Category: Science

The Rashomon Effect

Ever heard multiple sides to a story from eye witnesses and had a tough time deciding which one is true or which to believe? Such a conundrum is brought about by subjective views, observer bias, perspective and memory of the observer. All these parameters can be summed into a single word known as The Rashomon. The Rashomon effect refers to an instance when the same event is described in significantly different (often contradictory) ways by different people who were involved.

This phenomenon first came to be observed in a book called “in a grove “by Japanese author, Reyonosuke Akutagawa written in the early 1920’s. This was later adapted and made into a movie, by Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa, who directed the 1950 film Rashomon, giving the effect its name. The plot revolves around which four different people provide contradictory accounts of a samurai’s murder, despite all having witnessed the crime. Each witness tale is varied from another, yet so very plausible, that a definite conclusion cannot be drawn, embroiling all of them.

The film explored the issues of the unreliability when depending on witness testimony explores a situation using a similar literary device, wherein the story is told through the viewpoints of different characters who supply conflicting stories. Whether the people’s competing explanations are different because of the fallacy of memory or because of self-serving interests varies. This film became revolutionary with how one understands the human mind, justice and the truth. It since then has become a cultural metaphor and is synonymous with happenings of everyday events as it’s not a sci-fi or an abnormal event, but a very natural course of nature that seems very striking .

Akira Kurosawa

Conditions and characteristics.

Not every story will have The Rashomon effect. It mostly occurs when there is no gripping and final evidence but a lot of eyewitnesses and when there is a pressure to achieve closure and coercion to find the truth. In both the movie and the book, no side of a person’s view is given more emphasis and all are shown in an equal scale, each testimony bearing its own truth and plausibility. The script and story writing does tell the audience how to feel or what to believe. The audience had to decide that for themselves making it engaging and deceiving at the same time. Such a premise has conflict as a driving. Conflict in a story drives a plot forward, reveals character, and engages an audience. The Rashomon Effect is based on contradicting reports of the same event and search for the truth through these reports can be a driving force of conflict for a story. The use of an unreliable narrator is another feature, opposed to the presentation from a more objective point of view. This allowed audiences to see the characters as they were and value neutral. To top it off, an ambiguous ending after such a mind boggling series of events, looks like the right justice to this type of storytelling. Our realization that none of the witnesses are reliable leaves us with more questions than answers. While most films at the time had a clear ending, the ending of Rashomon has no clear resolution. This unconventional decision left audiences baffled.  It can be frustrating to some as it subverts from its unorthodox counterparts but , it is not ambiguous for the sake of mystery or confusion, but rather to reiterate themes and larger concepts like the intricacy of the human brain.

Conclusion

Research studies have found that when people form a memory, a visual experience is often influenced by external cues, internal prejudice and past experiences. While a few are completely individualistic, most are universal. An example of this is egocentrism, i.e., having a positive view on their actions but disregard to the other person . it is a subconscious act , most of the times, and these psychological phenomenon means that the rashomon effect can  pop up anywhere.

The Rashomon effect finally boils down to the minutiae and can range from studies of anthropology and biology to the general public analyzing a historic world event. In conclusion this broke a psychobiological barrier of having the right answer to every crisis and rather shifted the focus to versions of the same event that can tell us about the time, place and people involved, how to go about different mind-sets, backgrounds and biases. It emphasized on the fact that sometimes, the objective truth cannot always be obtained and that it is normal to have an obscure, vague ending, which should be embraced and valued in certain circumstances.

Operant conditioning by B.F Skinner

B.F Skinner is considered one of the most influential psychologist of this era. He studied human aspects and behaviourism of the day to day life that most of us fail to observe and put it into theory .His discovery are used till date to treat, diagnose and find solution to psychological problems. B. F. Skinner was an American psychologist best-known for his influence on behaviourism.

Early life

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born and raised in the small town of Susquehanna, Pennsylvania. His father was a lawyer and his mother a homemaker. During high school, Skinner started to develop an interest in scientific reasoning from his extensive study of the works of Francis Bacon. After earning his undergraduate degree he decided to become a writer, a period of his life that he would later refer to as the “dark year. He wrote short newspaper articles and receiving some encouragement and mentorship from the famed poet Robert Frost. While working as a clerk at a bookstore, Skinner happened upon the works of Pavlov and Watson, which became a turning point in his life and career. Inspired by these works, Skinner decided to abandon his career as a novelist and entered the psychology graduate program at Harvard University.

He Best Known for Operant conditioning, Schedules of Reinforcement, Skinner Box Cumulative Recorder, Radical Behaviourism. Among his many discoveries, inventions, and accomplishments were the creation of the operant conditioning chamber (aka the Skinner Box), his research on schedules of reinforcement, the introduction of response rates as a dependent variable in research, and the creation of the cumulative recorder to track these response rates. Skinner’s operant conditioning process, an operant referred to any behaviour that acts on the environment and leads to consequences. He contrasted operant behaviours (the actions under our control) with respondent behaviours, which he described as anything that occurs reflexively or automatically such as jerking your finger back when you accidentally touch a hot pan.

Operant conditioning and experiments

Skinner identified reinforcement as any event that strengthens the behaviour it follows. The two types of reinforcement he identified were positive reinforcement (favorable outcomes such as reward or praise) and negative reinforcement (the removal of unfavourable outcomes).Punishment can also play a role in the operant conditioning process.

Skinner distinguishes between two types of behaviour respondent and operant. Respondent behaviour is directly under the control of a stimulus. Operant behaviour appears to be spontaneous rather than a response to specific stimulus .Stimulus that may influence operant behaviour is called discriminative stimulus the word operant derived from the fact that operant behaviour of the rates and the environment to produce some effect. Thus, the telephone rings going to where it is and receiving our operant acts that lead to a telephonic conversation. To demonstrate operant conditioning in the laboratory, a rat is placed in a box called the skinner box that is deprived of food for some specified period and so was assumed to be motivated by hunger drive inside the Skinner box there is a protruding bar with the food dish beneath that small light bulb above the bar can be lit at the experimenters discretion. Left alone in the box, the rat move absolutely restlessly and by chance occasionally presses the bar. The rate at which it first pushes the bar defines the preconditioned of operant level of bar pressing after establishing the opponent level the experimental attaches the food dispenser so that every time the rat presses the bar, a palette of food falls into the dish. The rat eats and soon presses the bar again. The food reinforces by pressing and the rate of pressing increases dramatically. If the food dispenser is disconnected and pressing the bad no longer no longer delivers would the rate of bar pressing will diminish .Experimenter can set up a discrimination by presenting food if the bar is pressed while the light is on and not giving these reinforcement if the response is made in the dark. Selective reinforcement leads to the rats pressing the bar only in the presence of light operant conditioning refers to the increase in the probability of response in a particular stimulus environment by following the response with reinforcement. Usually reinforcement is something that can satisfy a basic drive like food to satisfy your hunger. Operant behaviour is consequences that lead to change in voluntary behaviour person.

Operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings while training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such as classrooms or therapy sessions. Examples in real life include-     Homework Completion-A student tends to complete his/her homework daily; because he/she knows that he/she will be rewarded with a candy (action) or praise (behaviour). Incentives and Bonus-Workers are often offered with the incentives and bonus in return of completing their targets in time or for regular attendance. It makes the workers to perform better, so that, they can continuously get those incentives and bonus.

The Future of Artificial Intelligence

Credit: CFI

Introduction

AI research follows two distinct, and to some extent competing, methods, the symbolic (or “top-down”) approach, and the connectionist (or “bottom-up”) approach. The top-down approach seeks to replicate intelligence by analyzing cognition independent of the biological structure of the brain, in terms of the processing of symbols—whence the symbolic label. The bottom-up approach, on the other hand, involves creating artificial neural networks in imitation of the brain’s structure—whence the connectionist label.

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial intelligence (AI), is the ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings. The term is frequently applied to the project of developing systems endowed with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason, discover meaning, generalize, or learn from past experience. Since the development of the digital computer in the 1940s, it has been demonstrated that computers can be programmed to carry out very complex tasks—as, for example, discovering proofs for mathematical theorems or playing chess—with great proficiency.

How does AI Work?

Less than a decade after breaking the Nazi encryption machine Enigma and helping the Allied Forces win World War II, mathematician Alan Turing changed history a second time with a simple question: “Can machines think?” Turing’s paper “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” (1950), and its subsequent Turing Test, established the fundamental goal and vision of artificial intelligence. At its core, AI is the branch of computer science that aims to answer Turing’s question in the affirmative. It is the endeavor to replicate or simulate human intelligence in machines. The expansive goal of artificial intelligence has given rise to many questions and debates. So much so, that no singular definition of the field is universally accepted.  

Types of Artificial Intelligence

Reactive Machines

A reactive machine follows the most basic of AI principles and, as its name implies, is capable of only using its intelligence to perceive and react to the world in front of it. A reactive machine cannot store a memory and as a result cannot rely on past experiences to inform decision making in real-time.

Limited Memory

Limited memory artificial intelligence has the ability to store previous data and predictions when gathering information and weighing potential decisions — essentially looking into the past for clues on what may come next. Limited memory artificial intelligence is more complex and presents greater possibilities than reactive machines.

Self-awareness

Once Theory of Mind can be established in artificial intelligence, sometime well into the future, the final step will be for AI to become self-aware. This kind of artificial intelligence possesses human-level consciousness and understands its own existence in the world, as well as the presence and emotional state of others. 

Evolution of AI

IFM is just one of countless AI innovators in a field that’s hotter than ever and getting more so all the time. Here’s a good indicator: Of the 9,100 patients received by IBM inventors in 2018, 1,600 (or nearly 18 percent) were AI-related. Here’s another: Tesla founder and tech titan Elon Musk recently donated $10 million to fund ongoing research at the non-profit research company OpenAI — a mere drop in the proverbial bucket if his $1 billion co-pledge in 2015 is any indication. And in 2017, Russian President Vladimir Putin told school children that “Whoever becomes the leader in this sphere [AI] will become the ruler of the world.” He then tossed his head back and laughed maniacally.

Future of AI

Some sectors are at the start of their AI journey, others are veteran travelers. Both have a long way to go. Regardless, the impact artificial intelligence is having on our present day lives is hard to ignore:

  • Transportation: Although it could take a decade or more to perfect them, autonomous cars will one day ferry us from place to place.
  • Manufacturing: AI powered robots work alongside humans to perform a limited range of tasks like assembly and stacking, and predictive analysis sensors keep equipment running smoothly.
  • Healthcare: In the comparatively AI-nascent field of healthcare, diseases are more quickly and accurately diagnosed, drug discovery is sped up and streamlined, virtual nursing assistants monitor patients and big data analysis helps to create a more personalized patient experience.
  • Education: Textbooks are digitized with the help of AI, early-stage virtual tutors assist human instructors and facial analysis gauges the emotions of students to help determine who’s struggling or bored and better tailor the experience to their individual needs.

Conclusion

Artificial intelligence is impacting the future of virtually every industry and every human being. Artificial intelligence has acted as the main driver of emerging technologies like big data, robotics and IoT, and it will continue to act as a technological innovator for the foreseeable future. AI is projected to have a lasting impact on just about every industry imaginable. We’re already seeing artificial intelligence in our smart devices, cars, healthcare system and favorite apps, and we’ll continue to see its influence permeate deeper into many other industries for the foreseeable future.

References

The Roots of STEM Talent of India

Credit: Dreamstime

Introduction

The Information Technology sector in India has built its reputation by providing cost-effective solutions and providing employment to millions of people in the process. However, the full-time research workforce in India was estimated to be just 2,00,000 in 2015 by UNESCO. Are we, as a nation, adequately promoting careers in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) subjects, and are we even able to generate enough talent for our own demand? Are we losing some of our best minds to other countries because of a lack of support and opportunities?

What is STEM?

STEM, in full science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, field, and curriculum centered on education in the disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The STEM acronym was introduced in 2001 by scientific administrators at the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF). The organization previously used the acronym SMET when referring to the career fields in those disciplines or a curriculum that integrated knowledge and skills from those fields. In 2001, however, American biologist Judith Ramaley, then assistant director of education and human resources at NSF, rearranged the words to form the STEM acronym.

Women in STEM

Under-representation of women and gender pay gaps are well-recognized global challenges in STEM sectors. While Indian Technology firms can still boast of a relatively better female-to-male ratio, according to UNESCO estimates, only 14 percent of the researchers in India are women. Even engineering colleges have skewed gender ratio in favor of male students, and according to a Kelly Global Workforce Insights (KGWI) survey, 81 percent of the women in STEM fields in India have perceived a gender bias during performance evaluation.  The annual ‘Girls in Tech’ MasterCard research indicates that while interest in STEM careers is increasing gradually, women are still less likely than men to pursue a STEM career and less likely to remain in the field for their entire career owing to male dominance in the fields. 

STEM Sector in India

The focus on building the scientific prowess of the masses, and bet on specialized educational institutions to do the same, institutions like the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Indian Institute of Science (IISc), and All India Institute of Medical Science (AIIMS) was founded and promoted to develop the country’s scientific and technical manpower, and in the process help the society and economy prosper. However, with time, these institutes have largely been reduced to stepping stones for a well-paying career. Especially in the last two decades, the relentless quest of students, and their parents, to ensure admission to such premier institutes has given rise to an astronomical coaching classes industry as well. A particular blow to STEM education came when the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) liberally allowed the setting up of engineering institutes across the country a few years ago. The move was undertaken in anticipation of a huge demand for engineering studies. However, this not only eroded the value conferred on an engineering degree but also compromised the quality of education and training provided on a fundamental level.

Making STEM a Priority

The first step towards fixing what’s broken is the identification and acknowledgment of the present challenges and understanding the context in which they arise. In other words, the government and the private education sector must make a genuine attempt at understanding their shortcomings, and reflect on why so few Indian institutes are recognized for quality STEM education and training. Establishing global partnerships with countries that have built sophisticated STEM expertise is critical to paving the way for knowledge exchange and skill development. While American and European universities are known for their focus on STEM education, countries in the networks of BRICS and ASEAN could also prove to be beneficial partners. This also needs to be backed by healthy funding to develop independent institutes that focus on research, pure sciences, and other derivatives of STEM subjects. The Indeed survey showed that job seekers in the age group of 21-25 were 12 percent more inclined towards jobs in STEM sectors than in others. Inculcating innovation and creativity in young minds and encouraging them to pursue dedicated courses right from the moment they stepped into the formal education system is essential. However, in the present system, STEM studies might simply be added as an additional layer to the existing curriculum and would increase pressure on students and teachers alike.

References

How Automation is Changing Workplace Everywhere?

Credit: Prospects

Introduction

There was a time when the term “automation” was synonymous with advanced manufacturing plants full of robotics. While replacing human labor with machine labor is a prime example of workplace automation, it’s far from the only example. Automation is present in modern businesses of all sizes – including subtle features in common software applications, and more obvious implementations like self-driving vehicles or autonomous robots. There is much debate about where workplace automation will lead the economy, but observers tend to agree that the trend is gaining momentum. Every business process is on the table for automation, especially as technology becomes more sophisticated. 

What is Workplace Automation?

Here’s a common misconception that automation involves towering robotics, but it can be as simple as a set of tools housed within common business software programs. At its core, automation is about implementing a system to complete repetitive and easily replicated tasks without the need for human labor. “Automation takes a lot of forms,” said Fred Townes, chief product officer at READY Education. “For small businesses, the most important thing is [repetition]. When you find something you do more than once that adds value … you want to look into automation.”

Machine Learning as the Driver for Automation

Machine learning and artificial intelligence enable new forms of “smart” automation. As the software learns, the more adaptable it becomes. These technologies open the door for the automation of higher-order tasks in addition to the basic, repetitive tasks. “I think there’s a lot of focus at the moment on these tasks that humans don’t want to do,” Sharma said. “But what’s going to happen in the future is … automation will not just be about automating those tasks humans are doing today, but it will be about realizing potential opportunities.”

Example of Common Workplace Automation

1. Email marketing

Many small business owners already use at least one form of automation: email marketing. Companies like Zoho and Constant Contact offer software that allows users to tailor the parameters of their email marketing campaign to their liking and then set it to run automatically. 

2. Customer service

Customer service departments are also getting an automation makeover with the introduction of tools like chatbots and automated text message marketing solutions.

3. Human resources

Given the predictable and repetitive nature of HR duties – like payroll and timesheets – digitization can transform the efficiency of a department.

Conclusion

Economic insecurity displaced workers feel is very real, but automation is not the enemy. Instead, Wallace hopes to educate people about leveraging this powerful technology to create their own incomes – essentially establishing a society of entrepreneurs and small companies. “If we can establish a way to make sure we all have enough food, clothing, and shelter to survive … and allow people to repurpose their gifts, unique abilities, and enable them to proliferate that and sell it as a good or a service, then we’re adding income,” Wallace said. “We can create an opportunity to generate income for next to nothing, so why not teach people to leverage the tech that disrupted the marketplace in the first place to embrace it and use it for something more in line with who they are, as an expression of their unique abilities?”

References

Why does the World Need to Decarbonize Transport?

Credit: ITF

Introduction

Moving people and goods accounts for one-quarter of global energy use, and the demand for energy from this sector is continuing to grow. This is due mainly to the increasing number and size of vehicles on our roads: more than 1.42 billion are currently in use, with an expected two billion by 2040. Road vehicles, most still powered by fossil fuels, account for nearly 75 per cent of total transport-related greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions from aviation and shipping are also projected to sail upwards between now and 2050. Flying contributes 12 per cent of the world’s total carbon dioxide emissions, while the marine sector, if it were a country, would be ranked between Germany and Japan as the sixth-largest source.

Why to Decarbonize the Transport?

Climate change cannot be stopped without decarbonizing transport. Transport emits around 23% of the energy-related CO2 that feeds global warming. Without immediate action, its share could reach 40% by 2030. Transport emissions have grown faster than those of any other sector over the past 50 years. Demand for transport will continue to grow massively in the coming decades. As a result CO2 emissions from transport activity will not fall, but could increase by 60% by 2050. And because transport relies on oil for 92% of its energy, it is particularly hard to decarbonize. 

Ambition of the Initiative

The Decarbonising Transport initiative helps governments and industry to translate climate ambitions into actions. Specifically, it:

  • Builds a catalogue of effective CO2 mitigation measures: the Transport Climate Action Directory.
  • Provides targeted analytical assistance for countries and partners to identify climate actions that work.
  • Gathers and shares evidence for best practices that will accelerate the transition to carbon-neutral mobility.
  • Shapes the climate change debate by building a global policy dialogue and by bringing the transport perspective to the broader climate change discussions.

Stream of the Initiative

 The Decarbonising Transport initiative is organised in five work streams:

  • Tracking progress: The initiative evaluates how current mitigation measures contribute to reaching objectives for reducing transport CO2.
  • In-depth sectoral studies: The initiative identifies effective policies for decarbonizing urban passenger transport, road freight transport, maritime transport, aviation and inter-urban transport.
  • Focus studies: The initiative analyses specific decarbonization issues and feeds the results into other work streams.
  • National pathways: The initiative assesses available policy levers for decarbonizing transport from a country perspective. Projects may also examine regional or sub-national levels.
  • Policy Dialogue: The initiative organizes global dialogue on transport and climate change through high-level roundtables, policy briefings and technical workshops. It acts as a conduit for transport sector input to climate change negotiations.

Conclusion

The Decarbonizing Transport initiative was launched in 2016 with core funding from the ITF’s Corporate Partnership Board (CPB). Other funding partners currently include the governments of France, Korea, Ireland and the Netherlands, the World Bank, the European Commission, the Climate Works Foundation, the Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile (FIA), the FIA Foundation, the International Road Transport Union (IRU) and the Swedish Shipowners’ Association. In recognition of the work of its Decarbonizing Transport initiative, the UN Climate Change Secretariat (UNFCCC) has named the International Transport Forum a focal point for transport under its Marrakech Partnership. In this role, the ITF acts as a conduit for the exchange of information between the transport sector and the UNFCCC, as well as providing inputs to the UNFCCC process.

References

An Analysis of World Environment Day

Credit: Parenting

Introduction

World Environment Day is celebrated on the 5th of June every year. More than 100 countries Worldwide join in the celebration of World Environment Day. It was started by the United Nations Environmental Program in the year 1973 and has been continuing till now. The main purpose of celebrating this day is to spread awareness about the Environment.

Theme for 2022

World Environment Day 2022 will be held under the theme Only One Earth, highlighting the need to live sustainably in harmony with nature by bringing transformative changes – through policies and our choices – towards cleaner, greener lifestyles.

What is the Environment?

Scientifically speaking, everything around us constitutes our Environment. Both living and non-Types of the Equation of the Motion living things make up our Environment. The living or biotic components include plants, animals and microbes, while the non-living or abiotic components include air, water, soil and so on.

Why is the Environment in Danger?

The Environment is in danger because of the high levels of pollution. All the major components of the Environment such as the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere, are trapped with pollutants. The rising level of pollutants is destroying the normal Environmental conditions. These types of pollutants can be natural (for example volcanic eruptions, forest fires, etc.) or manmade (pollutants released from industries, emissions from cars). It is mainly man-made pollution that has caused rapid destruction of the Environment. The major forms of pollution are air pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution.

Why is it Necessary to Save the Environment?

The Environment is one of the most important tools for our survival on planet Earth. The Environment nurtures us and helps us survive. We cannot imagine life without air, water, and soil. The biotic components like plants and animals are also important survival tools. Plants help purify the air around us. We get food from plants and animals. All the components of the Environment are dependent on each other in a web of relations known as the ecological web. It is necessary to maintain this web in balance because if one component collapses then the entire web will crumble destroying all life forms. This is why we must choose to work towards preserving the Environment and undoing the damage we did.

Purpose of World Environment Day

The main purpose of World Environment Day is to spread awareness about the current conditions of the Environment. On this day people come together to join in efforts to improve our life. Every year there is one theme or Environmental problem which is focused upon and a pledge to combat that problem is taken that year. For example for the year 2019, the theme was air pollution. Organizations all around the world come together on this day, to take small steps to improve our future. Schools and offices encourage workers and students to plant trees or clean up some local land. These small efforts can leave a big impact on the Environment.

Conclusion

World Environment Day reminds us to consolidate our planet and ensure that the Environment is conserved at all costs. It illuminates the causes that cause the most damage to our environment. For example, industries and industries play a major role in polluting. They reduce the amount of air we breathe and the water we consume. Therefore, this Day serves as an eye-opener for many citizens who are unaware of all this. In other words, it spreads awareness to ordinary people about the current situation. In addition, it also encourages the community from different communities and communities to play an active role in celebrating this Day.

References

Is Space Tourism is Beneficial for Planet?

Credit: Spacelearn

Introduction

While space tourism isn’t brand new, the race to progress commercial space travel has moved along vastly in the past year. With NASA – once the center of the space industry – taking its time to bring commercial space flight into the realm of possibility, the doors have opened up for wealthy individuals to try their hand at space travel. Space tourism is not without criticism, despite being an exciting idea in theory. Today, we’ll explore the advantages and disadvantages of space tourism, raise questions about the billionaire space race, and think about whether space tourism is the beginning of a new future or an environmental catastrophe. 

What is Space Tourism?

The fundamental purpose is for human pleasure, as all tourism is. We can divide space tourism into orbital, suborbital, and lunar space tourism. While orbital space tourism involves extremely high speeds (17,400 mph), as it allows a rocket to orbit around Earth, suborbital flights are a lot slower (though still 3,700mph) and tend to fly directly up into space and then back down again. Suborbital flights are what space tourism companies are offering more commonly. Lunar space tourism involves trips to the moon. While there are some broader definitions of space tourism, such as watching rocket launches or stargazing, we’ll be focusing on commercial space travel in this article, as it has the most far-reaching consequences.

Does Commercial Space Travel exist today?

The short answer to this question is yes. However, currently, commercial space travel is extremely exclusive, and this shows no signs of changing shortly. July 2021 was a pioneering month, with both Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin successfully launching suborbital spaceflights with tourist passengers from their spaceports. Eventually, each of these companies wants to provide regular space travel opportunities to private paying customers. 

Environmental Concerns

Large carbon footprint

Eloise Marais, a physical geography professor at UCL, suggests that the carbon footprint of flying to space in a rocket is about 100x more than taking a long-haul flight. 

Depleting ozone layer

There are several ways space tourism can contribute to a depleting ozone layer. CO2 emissions and soot trap heat in the atmosphere and rockets emit up to 10 times more nitrogen oxides than the largest thermal power plant in the UK.

Polluted stratosphere

One of the biggest environmental concerns with space tourism is the soot cloud that rockets leave behind. Soot can accumulate in the stratosphere, which is between 5 and 31 miles above Earth, where it can’t be washed away by the weather.

Conclusion

It seems as though the current plans that the billionaire space company owners have for space tourism are perhaps too ambitious, and focus on the wrong things. It’s true that space exploration and research could bring a wealth of new ideas and resources to Earth, and could provide a future existence for humans. But regular, short space flights for the recreational activities of the rich do not seem to be in the best interest of Earth. 

References

Understanding the Nucleic Acid Vaccines

Credit: MIT News

Introduction

Faced with the challenges posed by infectious diseases and cancer, nucleic acid vaccines present excellent prospects in clinical applications. Compared with traditional vaccines, nucleic acid vaccines have the characteristics of high efficiency and low cost. Therefore, nucleic acid vaccines have potential advantages in disease prevention and treatment. However, the low immunogenicity and instability of nucleic acid vaccines have limited their development. Therefore, a large number of studies have been conducted to improve their immunogenicity and stability by improving delivery methods, thereby supporting progress and development for clinical applications.

What is Nucleic Acid Vaccines?

Instead of injecting a weakened form of a virus or bacteria into the body, Nucleic acid vaccines use genetic material from a disease-causing virus or bacterium (a pathogen) to stimulate an immune response against it. That immune response, which produces antibodies, is what protects us from getting infected if the real virus enters our bodies. Nucleic acid vaccines have the potential to be safe, effective, and cost-effective. Moreover, the immune responses induced by nucleic acid vaccines only target the selected antigen in the pathogen.

Types of Nucleic Acid Vaccine

Nucleic acid-based vaccines, including DNA (as plasmids) and RNA [as messenger RNA (mRNA)] vaccines, exhibit promising potential in targeting various indications and diseases.

What is DNA Vaccine?

DNA vaccines are generated by inserting a gene encoding antigens into a bacteria-derived plasmid, which needs to be controlled by a powerful promoter. DNA plasmids are replicated in bacteria, which can be selected based on antibiotic resistance mediated by genes carrying resistance markers, using the prokaryotic origin of replication. Additionally, DNA vaccines can affect not only humoral immunity but also cellular immunity. Although the precise mechanisms underlying the induction of an immune response to antigens expressed by host cells following DNA immunization have not yet been determined, we have a considerable understanding of the roles of immune cells in the processing, presentation, and recognition of antigens.

What is RNA Vaccine?

Currently, there are two widely acknowledged forms of mRNA vaccines, namely, non-amplifying mRNA and self-amplifying mRNA, which are classified due to the difference in mechanisms. In terms of structure, non-amplifying mRNA vaccines mainly contain five critical elements for the life cycle and expression: the “cap” [m7Gp3N(N: any nucleotide)], which is a 7-methyl-guanosine residue (m7G) bound to the 5′-end of the RNA transcript via a 5′–5′ triphosphate bond with any nucleotide; a 5′ untranslated region (5′UTR) that sits immediately upstream of the translation initiation codon; an open reading frame (ORF) encoding the gene of interest (GOI); a 3′ untranslated region (3′UTR); and a tail of 100–250 adenosine residues [poly(A) tail].

Advantages of Nucleic Acid Vaccine

Safe and non-infectious as they are not made with pathogen particles or inactivated pathogens.
Can generate a stronger type of immunity and are well tolerated as compared to traditional vaccines.
Can be produced more rapidly as they do not require a host for growth, e.g., eggs or bacteria.

References

An Analysis of World Haemophilia Day

Credit: Deccan Chronicle

Introduction

World Hemophilia Day was started by the World Federation of Hemophilia (WHF) and is annually observed on the 17th of April. The international community started observing WHD in 1989 and April 17 was chosen to recognize Frank Schnabel the founder of WHF. World Hemophilia Day is aimed at raising awareness about hemophilia and other bleeding disorders. It also helps to raise funds for patients who cannot afford hemophilia treatment as well as attract volunteers for the World Federation of Hemophilia.

What is Haemophilia?

Haemophilia is an inherited condition that causes bleeding for a long time after injury or surgery and painful swelling of the joints either after injury or even without injury. (“Inherited” means that the disease is passed from parents to children through their genes). Haemophilia is the commonest X-linked disorder affecting approximately 1 in 10,000 male births; whereas women act as carriers of Haemophilia. Haemophilia is an inherited blood disorder disease in which blood does not clot properly. It is caused due to defects in the blood vessels, the coagulation mechanism, or the blood platelets and by a deficiency in a gene that resolves how the human body will make factors VII, IX, or XI.

Types of Haemophilia

Haemophilia has three forms namely Haemophilia A, B, and C. Out of these, Hemophilia A is the most common.

– Haemophilia A patient is treated by prescribing a hormone desmopressin.

– Haemophilia B patient is treated by infusing the patient’s blood with the clotting factors of a donor.

– Haemophilia C patient is treated by plasma infusion which ceases down profuse bleeding.

Theme of World Haemophilia Day

April 17, 2022, is World Hemophilia Day. The theme of the event this year is “Access for All: Partnership. Policy. Progress. Engaging your government, integrating inherited bleeding disorders into national policy“. By raising awareness and bringing hemophilia and other inherited bleeding disorders to the attention of policymakers, we can increase sustainable and equitable access to care and treatment.

Significance of World Haemophilia Day

The World Federation of Haemophilia (WFH) started celebrating the day in 1989 and chose April 17 to celebrate it in honour of the founder of WFH Frank Schnabel. Haemophilia was discovered in the 10th century and was found mainly in males. The disease was then known as Abulcasis. In the year 1937, Haemophilia genetic disorder was divided into two types namely A and B, however, no proper treatment was found till that time. Then, it was decided to raise awareness about the disease among the people and make them understand the need to give the right attention to this serious health issue. In 1963, the WFM was established to improve treatment and care for all haemophiliac patients.

Awareness-raising campaigns, conferences, workshops, etc. are being organized on this day by several communities and people. various kinds of activities are being performed to inform the general public about Haemophilia disease. Also, landmarks and monuments in Australia and around the world change their colour to red at the night to support World Haemophilia Day.

Conclusion

When there is a family history of Haemophilia, it is now possible to identify females who carry the Haemophilia gene. Women, who know they are carriers, or might be carriers, may have options for prenatal diagnosis to obtain information on the fetal status. According to National Blood Transfusion Council under National Aids Control Organization (NACO) guidelines, all state/UTs administration patients suffering from thalassemia, sickle cell anemia, and Haemophilia should be provided blood free of cost. The Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakarama (RBSK) launched under the National Health Mission (NHM), provides early detection and treatment of children suffering from genetic disorders.

References

Is it Good to Genetically Modify the Crops?

Credit: SeaChef

Introduction

Genetic modification is a special set of gene technology that alters the genetic machinery of such living organisms as animals, plants, or microorganisms. Combining genes from different organisms is known as recombinant DNA technology and the resulting organism is said to be ‘Genetically modified (GM)’, ‘Genetically engineered’, or ‘Transgenic’. The principal transgenic crops grown commercially in the field are herbicide and insecticide-resistant soybeans, corn, cotton, and canola. Like all new technologies, they also pose some risks, both known and unknown. Controversies and public concerns surrounding GM foods and crops commonly focus on human and environmental safety, labeling and consumer choice, intellectual property rights, ethics, food security, poverty reduction, and environmental conservation.

What is GM Foods?

Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods derived from organisms whose genetic material (DNA) has been modified in a way that does not occur naturally, e.g. through the introduction of a gene from a different organism. The technology is often called “modern biotechnology” or “gene technology”, sometimes also “recombinant DNA technology” or “genetic engineering”. Currently, available GM foods stem mostly from plants, but in the future foods derived from GM microorganisms or GM, animals are likely to be introduced on the market. Most existing genetically modified crops have been developed to improve yield through the introduction of resistance to plant diseases or increased tolerance of herbicides. GM foods can also allow for reductions in food prices through improved yields and reliability.

How are GMOs made?

“GMO” (genetically modified organism) has become the common term consumers and popular media use to describe foods that have been created through genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is a process that involves:

  • Identifying the genetic information—or “gene”—that gives an organism (plant, animal, or microorganism) a desired trait
  • Copying that information from the organism that has the trait
  • Inserting that information into the DNA of another organism
  • Then growing the new organism.

Qualifications of GMO in Foods

Testing on GMOs in food and feed is routinely done using molecular techniques like DNA microarrays or qPCR. These tests are based on screening genetic elements like p35S, tNos, pat, or bar or event-specific markers for the official GMOs like Mon810, Bt11, or GT73. The array-based method combines multiplex PCR and array technology to screen samples for different potential GMOs combining different approaches viz. screening elements, plant-specific markers, and event-specific markers. The qPCR is used to detect specific GMO events by the usage of specific primers for screening elements or event-specific markers. Controls are necessary to avoid false positive or false-negative results. 

Consumer Attitude towards GM Foods

Consumer acceptance is conditioned by the risk that they perceive from introducing food into their consumption habits processed through technology that they hardly understand. In a study conducted in Spain, the main conclusion was that the introduction of GM food into agro-food markets should be accompanied by adequate policies to guarantee consumer safety. These actions would allow a decrease in consumer-perceived risk by taking special care of the information provided, concretely relating to health. For, the most influential factor in consumer-perceived risk from these foods is concern about health 

Conclusion

GM foods have the potential to solve many of the world’s hunger and malnutrition problems and to help protect and preserve the environment by increasing yield and reducing reliance upon synthetic pesticides and herbicides. Challenges ahead lie in many areas viz. safety testing, regulation, policies, and food labeling. Many people feel that genetic engineering is the inevitable wave of the future and that we cannot afford to ignore a technology that has such enormous potential benefits.

References

The Future of Solid-State Batteries

Credit: Forbes

Introduction

All-Solid-State Battery is a type of battery that uses no liquid electrolyte, instead, it uses a solid electrolyte (alternative to the lithium-ion battery). This type of battery still has not been commercially used, but will soon be used in electric vehicles. The demand for the production of solid-state batteries is due to the advantages that arise from the safety issue. Solid electrolytes are solid that exhibit ionic conductivities of about 10−3 S/cm, and it conducts ions between the cathode and anode in the lithium-ion battery.

What is Solid-State Battery?

A solid-state battery has a higher energy density than a Lithium-ion battery that uses a liquid electrolyte solution. It doesn’t have a risk of explosion or fire, so there is no need to have components for safety, thus saving more space. Then we have more space to put more active materials which increases battery capacity in the battery. A solid-state battery can increase energy density per unit area since only a small number of batteries are needed. For that reason, a solid-state battery is perfect to make an Electric Vehicle (EV) battery system of module and pack, which needs high
capacity. Despite improvements in technology over the last decade, issues such as long charging times and weak energy density persist.

What is Lithium-ion Battery?

Lithium Battery uses an intercalated (Intercalation is the reversible inclusion or insertion of a molecule into materials with layered structures) lithium compound as one electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in a non-rechargeable lithium battery. The battery consists of electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell. Lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging.

Advantages of Solid-State Battery

The advantages of the solid-state battery technology include higher cell energy density (by eliminating the carbon anode), lower charge time (by eliminating the need to have lithium diffuse into the carbon particles in conventional lithium-ion cells), ability to undertake more charging cycles, and thereby a longer life, and improved safety. Lower cost could be a game-changer, given that at 30% of the total cost, battery expenses are a key driver of vehicle costs.

R&D in Solid-State Battery

Most companies hope to commercialize their solid-state batteries by 2025, although small-scale production may happen earlier. However, to meet this goal, considerable R&D needs to happen to solve serious issues about material behavior, battery microstructure, charge longevity, and cracking upon thermal expansion and contraction. In another recent development, researchers from Brown University have developed a new material for use in solid-state batteries that is derived from trees. The solid ion conductor combines copper with cellulose nanofibrils—polymer tubes derived from wood. The paper-thin material has an ion conductivity that is up to 100 times better than other polymer ion conductors, making it a possible candidate for a solid battery electrolyte or as an ion-conducting binder for the cathode of an all-solid-state battery.
 

Conclusion

Today’s state-of-the-art batteries—those based on lithium-ion technology—have been honed to near perfection since they were introduced more than 25 years ago, but they are still heavy and occasionally explode and catch fire, as they did in Samsung’s Galaxy Note 7 phones so spectacularly last year. By getting flammable liquid electrolytes out of lithium-ion batteries and replacing them with solid electrolytes, solid-state battery makers hope to usher in an era of safer, more compact, higher-capacity energy storage devices.

References

The Power of Organ Transplantation to Save Life’s

Credit: Health Matters

Introduction

Organ transplantation (OT) is one of the most successful advances in modern medicine. For patients with end-stage disease, transplantation most often provides their only chance for survival. Even before the first transplant was performed, it was clear that OT could only be successful with a multidisciplinary approach. The history of OT has involved a series of breakthroughs in medicine that has influenced all aspects of health care. As you will see, for nearly a century, the contributions of specialists in anesthesiology and critical were largely underrepresented in the world’s literature.

What is Organ Donation?

Organ donation and transplantation is removing an organ from one person (the donor) and surgically placing it in another (the recipient) whose organ has failed. Organ transplantation is a medical procedure in which an organ is removed from one body and placed in the body of a recipient, to replace a damaged or missing organ. The donor and recipient may be at the same location, or organs may be transported from a donor site to another location. Organs must be removed as soon as possible after the determination of brain death, while circulation is being maintained artificially. Tissues may be removed within 12 to 24 hours.

Benefits

The benefits of an organ transplant depend on the organ a person receives. Some benefits may include


o Avoiding medical procedures such as dialysis
o Living a longer life
o Living a healthier or less painful life
o Gaining an improved quality of life, such as when a cornea
transplant restores a person’s sight
o Correcting congenital disabilities that endanger a
person’s life
o Spending less time in the hospital, needing fewer
surgeries, or taking fewer medications.

Challenges

The shortage of organs is a major problem worldwide. There are many more patients awaiting transplantation than there are organ donors. Low socioeconomic status is a big hurdle for organ transplantation. Superstitions such as being born with a missing organ (that has been donated); and that tampering with the body will not free their dead relatives from the cycle of life–death–rebirth are some of the prevalent superstitions. The lack of an adequate number of transplant centers with staff as well as transplant coordinators who are adequately educated and well versed with the procedures required to conduct an organ donation program is acting as a significant roadblock to the deceased organ donation program. Sometimes, organs are transported from the donor hospital to the transplant center where the recipient is located. There have been many instances where valuable organs have been wasted due to delays in the transportation process.

Organs that can be Transplanted

Organs and tissues that can be transplanted include:

  • Liver.
  • Kidney.
  • Pancreas.
  • Heart.
  • Lung.
  • Intestine.
  • Corneas.
  • Middle ear.
  • Skin.
  • Bone.
  • Bone marrow.
  • Heart valves.
  • Connective tissue.

Conclusion

Solid-organ transplantations save lives in patients affected by terminal organ failures and improve quality of life. Solid-organ transplant programs provide excellent results in children and young adults and are increasingly challenged by the expanding proportion of elderly transplant patients. Solid-organ transplant program activity has been growing in the last two decades and is essential for developed and mature health care systems.

References

What is Gaganyaan Mission Really?

Credit: Federal News

Introduction

Humans have always looked at the heavens and wondered about the nature of the objects seen in the night sky. With the development of rockets and the advances in electronics and other technologies in the 20th century, it became possible to send machines and animals and then people above Earth’s atmosphere into outer space. Space exploration, investigation, by means of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft, of the reaches of the universe beyond Earth’s atmosphere and the use of the information so gained to increase knowledge of the cosmos and benefit humanity.

What is this Mission?

The word ‘Gaganyaan’ is derived from Sanskrit, meaning ‘sky-vehicle’. The Gaganyaan Programme envisages undertaking the demonstration of indigenous capability to undertake human spaceflight to Low Earth Orbit (LEO). As part of this program, two unmanned missions and one manned mission will be carried out. ISRO is planning to launch the first uncrewed mission under Gaganyaan in 2022, following which is the second unmanned mission. “Vyommitra” will carry a robot and this will then be followed by the manned mission. The uncrewed missions are for technology demonstration, and safety and reliability verification and will aim to study the performance of systems before the crewed flight. The robot will mimic the space crew activities set for the human flight mission to assess all the possible challenges before the final mission.

New Technologies required for this Mission

The major new technologies required for Gaganyaan programme are as follows:

  1. Human rated launch vehicle
  2. Crew escape systems
  3. Habitable orbital module
  4. Life support system
  5. Crew selection and training and associated crew management activities.

Execution of this Program

The Gaganyaan Programme is going to be a major National effort. The overall programme co-ordination, systems engineering and implementation will be carried out by ISRO. Further, the human rated launch vehicle, crew escape system, Orbital module and essential infrastructure will be realized by ISRO utilizing the in-house expertise and with participation of Industry, Academia and National agencies. The private players in the country have developed significant expertise in niche areas, and this will be effectively utilized in the programme.

Agencies Collaborating with ISRO for this Mission

Major collaborating partners for Gaganyaan include

  1. Indian Armed Forces
  2. Defence Research Development Organization
  3. Indian maritime agencies – Indian Navy, Indian Coast Guard, Shipping Corporation of India, National Institute of Oceanography, National Institute of Ocean Technology
  4. Indian Meteorological Department
  5. CSIR Labs
  6. Academic Institutes
  7. Industry Partners.

Benefits of this Mission

The Human spaceflight programme has both tangible and intangible benefits for the nation, which includes:

  1. Progress towards a sustained and affordable human and robotic program to explore the solar system and beyond.
  2. Advanced technology capability for undertaking human space exploration, sample return missions, and scientific exploration.
  3. Future capability to actively collaborate in global space station development & to carry out scientific experiments of interest to the nation.
  4. Create a broad framework for wider Academia-Industry partnership in taking up development activities for national development.

Conclusion

The Gaganyaan mission could propel India to the center of human space exploration. The manned missions will push
India is further in exploration beyond Earth’s orbit as countries are eager to control the next space race, which has the
potential to trigger major changes in the global order.

References

A Metamaterial that make use of Origami

Image by Drishti IAS

Introduction

A car that dashes against an obstacle suffer damage, first to its fenders. To be useful, materials need to maintain a constant Poisson ratio under pressure when they crumble under pressure. However, they are prone not to do so, and the Poisson ratio varies as they deform. There is a keen interest to develop materials that can be sandwiched in the fender system which will absorb the shock and prevent the interiors from being damaged. Origami metamaterials that crumple rather than tear, and take the impact, can play an important role in such situations.

What is Metamaterials?

Metamaterials are nano-engineered media with designed properties beyond those available in nature with applications in all aspects of materials science. A metamaterial is any material engineered to have a property that is not found in naturally occurring materials. They are made from assemblies of multiple elements fashioned from composite materials such as metals and plastics. Some examples of available metamaterials are negative-index metamaterials, chiral metamaterials, plasmonic metamaterials, photonic metamaterials, etc.

What is Origami Metamaterials?

Origami Metamaterials combine the Japanese art of paper folding (origami) and the existing material of choice and fold it to obtain desired properties. Researchers of IIT Madras have developed a special class of origami metamaterials that show a constant value of Poisson Ratio when subjected to stress. These are manufactured by joining panels along their edges to form ‘creases’ about which the structure locally ‘folds’ or rotates about. The benefit is that the observed property does not depend on whether it is made from a sheet of paper, polymer, or metal.  The material the researchers have developed has a nearly constant Poisson function in the range –of 0.5 to 1.2 over a finite stretch of up to 3.0 with a minimum of 1.1.

Properties of Metamaterials

They are smart materials that have a wide range of properties and can be so different from each other that there isn’t a definition for them. Some of the properties it possess are

  • Unusual Electromagnetic Properties
  • Negative Refractive Index
  • Acoustic Control
  • Invisibility
  • Negative Electrical Permittivity
  • Magnetic Permeability
  • Artificial Origin.

Application of Metamaterials

Metamaterials hold attention due to various applications it can provide. Some of its application includes

  • Optical Filtering
  • Medical Devices
  • Remote Aerospace Operations
  • Sensor Detectors
  • Solar Power Management
  • Antenna Lenses

Conclusion

Origami metamaterials can provide a platform for the design of systems with a wide range of thermal expansion coefficients. Experiments and simulations are combined to demonstrate that by tuning the geometrical parameters of the origami structure and the arrangement of plates and creases, an extremely broad range of thermal expansion coefficients can be obtained that will provide a wide variety of applications.

References