There is no problem in detecting that the accident occurred in the course of employment when a workman is injured in the working place and in the working hour and doing his duty. The problem arises when these elements do not coincide together. But a workmen if injured just near the work premises or just before joining the work or in the way to work problem arises. To address this kind of problem and giving some kind of relief to the workmen the theory of notional extension evolved.

“As a rule, the employment of a workman does not commence until he has reached the place of employment and does not continue when he has left the place of employment, the journey to and from the place of employment being excluded. It is now well-settled, however, that this is subject to the theory of notional extension of the employer’s premises so as to include an area which the workman passes and repasses in going to and in leaving the actual place of work. There may be some reasonable extension in both time and place and a workman may be regarded as in the course of his employment even though he had not reached or had left his employer’s premises. The facts and circumstances of each case will have to be examined very carefully in order to determine whether the accident arose out of and in the course of the employment of a workman, keeping in view at all times this theory of notional extension.” 

Wider interpretation of duty:

Court has given a wider and popular meaning of “duty” to expand the scope of this section. The court also talks about the service contract to determine which can be come under the preview of this section. Justice Cozens-Hardy M. R. said “……… it was an implied term of the contract of service that these trains should be provided by the employers, and that the colliers should have the right, if not the obligation, to travel to and from without charge.” In the next case the court has interpreted the term “duty” in stricter sense.

In Weaver v. Tredegar Iron Coal Co.  House of Lords after examining a large number of authorities given a wider meaning of “duty” but did not negated the duty test.In this case lord Atkin said that there can be no doubt that the course of employment cannot be limited to the time or place of the specific work which the workman is employed to do. It does not necessarily end when the “‘down tools” signal is given, or when the actual workshop where he is working is left. In other words, the employment may run on its course by its own momentum beyond the actual stopping place. There may be some reasonable extension in both time and space.” Lord Porter further said that if an accident occurs while coming to the workplace or leaving the place can be out of and in the course of employment if he is bound by the way he proceed under the terms of the contract of service express or implied. Here duty test was confirmed.

Expanding the preview of Service Contract:

In St. Helens Colliery Co Ltd v. Hewlston  the court said that the injury did not occur in the course of employment because the employee was not bound or obliged to travel by that special train and he could have taken other transport. If he were bound by the service contract to travel by that train then it would have been in the course of employment (Lord Buckmaster). It was also added that if the place of work is like that there is no alternative means of transport other than the transport given by the employer then it can be concluded that there is an implied term in the service contract to use that transport (Lord Atkinson). The same view was taken in Mackenzie v. I.M. Issak says that a workman in a colliery is not in course of his employment while using the transport of the employer if he is not bound by the terms of the contract to travel by that transport.

There was a particular situation where employee has to take bus service to reach his workplace from home and vise versa. It was necessary for doing his duty efficiently and punctually which was a condition under his service  . So, travelling in that bus was an implied condition to his duty. It was also said that this doctrine was developed to cover the factory, workshops and harbors but it can be applied in this kind of situation also. Compensation was granted holding that the accident arising in the course of employment. Though the court said what would be the indicator that when the work starts and ceases that depends on case to case basis.

In Union of India v. Mrs . Noor Jahan  a railway gangman was ordered by his employer to go to another place for cleaning and in the way from one place to another accident happened. Justice Sukla observed that the accident has occurred in the duty hour and when he was going to do his duty on behalf of his employer and he concluded that the accident has occurred in the course of his employment.

Public Place and this Doctrine:

There are some situations where this doctrine does not apply. When a workman is on the public road or public place and not there for fulfilling the obligation and his work does not make necessary to be there. The proximity of the work premises and spot of accident become immaterial. The notional extension of the place of work cease when workman come to a public road. There were some clarification made in the next case in this matter.

In Saurashtra Salt Manufacturing Co. v. Valu Raja  Justice Jafer Imam said that,

“It is well settled that when a workman is on a public road or a public place or on a public transport he is there as any other member of the public and is not there in the course of his employment unless the very nature of his employment makes it necessary for him to be there. A workman is not in the course of his employment from the moment he leaves his home and is on his way to his work. He certainly is in the course of his employment if he reaches the place of work or a point or an area which comes within the theory of notional extension, outside of which the employer is not liable to pay compensation for any accident happening to him.”

Definition:Black’s Law Dictionary defines ‘Delegation’ as ‘the act of entrusting another with authority or empowering another to act as an agent or representative’. E.g. Delegation of Contractual Duties.

‘Subordinate Legislation’ has been defined as:

“Legislation that derives from any authority other than the Sovereign Power in a state and that depends for its continued existence and validity on some superior or supreme authority.”

Salmonddefines – “Subordinate legislation is that which proceeds from any authority other than the sovereign power, and is therefore dependent for its continued existence and validity on some superior or supreme authority.”

Delegated legislation is, at times, referred to as “Ancillary”, “Subordinate”, Administrative Legislation or as Quasi-Legislation”. Delegated legislation is a technique to relieve pressure on legislature’s time so that it can concentrate on principles and formulation of policies.

Essential characteristics of Delegated Legislation:

· The rules should contain short titles, explanatory notes, reference to earlier amendments, etc. for clear understanding.

·     No extra-ordinary delay shall occur in making the subordinate legislation.

·   The administrative authority should not travel beyond the powers given in Parent Act.

·      Essential legislative functions cannot be delegated.

·      Sub-delegation (Delegatus non potest delegare) is not encouraged.

·    General rules should not be framed with retrospective operation, unless and until the parent Act instructs to do so.

·       Discriminatory and arbitrary rules should not be framed.

·       Wide and sufficient publicity shall be given so that general public can know it.

·   In appropriate cases, consultation also shall be made for more effectiveness and efficiency.

·   The Sub-ordinate authorities should not use rigid, crux and technical language while preparing the rules, which may cause difficulty to understand by general public.

·      The final authority of interpretation of the subordinate rules is vested to Parliament and Courts. But the administrative authorities are not empowered and authorised to interpret the statutes.

·        A tax or financial levy should not be imposed by rules.

·        Wherever it is necessary, the explanatory notes shall be given.

·        Public interest must be kept in view while delegating the powers, etc.

History of Delegated Leislation in India:

a. Pre – constitutional Position:

The history of delegation of powers can be traced from the charter stage of 1833 when the East India Company was regaining political influence in India. The of 1833 vested the legislative powers exclusively in Governor – General – in council, which was an executive body. He was empowered to make laws and regulations for repealing, amending or altering any laws or regulations, which were in force for all persons irrespective of their nationality. In 1935 the Government of India Ac, 1935 was passed which contained an intensive scheme of delegation. The report of the committee on ministers’ powers was submitted and approved which fully established the case for delegation of powers and delegation of legislation was regarded as inevitable in India.

b. Present Position:

Though, our constitution was based on the principal of separation of powers, a complete separation of powers was not possible hence it maintained the sanctity of the doctrine in the modern sense. The Indian Constitution does not prohibit the delegation of powers. On the other hand there are several provisions where the executive has been granted the legislative powers. For example the legislative powers of the president under the Indian Constitution are conspicuous. Under Article 123 the president has the power to promulgate the ordinances and unrestricted power to frame regulations for peace progress and good government of the union territory under Article 240. The Supreme Court of India has also upheld the delegation of legislative powers by the legislative to the legislative to the executive in the case of Raj Narayan Singh v. Chairman Patna Administration Committee

Growth of Delegation of Power and it’s Reason:

Many factors are responsible for the rapid growth of delegated legislation in every modern democratic state. The traditional theory of ‘laissez faire’ has been given up by every state and the old ‘police state’ has now become a ‘welfare state’. Because of this radical change in the philosophy as to role to be played by the state, their functions have increase. Consequently, delegated legislation has become essential and inevitable.

Some of the reasons of the growth of the Delegation of Powers are as follows:

1. Pressure upon Parliamentary Time:

As a result of the expanding horizons of the state activity, the bulk of legislation is so great that it is not possible for the legislation to devote sufficient time to discuss all the matters in detail. Hence there is need for a delegation of power.

2. Technicality:

Sometimes, the subject – matter on which legislation is required is so technical in nature that the legislator, being himself a common man, cannot be expected to appreciate and legislate on the same, and the assistance of experts may be required. Hence,  this lead to the growth of delegation of power.

3. Flexibility:

At the time of passing any legislative enactment, it is impossible to foresee all the contingencies, and some provision is required to be made for these unforeseen situations demanding exigent action. Hence there is a need for flexibility which leads to the growth of delegation of power.

4. Experiment:

The practice of delegated legislation enables the executive to experiment. The method permits rapid utilization of experience and implementation of necessary changes.

5. Emergency:

In the time of emergency, quick action is required to be taken. The legislative process is not equipped to provide for urgent solution to meet the situation. Hence there is need for delegation of power.

Delegation Legislation : Position under Constitution of India

The Legislature is quite competent to delegate to other authorities. To frame the rules to carry out the law made by it. In D. S. Gerewal v. The State of Punjab, K.N. Wanchoo, the then justice of the Hon’ble Supreme Court dealt in detail the powers of delegated legislation under the Article 312 of Indian Constitution. He observed: “There is nothing in the words of Article 312 which takes away the usual power of delegation, which ordinarily resides in the legislature. The words “Parliament may by law provide” in Article 312 should not be read to mean that there is no scope for delegation in law made under Article312….” In the England, the parliament being supreme can delegated any amount of powers because there is no restriction. On the other hand in America, like India, the Congress does not possess uncontrolled and unlimited powers of delegation.

In Panama Refining Co. v. Rayans, the supreme court of the United States had held that the Congress can delegate legislative powers to the Executive subject to the condition that it lays down the policies and establishes standards while leaving to the administrative authorities the making of subordinate rules within the prescribed limits. 4 Art. 13 (3) Defines law and it Includes ordinance, order, byelaw, rule, regulation & notification having the force of law.

In Sikkim v. Surendra Sharma– it is held that ‘All Laws in force’ in sub clause (k) of Art. 371 F includes subordinate legislation. Salmond defines law as that which proceeds from any authority other than the Sovereign power & is therefore, dependent for its continued existence & validity on some superior or supreme authority.

A Writ is a formal written order issued by a government entity in the name of the sovereign power. In most cases, this government entity is a court. In modern democratic countries, the administrative authorities are vested with vast discretionary powers. The exercise of those powers often becomes subjective in the absence of specific guidelines etc. Hence the need for a control of the discretionary powers is essential to ensure that ‘Rule of Law’ exist in all governmental actions. The judicial review of administrative actions in the form of writ jurisdiction is to ensure that the decisions taken by the authorities are legal, rational, proper, just, fair and reasonable. Safeguard of fundamental rights and assurance of natural justice are the most important components of writ jurisdictions

Writs are meant as prerogative remedies. The writ jurisdictions exercised by the Supreme Court under article 32 and by the high courts under article 226, for the enforcement of fundamental rights are mandatory and not discretionary. But the writ jurisdiction of high courts for ‘any other purpose’ is discretionary. In that sense the writ jurisdiction of high courts are of a very intrinsic nature. Hence high courts have the great responsibility of exercising this jurisdiction strictly in accordance with judicial considerations and well established principles. When ordinary legal remedies seem inadequate, in exceptional cases, writs are applied.

Types of Writs:

1. Habeas Corpus:  The meaning of the Latin phrase Habeas Corpus is ‘have the body’. According to Article 21, “no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law”. The writ of Habeas corpus is in the nature of an order directing a person who has detained another, to produce the latter before the court in order to examine the legality of the detention and to set him free if there is no legal justification for the detention. It is a process by which an individual who has been deprived of his personal liberty can test the validity of the act before a higher court.

The objective of the writ of habeas corpus is to provide for a speedy judicial review of alleged unlawful restraint on liberty. It aims not at the punishment of the wrongdoer but to resume the release of the retinue. The writ of habeas corpus enables the immediate determination of the right of the appellant’s freedom. In the writs of habeas corpus, the merits of the case or the moral justification for the imprisonment or detention are irrelevant. In A.D.M. Jabalpur v. Shivakant Shukla , it was observed that “the writ of Habeas Corpus is a process for securing the liberty of the subject by affording an effective means of immediate relief from unlawful or unjustifiable detention whether in prison or private custody. If there is no legal justification for that detention, then the party is ordered to be released.”

2. Certiorari: The writ of Certiorari is generally issued against authorities exercising quasi-judicial functions. The Latin word Certiorari means ‘to certify’. Certiorari can be defined as a judicial order of the supreme court or by the high courts to an inferior court or to any other authority that exercise judicial, quasi-judicial or administrative functions, to transmit to the court the records of proceedings pending with them for scrutiny and to decide the legality and validity of the order passed by them. Through this writ, the court quashes or declares invalid a decision taken by the concerned authority. Though it was meant as a supervisory jurisdiction over inferior courts originally, these remedy is extended to all authorities who issue similar functions.

The concept of natural justice and the requirement of fairness in actions, the scope of certiorari have been extended even to administrative decisions. An instance showing the certiorari powers was exercised by the Hon’ble Supreme court in A.K.Kraipak v. Union of India, where the selection was challenged on the ground of bias. The Supreme Court delineated the distinction between quasi judicial and administrative authority. The Supreme Court exercising the powers issued the writ of Certiorari for quashing the action. Certiorari is corrective in nature. This writ can be issued to any constitutional, statutory or non statutory body or any person who exercise powers affecting the rights of citizens.

3. Prohibition:  The grounds for issuing the writs of certiorari and prohibition are generally the same. They have many common features too. The writ of prohibition is a judicial order issued to a constitutional, statutory or non statutory body or person if it exceeds its jurisdiction or it tries to exercise a jurisdiction not vested upon them. It is a general remedy for the control of judicial, quasi judicial and administrative decisions affecting the rights of persons.

The writ of Prohibition is issued by the court exercising the power and authorities from continuing the proceedings as basically such authority has no power or jurisdiction to decide the case. Prohibition is an extra ordinary prerogative writ of a preventive nature. The underlying principle is that ‘prevention is better than cure.’ In East India Commercial Co. Ltd v. Collector of Customs, a writ of prohibition is an order directed to an inferior Tribunal forbidding it from continuing with a proceeding therein on the ground that the proceeding is without or in excess of jurisdiction or contrary to the laws of the land, statutory or otherwise.

4. Mandamus:  The writ of mandamus is a judicial remedy in the form of an order from the supreme court or high courts to any inferior court, government or any other public authority to carry out a ‘public duty’ entrusted upon them either by statute or by common law or to refrain from doing a specific act which that authority is bound to refrain from doing under the law. For the grant of the writ of mandamus there must be a public duty. The superior courts command an authority to perform a public duty or to non perform an act which is against the law. The word meaning in Latin is ‘we command’. The writ of mandamus is issued to any authority which enjoys judicial, quasi judicial or administrative power. The main objective of this writ is to keep the public authorities within the purview of their jurisdiction while performing public duties. The writ of mandamus can be issued if the public authority vested with power abuses the power or acts mala fide to it. In Halsbury’s Laws of England , it is mentioned that, “As a general rule the order will not be granted unless the party complained of has known what it was required to do, so that he had the means of considering whether or not he should comply, and it must be shown by evidence that there was a distinct demand of that which the party seeking the mandamus desires to enforce and that that demand was met by a refusal.”

5. Quo Warranto: The word meaning of ‘Quo warranto’ is ‘by what authority’. It is a judicial order against a person who occupies a substantive public office without any legal authority. The person is asked to show by what authority he occupies the position or office. This writ is meant to oust persons, who are not legally qualified, fro substantive public posts. The writ of Quo warranto is to confirm the right of citizens to hold public offices. In this writ the court or the judiciary reviews the action of the executive with regard to appointments made against statutory provisions, to public offices .It also aims to protect those persons who are deprived of their right to hold a public office.

In University of Mysore v. Govinda Rao, the Supreme Court observed that the procedure of quo Warranto confers the jurisdiction and authority on the judiciary to control executive action in making the appointments to public offices against the relevant statutory provisions; it also protects a citizen being deprived of public office to which he may have a right.

Privacy is a fundamental human right, enshrined in numerous international human rights instruments. It is central to the protection of human dignity and forms the basis of any democratic society. It also supports and reinforces other rights, such as freedom of expression, information and association.  Activities that restrict the right to privacy, such as surveillance and censorship, can only be justified when they are prescribed by law, necessary to achieve a legitimate aim, and proportionate to the aim pursued.

As innovations in information technology have enabled previously unimagined forms of collecting, storing and sharing personal data, the right to privacy has evolved to encapsulate State obligations related to the protection of personal data.  A number of international instruments enshrine data protection principles, and many domestic legislatures have incorporated such principles into national law.

Privacy also has implication for the freedom of opinion and expression. The Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression emphasises that the “right to privacy is often understood as an essential requirement for the realization of the right to freedom of expression. Undue interference with individual’s privacy can both directly and indirectly limit the free development and exchange of ideas.”

The Constitution of India does not specifically guarantee a right to privacy, however through various judgements over the years the Courts of the country have interpreted the other rights in the Constitution to be giving rise to a (limited) right to privacy – primarily through Article 21 – the right to life and liberty. In 2015, this interpretation was challenged and referred to a larger Bench of the Supreme Court (the highest Court in the country) in the writ petition Justice K.S Puttaswamy & Another vs. Union of India and Others, the case is currently pending in the Supreme Court.

The constitutional right to privacy in India is subject to a number of restrictions. These restrictions have been culled out through the interpretation of various provisions and judgements of the Supreme Court of India:

• The right to privacy can be restricted by procedure established by law which procedure would have to be just, fair and reasonable (Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India);

• Reasonable restrictions can be imposed on the right to privacy in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence; (Article 19(2) of the Constitution of India, 1950)

• The right to privacy can be restricted if there is an important countervailing interest which is superior (Gobind v. State of M.P.);

• The right to privacy can be restricted if there is a compelling state interest to be served (Gobind v. State of M.P.);

• The protection available under the right to privacy may not be available to a person who voluntarily thrusts her/himself into controversy (R. Rajagopal v. Union of India).

• Like most fundamental rights in the Indian Constitution, the right to privacy has been mostly interpreted as a vertical right applicable only against the State, as defined under Article 12 of the Constitution, and not against private citizens. (Zoroastrian Cooperative Housing Society v District Registrar)

The term “domestic violence” includes a broad range of violent acts committed by one member of a family or household against another. It often refers to the mistreatment of a child or spouse, and includes not only physical harm but also threats and verbal, psychological, and sexual abuse. The relationship of the abuser to the victim is the key distinction between other assault crimes and domestic violence. In India, domestic violence is always believed to be inflicted on women. However, during personal interactions with many males in society and in the organized setups such as industries and offices, it was observed that men also suffer from domestic violence. Due to stereotyped gender roles, it is hardly believed by society that a woman can inflict violence on men. Many courts also commented on false allegations of domestic violence by women. Men are still not ready to speak of this violence against them and they are ignorant about any legal help to avoid this.

Comparison of India and Other Countries

The prevalence of spouse/intimate partner violence (51.5%) in the latest Indian study² was found to be higher than data collected for domestic violence under partner abuse state of knowledge project (PASK) from the USA, Canada, and the UK (19.3%).

Domestic violence was recognized as a criminal offense in India in 1983. The offense is chargeable under section 498A of the Indian Penal Code.

Prevalence

Scarce research data on domestic violence against men are available in the scientific literature.

However, according to a recent study, 51.5% males experienced violence at the hands of their wives/intimate partner at least once in their lifetime and 10.5% in the last 12 months.

According to the National Family Health Survey, 2004, this violence is not always inflicted by the female partner/wife but many a time by a male relative of the wife attacks or threatens the man. When physical violence and threats against men by wife’s relatives are taken into account, an estimated 3 crore men are facing domestic violence in India.

In a study conducted by My Nation along with Save Family Foundation (Delhi) on domestic violence against men, between April 2005 and March 2006, 1,650 men were interviewed and their personal cases looked into. The study concluded that Indian women were the most abusive and dominating.

From all over India, 98% of the respondents had suffered domestic violence more than once in their lives. The study covered Indian husbands from various socioeconomic strata, but the bulk of the respondents, according to the researchers, came from the upper middle class and the middle class.

Nadda et al found much higher physical violence, 35% and 26.9%, respectively, against women this reflecting that Indian women are much less physically aggressive than Indian men. Gender symmetry does not exist in India for physical violence.

Types of Violence

Domestic violence has been recognized across the world as a form of violence that affects a person’s life in every way, physically, mentally, emotionally, and psychologically, and is a violation of basic human rights. In a recent study by Malik and Nadda, the most common spousal violence was found to be emotional followed by physical violence.

Physical Violence

This can include slapping; pushing; hitting by wife, her parents, or relatives; or throwing objects like utensils, cell phones, and crockery at the husband. In physical violence, slapping was identified as the most common form (98.3%)^,  and the least common was beaten by weapon (3.3%). Only in one-tenth of the cases, physical assaults were severe.²

Psychological Violence

In emotional violence, reported 85% abuse against the men was criticism, 29.7% were insulted in front of others, and 3.5% were threatened or hurt. It can also be in the form of mental abuse such as constant threats to the husband and his family under false allegations of dowry and domestic violence.

Types of Crime Committed Against Men in India

At home or at the workplace to avoid punishments or to get some rewards, men too can be involved in sexual activity by force. In many states of India, a young man with good qualifications and income is abducted and forced to marry without his consent. False rape and other charges such as molestation are also common. Since law and society always traditionally favor females as the weaker sex, many a time, false complaints of sexual abuse/rape are lodged against men. This is true regarding cases against men under 498A (domestic violence) and false dowry cases, and the same was expressed by various courts during their proceedings.

Effects of Domestic Violence Against Men

Any violence affects life physically, mentally, emotionally, and psychologically. It is also a violation of basic human rights. Unreported and unnoticed violence against men may lead to denial in accepting the family, divorce, depression, or suicide in extreme cases. It has been observed that suicides were more in married men as compared to separated/unmarried men. According to WHO (2002), women think more about committing suicide, whereas men die by suicide more frequently. This is also known as a gender paradox in society.

According to WHO, exposure to violence can increase the risk of smoking, alcoholism, and drug abuse; mental illness and suicidality; chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and cancer; infectious diseases such as HIV, and social problems such as crime and further violence.

Legal Issues

Despite the data available, suggesting violence against men, no law to protect men is yet to be formed by the legislature. All laws for controlling domestic violence consider women as victims. Antidowry laws Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, and later Section 498A passed by the Supreme Court of India already show the concern and asked to stop the “Legal Terrorism” in the form of misuse of 498A and the necessary changes to be made by the Parliamen

Need for Gender Neutral Laws

In cases where men are falsely accused of violence or dowry, a law which can address these false allegations is the need of the hour. Human rights and gender equality should include both men and women. Domestic violence should be considered as spousal violence and must not be differentiated due to gender.

Domestic violence act in India is for women only. Studies show that men are also the victims of violence at the hand of women. Hence, necessary amendments addressing violence against men are suggested.