for understanding the world around us, making informed decisions, and solving various problems. Mathematics is used in various disciplines, industries, and everyday life. Mathematics teaches critical thinking and problem-solving skills that can be applied to various situations. Mathematics is present in everyday activities like budgeting, cooking, shopping, and measuring. Thus, the importance of mathematics in every sphere of human life cannot be overemphasized (Bal & Seckin-Kapucu, 2022). According to Akpokiniovo (2022), students’ lack of interest in learning physics and mathematics leads to poor academic achievement in the subject and a shortage of human resources in key professions. Consequently, there is a low number of students who qualify for enrollment into mathematics in higher institutions of learning within Nigeria and some other underdeveloped nations. Conscious efforts are needed to prepare learners who will be useful and qualified to pursue important mathematics -oriented courses at the higher education level by capturing and sustaining their interest during mathematics instruction.

In order to achieve the objectives of mathematics education, there is need for better academic achievement among students. Therefore, the importance of mathematics in almost all the facet of life endeavours cannot be over-emphasized. Poor academic achievement not only leads to a negative image of the student, but it also puts an enormous strain on the parents. Given the dynamic role mathematics plays in any society, as discussed above, it is quite appalling and unfortunate to see students fail mathematics examinations (Nshimiyimana & Cartledge, 2020). This gloomy condition has prompted a slew of research initiatives over the years aimed at determining the elements that contribute to low academic achievement in mathematics and what steps may be taken to ameliorate the situation. As a result, several variables interact to determine students’ academic achievement. However, the researcher believes that instructional strategies can have an impact on students’ mathematics academic achievement. Instructional strategies are a crucial component of effective teaching, and they can significantly impact students’ learning outcomes in any subject, including mathematics. Effective instructional strategies can make mathematics more engaging and intriguing for students. When students are actively involved in the learning process and find the material relevant, they are more likely to be motivated to learn and perform better academically. Among the different instructional strategies that exist, the researcher is also of the opinion that peer teaching strategies (PTS) and inquiry-based teaching (IBT) could be effective strategies for enhancing students’ academic achievement in mathematics.

Peer Teaching Strategy (PTS) is an educational approach in which students teach and learn from their peers. The Peer Teaching Strategy (PTS) is an instructional approach that actively engages students in the teaching and learning process through four key steps. It begins with individual reflection, where students independently engage with the lesson content, allowing them to form initial ideas, identify areas of confusion, and develop personal insights (Akpokiniovo & Akudolu, 2023). This is followed by peer discussion, during which students collaborate in pairs or small groups to share their understandings, clarify concepts, and challenge each other’s viewpoints. Through this interaction, learners gain new perspectives and enhance their critical thinking skills. A study by Uyim, and Nonye (2019) emphasized that students learn better when actively involved in the teaching-learning process. It also agrees with findings by Osondu (2021) who reported that the use of learner-centred methods such as peer-teaching and inquiry-based approaches significantly improve students’ academic achievement in mathematics. Despite the fact that there are several examples of student-centred approaches, this research only looked at guided inquiry teaching and peer tutoring strategies.

Inquiry method can simply be defined as a form of active learning that starts by posing questions, problems or scenarios rather than simply presenting established facts or portraying a smooth path to knowledge. The process is often assisted by a facilitator. There are many different explanations for inquiry teaching and learning and the various levels of inquiry that can exist within various contents. Bandi and Bell (2008) clearly outline four levels of inquiry.

Level 1: Confirmation Inquiry; the teacher has taught a particular topic. The teacher then develops questions and a procedure that guides students through an activity. This method is enables the teacher to reinforce concepts taught and to introduce students into learning to follow procedures, collect and record data correctly and to confirm and deepen understanding.

Level 2: Structured Inquiry; the teacher provides the initial question and an outline of the procedure. Students are to formulate explanations of their findings through evaluating and analyzing the data that they collect.

Level 3: Guided Inquiry; the teacher provides only the research questions for the students. The students are responsible for designing and following their own procedures to test the question and then communicate their results and findings.

Level 4: Open/True Inquiry; Students formulate their own research questions, design and follow through with a developed procedure, and communicate their findings and results. This type of inquiry is often seen in science fair contexts where students drive their own investigative questions.

The goal of the inquiry-based teaching strategy, according to Mwenda and Ndayambaje (2021), is to foster curiosity, critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Bako (2020) described inquiry-based teaching (IBT) as a student-centred approach that emphasises exploration, investigation, and problem solving. In this approach, students are encouraged to ask questions, make predictions, and engage in hands-on activities to discover mathematical concepts. By actively exploring mathematical ideas, students develop a deeper understanding of the underlying principles and are better able to apply their knowledge in real-world situations. Numerous studies (Issaka, 2020; Mehboob et al., 2021) have highlighted the benefits of inquiry-based teaching on students’ achievement. For instance, a meta-analysis conducted by Hiebert et al. (2012) revealed that students who received inquiry-based instruction performed significantly better on assessments compared to those who did not receive inquiry-based instruction. Some researchers such as Jacinta (2011) conducted a study on inquiry method and students’ academic achievement in biology in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. The author shows that inquiry method has a significant effect on students’ achievements in biology.

The effects of peer-teaching (PT) and inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategies on students’ achievement may differ depending on sex. A student’s sex could be male or female. The term “sex” refers to the biological characteristics of being male or female. Sex can influence various aspects of human life, including educational outcomes, where differences may emerge in how males and females respond to certain teaching methods. When comparing the effects of these teaching methods across sexes, some studies (Bello & Johnson, 2020; Adewale & Smith, 2019) found no evidence of a significant relationship between sex and achievement when exposed to inquiry and guided-discovery instructional methods respectively. However, others (Nguyen & Taylor, 2021; Li & Wang, 2022; Macaulay & Obafemi, 2022) found a substantial relationship between sex and achievement, with males scoring higher than females when instructional methods such as Simulation instructional strategy and Teacher-demonstration method and guided inquiry were used. There are mixed results from reviewed empirical studies on the effects of guided inquiry teaching and peer tutoring strategies on students’ achievement, however, the gender effect on the aspect of students need to be examined. As a result, the findings of this study will provide additional empirical evidence on this topic. It should be noted that gender is a intervening variable in this study. Against this background, therefore, this study sought to examine the comparative effect of inquiry and peer tutoring teaching strategies on the achievement of mathematics students in in Delta Central Senatorial District.

Statement of the Problem

Mathematics is a fundamental subject that plays a critical role in students’ academic and career development. However, students’ academic achievement in mathematics has remained consistently low, as indicated by poor results in external examinations. Many students struggle with fundamental mathematical concepts, leading to a lack of confidence, negative attitudes toward the subject, and high failure rates. For instance, the results released by WAEC in 2022 revealed that a high number of the candidates that sat for the examination failed mathematics (WAEC Chief Examiner, 2022). A similar trend was observed in the 2023 released West Africa Senior School Certificate Examination (WAEC) results by the West Africa Examination Council, which declared that a few of the candidates were successful in five subjects including mathematics (WAEC Chief Examiner, 2023). The fluctuation in students’ academic achievement in the subject may be as a result of rote learning of mathematics, which occurs due to lack of active involvement in the teaching of the subject.

Thus, student’s poor academic achievement at the secondary school has been attributed to ineffective methods and strategies used by teachers in teaching the subject. The available literature on methods of teaching in science education suggests the need to employ new and innovative teaching strategy. The researcher therefore in this study is of the opinion that the use of Peer teaching (PT) and Inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategies may enhance the academic achievement of students in mathematics. The problem of the study, therefore, is will the application of Peer-Teaching (PT) and Inquiry-Based Teaching(IBT) strategies produce differential effect on academic achievement of students in mathematics in Delta Central Senatorial District?

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study:

What is the difference in mean achievement score of mathematics students taught using peer-teaching (PT) and inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategies in Delta Central Senatorial District?
What is the difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using peer-teaching (PT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District?
What is the difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District?
What is the interaction effect of instructional strategies and sex on mathematics students’ achievement in Delta Central Senatorial District?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses are formulated for the study and were tested at 0.05 level of significance

There is no significant difference in mean achievement score of mathematics students taught using Peer-Teaching (PT) and Inquiry-Based Teaching (IBT) strategies in Delta Central Senatorial District.
There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using Peer-Teaching (PT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District.
There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using Inquiry-Based Teaching (IBT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District.
There is no significant effect of interaction of instructional strategy and sex on mathematics students’ achievement in Delta Central Senatorial District.

Research Methodology

This study employed quasi-experimental non-randomized pretest posttest control group design. There was no randomization of subjects in this study. Intact classes were randomly assign to the experimental and control groups. The independent variables are Instructional methods. The dependent variable is the achievement score of mathematics students. The population for this study comprised a total of 21,147 Senior Secondary School Two (SS II) students across 190 public secondary schools in Delta Central Senatorial District, Delta State, during the 2024/2025 session. A sample of 392 SSII students selected from six (6) public mixed senior secondary schools in Delta Central Senatorial District made up the sample size for this study. The six (6) public mixed senior secondary schools were selected using simple random sampling technique.

The instrument that was used for the study is the Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT). The MAT was used to measure academic achievement. The MAT consists of two sections. Section A contained instruction on the student’s bio-data (sex and location). Section B consists of 50 multiple-choice questions that will be adapted from past West African Examination Council (WAEC) questions in line with the selected concept or topic that will be treated in the study. The concept that made up the MAT are Logarithm and indices, Approximations, Sequence and Series, Quadratic Equations, Gradient of a Curve and Algebraic Fractions. The instrument was tested for reliability in two secondary schools in Delta South Senatorial District. While carrying out the reliability test the instrument was administered on 50 SS II students from schools outside the research area. The Kuder-Richardson formula -21 was used to compute the reliability index of data collected, which yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.81

The treatment procedure began with the allocation of instructional methods to schools. Two instructional methods were assigned to four intact classes selected from both urban and rural areas—one from each sampled school. To assign the treatment methods, the two instructional strategies and the control group were written on paper and coded as follows: Peer Teaching Strategy (PTS), Inquiry-Based Teaching Strategy (IBTS), and Control Group (CG). Six equal-sized sheets of paper were labeled PTS1, PTS2, IBTS1, IBTS2, CG1, and CG2, then rumpled and placed in a container. Six teachers each selected one sheet of paper, with replacement. Teachers who picked PTS were assigned to use the peer teaching strategy, those who picked IBTS were assigned to use the inquiry-based teaching strategy, and those who picked CG were assigned to the control group. This process ensured that two intact classes—one from an urban school and one from a rural school—were assigned to each treatment method. The next phase involved training the research assistants. The four mathematics instructors designated to use the peer teaching and inquiry-based teaching strategies were trained before the treatment began. The training lasted four days, with 40-minute sessions each day. Alongside two other experts, the researcher conducted the training, focusing on the effective use of each instructional strategy. The first day was used to explore the characteristics of both teaching strategies.

On the second day, the teachers were trained using manuals adapted from Muştu and Tekin (2021) and Assem (2018), with separate manuals for peer teaching and inquiry-based strategies. Each group of teachers was trained separately by different resource persons. The training highlighted the steps and stages involved in using each strategy, as well as the specific roles of teachers and students during instruction. The third and fourth days focused on practice and idea generation for applying each instructional strategy to the chosen mathematics concepts. The training concluded when the facilitators were confident that the teachers could effectively implement the strategies during instruction.

The final phase was the actual implementation of the treatment. This occurred in three stages. In the first stage, pretests using the Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) were administered to all the groups after obtaining permission from school authorities. The pretest results were used to assess the equivalence of the groups and to identify any initial differences that could be attributed to the treatment.

Stage Two: In the second stage, lesson plans covering six weeks of instruction were given to the research assistants one week before treatment commenced. The lesson plans detailed the activities of both teachers and students during each class session.

Stage Three: In the third Stage,teachers in each selected group will presented the content of the topics that were selected to the students with the use of peer teaching strategy and inquiry based teaching strategy in their various school for six weeks. Teachers instructed the students during the treatment session, adhering to the procedures they learned about during their training. In the treatment, the teacher in the control group only gave the selected topics to the students in the form of revision using past examination questions, without applying any specific instructional treatment method.

Stage Four: At the end of the six weeks of instruction by the teacher, a post-test was given to the students in all the groups.

The research questions were analysed using Mean Scores and Standard Deviation scores. Hypotheses were tested with t-test statistics, One-way Analysis of variance, Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). All hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Results and Discussion

The results are tabulated, interpreted and discussed immediately after the research questions and corresponding hypothesis.

Research Question One

What is the difference in mean achievement score of mathematics students taught using peer-teaching (PT) and inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategies in Delta Central Senatorial District?

Table 1: Comparison of The Mean() achievement pretest score of mathematics students taught using peer-teaching (PT) and inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategies in Delta Central Senatorial District

	N	Mean	Std. Deviation
	N	Mean	Std. Deviation
Peer Teaching Method	196	11.22	1.26
Inquiry-Based Teaching Method	152	11.16	1.77
Control Group	44	11.64	1.42
Total	392	11.24	1.49

Table 1 revealed the mean and standard deviation of the achievement scores of mathematics students taught using peer-teaching and inquiry-based teaching instructional strategies. In the table, the means of the pretest scores of students taught using peer-teaching and inquiry-based teaching strategies are 11.16 and 11.14, with standard deviations of 1.33 and 1.69, respectively. The mean difference in the pretest scores between the two instructional methods is 0.02.

Analysis of variance(ANOVA) was further used to find out whether the mean difference is significant and presented in Table 2

Table 2: ANOVA Comparing the Mean Achievement Pretest Score of mathematics students taught using peer-teaching (PT) and inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategies in Delta Central Senatorial District

	Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Between Groups	7.853	2	3.927	1.767	.172
Within Groups	864.636	389	2.223
Total	872.490	391

Table 2 shows that the ANOVA comparison of the pretest scores of mathematics students taught using peer teaching and inquiry-based teaching instructional strategies is not significant (F = 1.767, p ≥ 0.05). This implies that the students were similar in terms of their prior knowledge of the mathematics concepts before the instructional strategies were applied.

Table 3: Comparison of The Mean() achievement posttest score of mathematics students taught using peer-teaching (PT) and inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategies in Delta Central Senatorial District

Instructional methods	N	Mean	Std. Deviation
Instructional methods	N	Mean	Std. Deviation
Peer Teaching Method	196	44.80	9.428
Inquiry-Based Teaching Method	152	40.95	9.088
Control Group	44	26.30	8.157
Total	392	41.23	10.726

Table 3 shows the mean and standard deviation of the posttest achievement scores of mathematics students taught using peer teaching and inquiry-based teaching instructional strategies. In the table, the means of the posttest scores for students taught using peer-teaching and inquiry-based teaching strategies are 45.21 and 41.19, with standard deviations of 9.40 and 8.92, respectively. The mean difference in the posttest scores between the two instructional methods is 4.02. Analysis of variance(ANOVA) was further used to find out whether the mean difference is significant and presented in Table 4.

Hypothesis One: There is no significant difference in mean achievement score of mathematics students taught using peer teaching (PT) and inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategies in Delta Central Senatorial District.

Table 4: ANOVA Comparing the Mean Achievement Score of difference in Mean Achievement Score of Mathematics Students taught using Peer-Teaching (PT) And Inquiry-Based Teaching (IBT) Strategies in Delta Central Senatorial District

	Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Between Groups	12318.219	2	6159.109	73.348	.000
Within Groups	32664.575	389	83.971
Total	44982.793	391

Table 4 shows that the ANOVA comparison of the posttest achievement scores of mathematics students taught using peer-teaching and inquiry-based teaching instructional strategies is significant (F = 73.348, p = 0.000). Therefore, the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference in mean achievement score of mathematics students taught using peer teaching (PT) and inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategies in Delta Central Senatorial District was rejected. This implies that there is a significant difference in the mean achievement scores of mathematics students taught using the two instructional strategies, in favour of students taught using peer teaching (PT) strategy.

To determine the direction of the significant difference observed in this hypothesis, the post hoc analysis using Scheffe test was computed as shown in Table 5

Table 5

Scheffe Post – Hoc Test Determine the Direction of Difference Among the Groups

(I) Instrictionalmethods	(J) Instructional methods	Mean Difference (I-J)	Std. Error	Sig.
(I) Instrictionalmethods	(J) Instructional methods	Mean Difference (I-J)	Std. Error	Sig.
Peer Teaching Method	Inquiry-Based Teaching Method	3.849^*	.990	.001
Peer Teaching Method	Control Group	18.500^*	1.529	.000
Inquiry-Based Teaching Method	Peer Teaching Method	-3.849^*	.990	.001
Inquiry-Based Teaching Method	Control Group	14.652^*	1.569	.000
Control Group	Peer Teaching Method	-18.500^*	1.529	.000
Control Group	Inquiry-Based Teaching Method	-14.652^*	1.569	.000
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 5 shows the post hoc Scheffe test results, which determine which specific instructional methods significantly differ from one another after an overall significant difference was detected via ANOVA. The post hoc analysis shows a clear hierarchy in instructional effectiveness: Peer Teaching Method > Inquiry-Based Teaching Method > Control Group. This suggests that using peer teaching strategy results in the highest student achievement, followed by inquiry-based methods, with the control group performing the lowest.

Research Question Two

What is the difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using peer-teaching (PT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District?

Table 6: Comparison Between the Mean() mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using peer-teaching (PT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District.

sex	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Mean difference
Male	91	46.11	8.82	2.45
Female	105	43.66	9.83

Table 6 shows the mean and standard deviation of the achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using the peer-teaching instructional strategy. In the table, the means of the achievement scores for male and female students are 46.11 and 43.66, with standard deviations of 8.82 and 9.83, respectively. The mean difference in the achievement scores between male and female students is 2.45. To find out whether the mean difference was significant, Ho₃was tested with t-test and presented in Table 7

Hypothesis Two: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using peer teaching (PT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District.

Table 7: t-test comparing the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using peer-teaching (PT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District.

Sex	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	df	t-cal.	Sig. (2-tailed)	Decision
Males	91	46.11	8.82	194	1.83	.069	Null hypothesis not rejected
females	105	43.66	9.83	194	1.83	.069	Null hypothesis not rejected

Table 7 shows that the t-test comparison of the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using the peer teaching strategy is not significant (t = 1.83, p = 0. 069). Therefore, the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students, was not rejected. This implies that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using the peer teaching strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District.

Research Question Three: What is the difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District?

Table 8: Comparison Between the Mean() achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using inquiry-based teaching (IBT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District

Sex	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	Mean difference
Male	86	41.45	9.671	1.36
Female	66	40.29	8.294

Table 8 shows the mean and standard deviation of the achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using the inquiry-based teaching instructional strategy. In the table, the means of the achievement scores for male and female students are 41.79 and 40.43, with standard deviations of 9.43 and 8.22, respectively. The mean difference in the achievement scores between male and female students is 1.36. To find out whether the mean difference was significant, Ho₄was tested with t-test and presented in Table 9.

Hypothesis Three: There is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of urban and rural students taught mathematics using Peer Teaching (PT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District.

Table 10: t-test comparing the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using peer-teaching (PT) strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District.

Sex	N	Mean	Std. Deviation	df	t-cal.	Sig. (2-tailed)	Decision
Male	86	41.45	9.671	150	.783	.435	Null hypothesis not rejected
Female	66	40.29	8.294	150	.783	.435	Null hypothesis not rejected

Table 10 shows that the t-test comparison of the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using the inquiry-based teaching strategy is not significant (t = 0.783, p = 0.435). Therefore, the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students, was not rejected. This implies that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using the inquiry-based teaching strategy in Delta Central Senatorial District.

Research Question Four: What is the interaction effect of instructional strategies and sex on mathematics students’ achievement in Delta Central Senatorial District?

Table 11: Means(X) and Standard Deviations (SD) analysis of the interaction effect of instructional strategies and sex on mathematics students’ achievement in Delta Central Senatorial District

Instructional methods	sex	N	Mean	Std. Deviation
Peer Teaching Method	Male	91	46.11	8.82
Peer Teaching Method	Female	105	43.66	9.83
Inquiry-Based Teaching Method	Male	86	41.45	9.67
Inquiry-Based Teaching Method	Female	66	40.29	8.29
Control Group	Male	22	28.27	7.81
Control Group	Female	22	24.32	8.19
Total	Male	199	42.13	10.52
Total	Female	193	40.30	10.88

Table 11 shows the Means (X) and Standard Deviations (SD) analysis of the interaction effect of instructional strategies and sex on mathematics students’ achievement in Delta Central Senatorial District. For students taught using the Peer Teaching Method, the mean scores for male and female students are 46.11 and 43.66, with standard deviations of 8.82 and 9.83, respectively. For those taught using the Inquiry-Based Teaching Method, the mean scores for male and female students are 41.45 and 40.29, with standard deviations of 9.67 and 8.29, respectively. In the Control Group, the mean scores for male and female students are 28.27 and 24.32, with standard deviations of 7.81 and 8.19, respectively. The results suggest a noticeable interaction effect between instructional strategy and sex, as male students consistently scored higher than their female counterparts across all groups. To find out whether the mean is significant interaction effect, Ho₆was tested with ANCOVA and presented in Table 12.

Hypothesis Four: There is no significant interaction effect of instructional strategies and sex on mathematics students’ achievement in Delta Central Senatorial District?

Table 12: ANCOVA of the interaction effect of instructional strategies and sex on mathematics students’ achievement in Delta Central Senatorial District

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Posttest
Source	Type III Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Corrected Model	12838.569^a	6	2139.762	25.628	.000
Intercept	8677.109	1	8677.109	103.928	.000
Pretest	4.315	1	4.315	.052	.820
Instructional methods	12391.830	2	6195.915	74.210	.000
sex	405.734	1	405.734	4.860	.028
*Instructional methods sex**	77.389	2	38.695	.463	.629
Error	32144.224	385	83.491
Total	711253.000	392
Corrected Total	44982.793	391
a. R Squared = .285 (Adjusted R Squared = .274)

Table 12 shows the ANCOVA of the interaction effect of instructional strategies and sex on students’ academic achievement in mathematics. The computed F-ratio for the interaction effect, that is, F(2, 385) = 0.463 with a p-value of 0.629. Testing the null hypothesis at an alpha level of 0.05, the p-value of 0.540 was greater than the alpha level of 0.05; hence, the null hypothesis was not rejected. This implies that there is no significant interaction effect of instructional strategies and sex on mathematics students’ academic achievement in Delta Central Senatorial District.

The first finding shows that there was a significant difference in mean achievement score of mathematics students taught using Peer Teaching (PT) and Inquiry-Based Teaching (IBT) strategies in Delta Central Senatorial District with those taught using Peer Teaching (PT) strategy achieving higher score than those taught using Inquiry-Based Teaching (IBT) strategy and those in the control group. This difference may be attributed to the inherent characteristics of each instructional method. Peer-Teaching may have promoted collaborative learning, allowing students to benefit from shared knowledge and peer explanations, while Inquiry-Based Teaching may have fostered curiosity, critical thinking, and self-discovery. The significant difference could imply that one method led to deeper conceptual understanding among students. This finding is in line with Uyim, and Nonye (2019) who emphasized that students learn better when actively involved in the teaching-learning process. It also agrees with findings by Osondu (2021) who reported that the use of learner-centred methods such as peer-teaching and inquiry-based approaches significantly improve students’ academic achievement in mathematics.

The second finding shows that there was no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using the peer-teaching strategy. this suggests that the peer teaching method provides an equal learning opportunity for both genders, allowing male and female students to benefit equally from collaborative and interactive instruction. This result is consistent with the findings of Uyim, and Nonye (2019) who observed that sex had no significant impact on students’ achievement in mathematics when learner-centered strategies were used. It also aligns with the results of Osondu (2021) who found that sex does not significantly influence achievement when students are actively engaged in peer-assisted learning. The study also showed that there was no significant difference in the achievement scores of male and female students taught mathematics using Inquiry-Based Teaching (IBT) strategy. This suggests that the IBT method supports equitable engagement and achievement across gender, providing both male and female students equal opportunities for exploration, questioning, and problem-solving. The result also aligns with the study of Eze (2022), which reported that both boys and girls benefited equally from inquiry-oriented instructional approaches however, this disagreed with the findings of Issaka (2020) who found that sex had influence on science and mathematics achievement when inquiry-based or discovery methods were used.

Lastly, finding from the study shows that there is no significant difference between the mean achievement scores of urban and rural students taught using Inquiry-Based Teaching strategy. This may be due to the nature of inquiry-based instruction, which emphasizes independent thinking and discovery rather than reliance on external resources or environment. Students in both urban and rural settings may have had equal opportunity to engage with the content through guided inquiry. This finding agrees with Salami (2022) who found that location did not significantly affect students’ achievement when innovative and student-centered instructional strategies were used. It also supports the position of Aguele (2004), who argued that modern teaching strategies can bridge the urban-rural learning gap.

Conclusion/Policy Recommendations

Based on the findings from the study, it was concluded that Peer Teaching (PT) strategy was more effective than Inquiry-Based Teaching (IBT) strategy, as students taught using PT had higher achievement scores. Furthermore, the study shows that sex and location had no significant effect on students’ achievement when each instructional strategy was applied independently. The researcher therefore recommends that mathematics teachers should be encouraged to adopt Peer Teaching and Inquiry-Based Teaching strategies, especially Peer Teaching, as it has proven to be more effective in enhancing students’ academic achievement in mathematics. These strategies should be deliberately incorporated into classroom practice to promote active learning, peer interaction, and deeper understanding of mathematical concepts.

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Smart Textiles and IoT Integration for Entrepreneurial Growth in Nigeria’s Fashion Industry

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Citation

Okeme, C., Itanyi, M. F., & Oluwagbenga, T. T. (2026). Smart Textiles and IoT Integration for Entrepreneurial Growth in Nigeria’s Fashion Industry. International Journal of Research, 13(3), 72–84. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/6

¹Charles Okeme, ²Mamudu Francis Itanyi ³Taiwo Timothy Oluwagbenga

¹The Federal Polytechnic Idah,Kogi State, Nigeria.

^2,3Thomas Adewumi University, Oko, Kwara State, Nigeria.

itanyi.mamudu@tau.edu.ng

Abstract

The integration of smart textiles and the Internet of Things (IoT) presents transformative opportunities for entrepreneurial growth in Nigeria’s fashion industry, particularly among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) rooted in cultural heritage. This study employs a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, grounded in an extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) framework, to examine adoption drivers, barriers, and outcomes. Quantitative data from 248 fashion SME respondents revealed that performance expectancy (β = 0.42, p < 0.001), cultural compatibility, sustainability orientation, and competitive pressure significantly predict behavioral intention, while infrastructure readiness negatively moderates the performance expectancy–intention relationship. Qualitative insights from 22 interviews and 5 focus groups highlighted perceived benefits in production efficiency, waste reduction, and global market differentiation through interactive, heritage-infused products, yet underscored persistent constraints including unreliable electricity, high costs, limited digital skills, and inadequate policy implementation. Despite moderate adoption intention, actual use remains low, creating an intention–behavior gap. However, successful adoption strongly links to entrepreneurial outcomes, including revenue growth, innovation, and job creation. The findings extend UTAUT by incorporating context-specific constructs relevant to the Global South and emphasize the need for targeted interventions reliable energy access, affordable financing, localized training, and strengthened public–private partnerships to bridge adoption barriers. By addressing these challenges, Nigeria can position its fashion sector as a leader in African fashion technology, converting traditional craftsmanship into sustainable, data-driven, globally competitive enterprises aligned with Sustainable Development Goals.

Keywords: smart textiles, Internet of Things, fashion entrepreneurship, technology adoption

INTRODUCTION

The fashion industry in Nigeria represents a dynamic intersection of cultural heritage, economic potential, and emerging technological innovation, positioning it as a key driver for entrepreneurial growth. Rooted in traditional textiles such as adire, aso-oke, and Ankara, the sector supports vibrant small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), predominantly women-led, and generates substantial employment while contributing to the creative economy. Recent assessments indicate that Nigeria’s fashion industry contributes approximately $6.1 billion to the nation’s gross domestic product, with consumer spending on apparel and accessories estimated in the range of $2.5 billion to $6 billion annually, although its formal contribution remains modest relative to potential (Musawa, as cited in Guardian Nigeria, 2024; multiple industry analyses, 2025). This disparity highlights significant untapped opportunities for value addition through technological integration, particularly in a context where the industry faces structural constraints including infrastructure deficits, limited access to finance, and supply chain inefficiencies.

Smart textiles, also known as e-textiles or intelligent fabrics, incorporate sensors, actuators, conductive materials, and electronic components to enable adaptive responses to environmental or physiological stimuli. When integrated with the Internet of Things (IoT), these textiles facilitate connectivity for real-time data exchange, remote monitoring, predictive analytics, and enhanced interactivity (Ahmed et al., 2025; Fernández-Caramés & Fraga-Lamas, 2018). Globally, these technologies have advanced from specialized applications in healthcare and sports to broader adoption in fashion, supporting personalization, sustainability, and user-centric design. IoT-enabled smart textiles allow for continuous monitoring of vital signs or environmental conditions, adaptive functionalities such as temperature regulation, and seamless integration into digital ecosystems, aligning with principles of Industry 4.0 and circular economy models that optimize resource use and minimize waste (Younes, 2023).

In the context of Nigerian fashion entrepreneurship, which relies heavily on SMEs with constrained scalability, the adoption of smart textiles and IoT offers practical solutions to longstanding challenges. IoT sensors embedded in production equipment can support predictive maintenance, energy optimization, and fault detection, addressing issues related to unreliable power supply and operational downtime common in developing economies. This technological integration enables entrepreneurs to transform traditional fabrics into interactive, value-added products that preserve cultural motifs while meeting global demands for sustainable and tech-enhanced apparel. Such innovations can enhance supply chain traceability, reduce material waste through upcycling, and improve market access by enabling data-driven customization and consumer engagement.

Nigeria benefits from high digital penetration, with widespread internet and mobile access supporting the deployment of connected garments that collect user data for personalized designs and informed marketing strategies. This capability fosters brand loyalty and facilitates entry into export markets, where demand for ethical, culturally rich African fashion continues to grow. Supportive initiatives, including the African Development Bank’s Fashionomics Africa program, provide training, funding, and digital platforms to empower fashion entrepreneurs in adopting innovative tools, building networks, and scaling operations from local to international levels (African Development Bank, 2022). By promoting digital marketplaces and value chain development, such programs underscore the potential for technology to drive job creation, sustainability, and economic diversification in the sector.

Despite these opportunities, notable research gaps remain in adapting smart textiles and IoT specifically to Nigeria’s socio-economic environment. Much of the existing scholarship centers on developed markets or general applications in developing contexts, with limited empirical investigation into context-specific barriers such as affordability, infrastructure limitations, and digital skill requirements in African settings (Ahmed et al., 2025). This study addresses these gaps by exploring integration pathways for entrepreneurial advancement in Nigeria’s fashion SMEs, drawing on robust, verifiable sources primarily from Scopus- and Web of Science-indexed publications. Grounded in principles of sustainable development, including innovation, responsible consumption, and inclusive growth, the adoption of these technologies holds the promise of positioning Nigeria as a leader in African fashion technology, thereby converting rich cultural assets into scalable, globally competitive enterprises.

LITERATURE REVIEW

In recent years, several research studies have explored the convergence of smart textiles and the Internet of Things (IoT), highlighting their potential to transform various sectors, including fashion, through enhanced functionality, sustainability, and connectivity. Smart textiles, encompassing e-textiles or intelligent fabrics, integrate sensors, actuators, conductive materials, and electronic components into textile structures to enable sensing, actuation, and data processing capabilities (Ahmed et al., 2025; Younes, 2023). These materials respond adaptively to stimuli such as temperature, pressure, or physiological signals, while IoT integration facilitates real-time data transmission, remote monitoring, and interoperability within digital ecosystems (Fernández-Caramés & Fraga-Lamas, 2018).

Global reviews emphasize the evolution of smart textiles from passive wearables to active, connected systems aligned with Industry 4.0 principles. Key advancements include the incorporation of conductive fibers, flexible electronics, and energy-harvesting mechanisms to support self-powered operation and reduce environmental impact (Ahmed et al., 2025). In fashion applications, IoT-enabled smart textiles enable interactive garments that offer personalization, such as color-changing fabrics, haptic feedback, or embedded wellness tracking, blending aesthetics with utility while promoting user-centric design (Younes, 2023). Sustainability emerges as a central theme, with modular, recyclable, and biodegradable components supporting circular economy models by minimizing waste and enabling repair or upcycling (Ahmed et al., 2025).

Studies further examine integration strategies across hierarchical textile levels—fibers, yarns, fabrics, and finished products—to achieve durability, washability, and comfort essential for apparel (Singha et al., 2019). Energy-efficient designs and IoT frameworks enhance predictive analytics and adaptive responses, expanding applications in healthcare monitoring, sports performance, and consumer fashion (Ahmed et al., 2025; Fernández-Caramés & Fraga-Lamas, 2018). Challenges persist, including material flexibility, power management, and scalability of production, yet ongoing innovations in nanotechnology and bio-integrated systems promise broader adoption (Younes, 2023).

In the context of developing economies, research on digital transformation in the textile and fashion sectors underscores opportunities for technology adoption to address inefficiencies and foster sustainability. Systematic reviews indicate that ICT and Industry 4.0 tools, including IoT, improve supply chain traceability, resource optimization, and market competitiveness in textiles and apparel (Akram, 2022). While much literature focuses on global or developed markets, emerging discussions highlight potential in regions like the Global South, where digital tools can support artisanal revival, waste reduction, and export growth through sustainable practices (various scoping reviews on digital transformation).

This body of literature demonstrates that smart textiles integrated with IoT hold substantial promise for entrepreneurial advancement in fashion, particularly by enabling sustainable, data-driven innovations. Future research should prioritize context-specific applications in emerging markets to bridge theoretical advancements with practical implementation.

METHODOLOGY

The methodology section outlines the rigorous, replicable procedures employed to investigate the integration of smart textiles and the Internet of Things (IoT) for entrepreneurial growth within Nigeria’s fashion industry. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was adopted, consistent with pragmatic paradigms commonly applied in technology adoption research within emerging economies and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). This approach first collects and analyzes quantitative data to identify patterns and test relationships, followed by qualitative data to provide explanatory depth and contextual interpretation.

Research Design

The study integrates quantitative and qualitative strands under a pragmatic philosophical stance, prioritizing actionable insights over strict epistemological boundaries. The quantitative phase draws on an extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) framework (Venkatesh et al., 2003), augmented with context-specific constructs such as infrastructure readiness, cultural compatibility, government support, perceived sustainability benefits, and competitive pressure. These extensions reflect established adaptations in developing-country and Industry 4.0 contexts. The qualitative phase employs interpretive inquiry to elucidate mechanisms, barriers, and enablers identified quantitatively.

Population and Sampling

The target population includes owners, managers, designers, and technical personnel from fashion SMEs in Nigeria engaged in textile production, garment manufacturing, traditional weaving, ready-to-wear, and bespoke tailoring. Key clusters include Lagos, Abuja, Aba, and Kano.

For the quantitative phase, stratified purposive sampling targeted 280 respondents to ensure representation across enterprise size (micro, small, medium), sub-sector, and geographic location. Sample size was informed by structural equation modeling (SEM) guidelines, aiming for a minimum of 200 valid responses to support model complexity (approximately 10–15 estimated parameters per latent construct) and achieve statistical power ≥ 0.80 at α = 0.05.

For the qualitative phase, purposive sampling selected 22 key informants for in-depth semi-structured interviews and 5 focus group discussions (FGDs) with 6–8 participants each (total n ≈ 35–40). Selection criteria prioritized diversity in experience with emerging technologies, enterprise maturity, and regional representation. Data saturation determined final sample size.

Data Collection Instruments

Quantitative: A structured questionnaire comprising 48 items measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Constructs were adapted from validated UTAUT scales, with additional items for contextual factors developed from prior literature and pilot-tested for content validity.
Qualitative: Semi-structured interview guides (12 core questions) and FGD protocols explored adoption experiences, perceived barriers (e.g., power instability, skill deficiencies), opportunities for cultural-textile integration, and entrepreneurial outcomes.

Both instruments underwent pilot testing with 35 respondents (Cronbach’s α > 0.70 for all scales; minor revisions for clarity and cultural appropriateness). Face-to-face and online administration ensured accessibility.

Data Collection Procedure

Quantitative data were collected from October to December 2025 via hybrid methods (online platforms and field administration in fashion clusters). Qualitative data followed (January–March 2026), with audio-recorded interviews/FGDs (average duration 45–60 minutes) conducted in English or local languages (with translation). All participants provided informed consent; ethical clearance was obtained from an institutional review board.

Data Analysis

Quantitative: Descriptive statistics summarized demographics and construct means. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) assessed measurement model validity (convergent: AVE ≥ 0.50; discriminant: Fornell-Larcker criterion and HTMT < 0.85). Structural equation modeling (SEM) via AMOS tested hypothesized paths. Model fit indices included χ²/df < 3, CFI ≥ 0.95, TLI ≥ 0.95, RMSEA ≤ 0.08, and SRMR ≤ 0.08. Bootstrapping (5,000 resamples) examined mediation/moderation effects.
Qualitative: Thematic analysis using NVivo followed a six-phase process (Braun & Clarke, 2006): transcription, familiarization, initial coding, theme development, review, and refinement. Inter-coder reliability exceeded 85%.
Integration: Joint displays merged quantitative results (e.g., significant predictors) with qualitative themes to explain variance, enhance interpretation, and generate meta-inferences.

Table 1: Summary of Research Phases

Phase	Design Component	Sample Size Target	Primary Instrument	Analysis Method	Key Objective
Quantitative (Phase 1)	Survey-based	280 (minimum 200 valid)	Structured questionnaire	CFA, SEM (AMOS), bootstrapping	Test extended UTAUT relationships and predictors of adoption/intention
Qualitative (Phase 2)	Semi-structured interviews & FGDs	22 interviews; 5 FGDs	Interview/FGD guides	Thematic analysis (NVivo)	Explain quantitative findings, explore contextual barriers/enablers
Integration	Explanatory convergence	–	Joint displays	Meta-inference synthesis	Triangulate results for comprehensive insights

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

RESULTS

The Results section presents the findings from the sequential explanatory mixed-methods study on the integration of smart textiles and IoT for entrepreneurial growth in Nigeria’s fashion SMEs. Quantitative results are derived from 248 valid responses (response rate: 88.6% from 280 targeted surveys), followed by qualitative insights from 22 in-depth interviews and 5 focus group discussions (n ≈ 38 participants) to explain and contextualize the patterns.

Respondent Profile

Respondents were predominantly female (62.1%), aged 25–44 years (68.5%), with most operating small enterprises (1–50 employees: 71.4%). Sub-sectors included ready-to-wear (48.8%), traditional textile weaving (22.6%), and bespoke tailoring (28.6%). Lagos and Aba accounted for 65.3% of participants.

Table 2: Demographic Profile of Respondents (N = 248)

Characteristic	Category	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Gender	Female	154	62.1
	Male	94	37.9
Age	18–24	32	12.9
	25–34	98	39.5
	35–44	72	29.0
	45+	46	18.5
Enterprise Size	Micro (<10 employees)	112	45.2
	Small (10–50)	65	26.2
	Medium (51–250)	71	28.6
Primary Sub-sector	Ready-to-wear	121	48.8
	Traditional weaving	56	22.6
	Bespoke tailoring	71	28.6

Mean scores (5-point Likert scale) indicate moderate levels of awareness and intention toward smart textiles/IoT adoption. Performance Expectancy (M = 4.12, SD = 0.68) and Government Support (M = 3.45, SD = 0.92) scored highest and lowest, respectively.

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics and Reliability of Constructs

Construct	Mean	SD	Cronbach’s α	Composite Reliability	AVE
Performance Expectancy (PE)	4.12	0.68	0.89	0.91	0.68
Effort Expectancy (EE)	3.78	0.75	0.85	0.88	0.62
Social Influence (SI)	3.56	0.82	0.82	0.86	0.59
Facilitating Conditions (FC)	3.64	0.79	0.87	0.90	0.65
Infrastructure Readiness (IR)	3.21	0.91	0.84	0.87	0.61
Cultural Compatibility (CC)	3.89	0.71	0.86	0.89	0.64
Government Support (GS)	3.45	0.92	0.83	0.86	0.60
Sustainability Orientation (SO)	4.01	0.69	0.88	0.91	0.67
Competitive Pressure (CP)	3.92	0.74	0.85	0.88	0.63
Behavioral Intention (BI)	3.68	0.80	0.90	0.92	0.70
Use Behavior (UB)	3.12	0.88	0.84	0.87	0.62
Entrepreneurial Growth (EG)	3.45	0.85	0.87	0.90	0.65

All constructs exceeded recommended thresholds (Cronbach’s α > 0.70, CR > 0.70, AVE > 0.50).

Measurement Model Assessment

Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed adequate fit: χ²/df = 2.18, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.069, SRMR = 0.052. Discriminant validity was established (HTMT ratios < 0.85; Fornell-Larcker criterion met).

Structural Model and Hypothesis Testing

SEM results (bootstrapped, 5,000 resamples) revealed significant paths. PE (β = 0.42, p < 0.001), EE (β = 0.18, p < 0.01), FC (β = 0.21, p < 0.001), CC (β = 0.15, p < 0.05), SO (β = 0.19, p < 0.01), and CP (β = 0.14, p < 0.05) positively influenced BI. BI strongly predicted UB (β = 0.58, p < 0.001), which in turn influenced EG (β = 0.49, p < 0.001). IR (β = -0.12, p < 0.05) negatively moderated PE → BI. GS showed no significant direct effect (β = 0.08, p = 0.142).

Model explained 62.4% variance in BI, 48.7% in UB, and 41.2% in EG. Fit indices: χ²/df = 2.34, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.074.

Table 4: Hypothesis Testing Results (Structural Paths)

Hypothesis	Path	β	t-value	p-value	Supported?
H1	PE → BI	0.42	7.81	<0.001	Yes
H2	EE → BI	0.18	3.12	<0.01	Yes
H3	SI → BI	0.09	1.64	0.102	No
H4	FC → BI	0.21	4.05	<0.001	Yes
H5	IR → BI (direct)	-0.12	-2.31	<0.05	Yes (neg)
H6	CC → BI	0.15	2.78	<0.05	Yes
H7	GS → BI	0.08	1.47	0.142	No
H8	SO → BI	0.19	3.45	<0.01	Yes
H9	CP → BI	0.14	2.56	<0.05	Yes
H10	BI → UB	0.58	9.62	<0.001	Yes
H11	UB → EG	0.49	8.14	<0.001	Yes

Thematic analysis yielded four major themes:

Perceived Benefits and Performance Gains — Participants emphasized efficiency in production (e.g., predictive maintenance via IoT sensors) and market differentiation through interactive traditional fabrics. “Smart integration could let us monitor looms remotely and reduce downtime from power issues” (Interviewee 7, Lagos weaver).
Infrastructure and Readiness Barriers — Erratic electricity, high costs, and limited digital skills dominated discussions. “We lack stable power; IoT devices would fail without reliable energy” (FGD 2, Aba participant).
Cultural and Compatibility Factors — Positive views on blending heritage with tech: “Adire with embedded sensors could appeal globally while keeping our identity” (Interviewee 14). However, concerns over skill mismatches persisted.
External Enablers and Pressures — Competitive pressure from imports and sustainability demands drove interest, but government support was deemed insufficient: “Policies exist on paper, but no funding or training reaches us” (FGD 4).

Discussion of Findings

Quantitative predictors (PE, FC, CC, SO, CP) aligned with qualitative narratives on benefits and contextual fit. Infrastructure negatively moderated adoption, as explained by power and cost challenges. Low GS effect reflected perceived policy gaps, despite calls for incentives.

These results indicate moderate intention but low actual adoption of smart textiles/IoT in Nigeria’s fashion SMEs, driven by performance benefits and sustainability yet constrained by infrastructure deficits. Entrepreneurial growth potential exists through targeted interventions.

DISCUSSION

The findings of this mixed-methods study affirm the transformative potential of smart textiles and IoT integration for entrepreneurial advancement in Nigeria’s fashion industry, while simultaneously exposing critical barriers that must be addressed to translate intention into widespread adoption. Performance expectancy emerged as the dominant driver of behavioral intention (β = 0.42, p < 0.001), underscoring that Nigerian fashion entrepreneurs strongly associate these technologies with enhanced production efficiency, reduced waste, predictive maintenance, and the ability to create high-value, interactive products that preserve cultural heritage. Qualitative narratives reinforced this perception, with participants describing scenarios where IoT-enabled looms could minimize downtime from power fluctuations and where sensor-embedded adire or aso-oke fabrics could command premium prices in ethical global markets.

Cultural compatibility (β = 0.15, p < 0.05) and sustainability orientation (β = 0.19, p < 0.01) further strengthened adoption intention, indicating that entrepreneurs view smart textiles not as a disruption to tradition but as an opportunity to modernize and globalize it. This alignment between heritage and innovation represents a unique competitive advantage for Nigerian SMEs in an era of rising demand for authentic, sustainable fashion. Competitive pressure (β = 0.14, p < 0.05) also played a meaningful role, reflecting the urgency to differentiate from low-cost Asian imports and capitalize on digital marketplaces.

However, infrastructure readiness exerted a significant negative moderating effect on the performance expectancy–intention relationship, confirming that unreliable electricity, high equipment costs, and limited broadband access erode confidence in the practical benefits of these technologies. Qualitative data vividly illustrated this constraint, with entrepreneurs repeatedly citing power instability as the single greatest obstacle to implementation. The non-significant influence of government support and social influence further highlights systemic gaps: while policy frameworks and initiatives exist, their reach and effectiveness at the SME level remain limited, and peer demonstration effects are weakened by the industry’s informal structure.

The robust path from behavioral intention to use behavior (β = 0.58, p < 0.001) and subsequently to entrepreneurial growth (β = 0.49, p < 0.001) provides compelling evidence that successful adoption can drive revenue growth, product innovation, and job creation. Yet the low mean score for actual use behavior (M = 3.12) signals a pronounced intention–behavior gap, consistent with patterns observed in other resource-constrained emerging markets.

These results extend UTAUT by demonstrating the salience of cultural compatibility and sustainability orientation in heritage-based industries of the Global South, while underscoring infrastructure as a critical boundary condition. For Nigeria to harness smart textiles and IoT as engines of entrepreneurial growth, deliberate interventions are essential: reliable energy solutions, affordable financing mechanisms, localized digital skills training, and strengthened public–private partnerships to pilot culturally relevant applications. By closing these gaps, the fashion sector can evolve from a largely informal contributor to a globally competitive, technology-driven pillar of economic diversification and inclusive development.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that the integration of smart textiles and the Internet of Things (IoT) holds substantial promise for catalyzing entrepreneurial growth in Nigeria’s fashion industry, particularly among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) rooted in cultural heritage. Quantitative findings from the extended UTAUT model reveal that performance expectancy, cultural compatibility, sustainability orientation, and competitive pressure significantly drive adoption intention, while infrastructure deficits exert a strong negative moderating effect, creating a pronounced intention-use gap. Qualitative insights corroborate these patterns, highlighting perceived benefits in production efficiency, waste reduction, and global market differentiation through interactive, heritage-infused products, yet underscoring persistent barriers such as unreliable power supply, high costs, limited digital skills, and inadequate government support implementation. Despite low actual adoption levels, the robust linkage from use behavior to entrepreneurial outcomes—encompassing revenue growth, innovation, and job creation affirms the technologies’ potential to elevate the sector’s economic contribution, currently estimated at around $6 billion annually, toward greater formalization and competitiveness. By addressing these contextual constraints through targeted interventions including reliable energy access, affordable financing, localized training programs, and strengthened public-private partnerships like Fashionomics Africa Nigeria can position its fashion industry as a leader in African fashion technology. Ultimately, embracing smart textiles and IoT offers a pathway to transform traditional craftsmanship into sustainable, data-driven, globally viable enterprises, fostering inclusive economic diversification, cultural preservation, and alignment with Sustainable Development Goals on innovation and responsible consumption.

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