Citation

Ambo, I. A., Baba, N. M., & Idongesit, N. A. (2026). Mineralogical and Chemical Assessment of Cassiterite Ore from Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria as Potential Raw Materials for Tin Metal Extraction. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/34

             ¹Ambo, I. Amos and ²Baba, N. Mohammed and ³Idongesit, Nnammoso Akpan*

^1&2Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria

³Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Health Sciences, Otukpo, Benue State, Nigeria

 (*)Corresponding author: aidongesit@yahoo.com and idongesit.akpan@fuhso.edu.ng; ORCID: ID: 0009-0009-2168-3596;  https://orcid.org/0009-0009-2168-3596

ABSTRACT

In the early 1970s, Nigeria held the 7th position on the world record for tin metal production and exportation, and that seems to be history now, as the nation’s economic focus is now highly concentrated on petroleum and natural gas exploration and exportation. In Plateau State, tin mining activities date back to the early 1960s. Currently, in the Du community in Jos South of the State, huge tin ore deposits are found and locally mined by indigenes with poor derivation of economic value. Thus, the objectives of this study were to investigate the elemental, chemical/mineralogical contents and tin content of the cassiterite ore of Du in Plateau State. The study retained focus on X-ray fluorescence, Flame Atomic Absorption with inductively coupled plasma-Graphite Furnace Atomizer to examine the chemical compositions of the sample and SEM for crystal structural analysis of the ore. Results of elemental analysis showed in percentage that the ore contains: 7.168%, 6.146%, 3.471%, 2.027% of tin, zirconium, iron, and titanium, respectively and 449.29, 602.5 of Na₂O and K₂O in parts per million. The main minerals of the ore were: 60.98% SnO₂ > 8.70% SiO₂ > 5.70% ZrO₂ > 5.56% of Fe₂O₃ > 4.81% NbO > 4.07% TiO₂ > 3.26% Bi₂O₃ > 2.99 of WO₃ > 2.33% CuS₂. The results reveal that the cassiterite ores contain low silica content and a significant percentage of tin and other valuable metals and are therefore suitable raw materials for utilization for the production of cassiterite concentrates and extraction of tin metal.

Keywords: Cassiterite, Economic, Deposits, Composition, Tin, Minerals

INTRODUCTION

Over the years, in Nigeria, attention was given earlier to the agriculture and solid mineral sectors. However, with the discovery of oil minerals, the exploration of minerals such as coal, cassiterite, tantalite, etc. was abandoned due to the discovery of petroleum and natural gas.  As a result of that, the development and processing of metallic ores for the extraction of valuable metals have not received adequate attention. Meanwhile, there is no doubt that, of all the naturally occurring minerals, metallic mineral ores seem to be the most abundant in the Earth’s crust compared to other mineral resources such as natural gas and petroleum, which are non-renewable sources of energy (Ebbing and Gammon, 2009). In recent times, not much has been done in terms of the mineralogy of some of the metal ores, like cassiterite, which are naturally abundant in Nigeria. This makes the processing of the ores for metal extraction difficult. For cassiterite in particular, information has revealed that there are about seventy tin-bearing minerals, of which most of the minerals occur as sulfides, and the rest as oxides, hydroxides, silicates, and stannides. Nevertheless, the most important tin mineral ore is cassiterite (SnO₂), otherwise known as tin stone (Grant, 2001). Over the years, according to Idongesit et al. (2025), it has been recognized that cassiterite, as a tin oxide mineral, is typically found in high-temperature hydrothermal veins and granite pegmatites and greisen associated with other rock minerals such as granites, microgranites and quartz porphyries together with other oxides such as wolframite, columbite, tantalite, scheelite and hematite (Bowles, 2021). The minerals are formed through the geological movement of fluids and the slow, water-driven deposition of organic minerals over a long period of time, and the specific mineralogy and composition of tin ore deposits can vary widely depending on the geological and environmental conditions in which they are formed (Nesse, 2011).

Additionally, some of the key properties of tin ore (cassiterite), which contribute to its unique characteristics and uses for various industrial applications, particularly as a source of tin metal for various industrial applications, include: chemical composition, hardness, magnetic property, melting point, and refractive index, among others (Haldar, 2018). According to Bowles (2021), tin ore is primarily composed of tin dioxide (SnO₂), which is an oxide mineral containing tin as the main element. However, there is increasing evidence that the ore usually contains other impurities and trace elements, such as iron, manganese, tungsten, and tantalum, which can vary depending on the specific tin ore deposit (Tapster and Bright, 2020). More so, Tapster and Bright (2020), have asserted that cassiterite (SnO₂) is the most common ore phase of tin (Sn) metal and that it typically contains 1–100 µg g^-1 of uranium and relatively low concentrations of lead metal in addition to other traces of elements such as lithium, tungsten, niobium, and titanium. In addition, the literature has documented that cassiterite, as an important economic ore of tin metal, is a type of polymetallic resource mineral ore that contains metals which may include: tin, tantalum, niobium, copper, and iron (Tapster and Bright, 2020). In a recent report, Bowles (2021), it has been further established that cassiterite ore usually contains other valuable metal components to include iron, manganese, titanium, and niobium, and any of the metals can substitute for Sn with a combination of divalent and pentavalent elements replacing the tetravalent Sn, following the relationship given as shown in equation (1):

3Sn⁴⁺ → 2TaNb⁵⁺ + FeMn²⁺………………………………………… (Equ. 1).

Expectedly, this substitution, according to the author, is in part responsible for the darker colored cassiterite, although it is a rather unlikely but feasible possibility.

Interestingly, the structural information about cassiterite ore has been established by Bowles (2021). The natural mineralogical form, as published by the crystal data of the structural information, suggests that the elemental atoms in cassiterite are tetragonally arranged with (space group P4₂/mnm), and this structure has tin atoms at the corners and center of the unit cell (Figures 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0). Again, the cell dimensions have been equally identified as a = 4.73 and c = 3.18 Å, with the oxygen atoms lying in the same basal plane as the tin atoms; thus making each tin atom surrounded by six oxygen atoms at the corners of an almost regular octahedron. Additionally, Bowles’ report revealed certain properties of the ore with variations in terms of colour and shape as shown in Figure 2.0.

        (1.0)    (2.0) (3.0)                                                    

Figures 1.0, 2.0 & 3.0: Structure of Cassiterite Crystal Showing Tin and Oxygen Atoms (Adapted from Bowles (2021) and (WFI, 2023; Warr, 2021).

Furthermore, evidence for the existence of different forms of cassiterite has been reported by different researchers including Haldar (2018) and Bowles (2021). More commonly, cassiterites are often classed as gemstones, and Placer-mined tin, which is also called “stream tin” and it is important to note that these are silt-to-sand-size particles of cassiterite (Bowles, 2021). There is still considerable other evidence that cassiterite has been recognized to occur in various secondary forms in which it occurs as fine-grained or fibrous varieties with local names that describe the appearance, and where wood-tin is a common fibrous variety with concentric colloform bands resembling the growth rings of wood (Haldar, 2018), as shown in Figures (4.0-9.0).

  (4.0) (5.0)

  (6.0) (7.0)

      (8.0)  (9.0)         

Figures 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, & 9.0: 4.0 & 5.0 are Faceted Crystal of Cassiterite Ore: Adapted from (Adam, 1998); 6.0 & 7.0 Are Crystal of Cassiterite Adapted from (King, 2022); 8.0 & 9.0 are Wood tin cassiterite, from Durango Mexico and is Cassiterite Crystals, Blue Tier Tin-Field, from Tasmania, Australia Respectively Adapted from (WFI, 2023).

With the rising cost of living, building and construction, educational materials, electricity, and health care facilities, it is noteworthy that many nations of the world have diversified their economy with a focus now on metallic ore (Idongesit et al., 2025). Furthermore, Henckens (2021) reported that cassiterite mining and tin production tripled in the 20^th century, but in contrast to many other raw materials, tin production growth was linear rather than exponential; the world tin production in 2019 was 310,000 tons and a little above that value in 2020 (Figure 10.0).

  Figure 10.0: Main Tin Producing Countries of the World: US Geological Survey (USGS,       2020)

In Nigeria, tin ore is mined in Plateau State, with large deposits of the ore being found in Du community in Jos South Local Government Area of the state. The metal was produced in large quantities in the early seventies, before about 1957, when Nigeria provided 4 % of the world’s tin and was the 7^th largest producer of tin in the world (Ogwuegbu et al., 2011; Idongesit et al., 2025).  However, the nation’s economic attention has shifted, with focus now on crude oil and natural gas, presumably because it has proven to be more successful in terms of revenue accrued to the Nigerian government. Unfortunately, there have been a number of attempts in the past to develop other mineral sectors in Nigeria, particularly the solid mineral sector, but such efforts have not yielded the expected growth of the sector. At the moment, it has become increasingly worrisome that Nigeria which reported of becoming a rapidly growing source of tin-in-concentrate in 2017, with tin ore exported in the first four months of the year at totals of importing country’s data at 2,967 tons (gross weight) or an estimated 2,000 tons of tin contained based on a 67 % average tin content with the reported growth as shown in Figure 11.0 (NGSA, 2017), is now grabbling with unclear shipments quantity.

Figure 11.0: Chart of Nigerian Tin Metal Exports Between 2014 and 2017: (NGSA, 2017)

Therefore, the current status of Nigeria in tin production is lamentable, and the situation has continued to necessitate ongoing research and innovation, which are expected to be supported by the government’s political will. To navigate the complex mineral processing situations through the application of emerging modern scientific and technological approaches requires several steps, and thus, there is an urgent need for government at all levels to rise to the occasion by utilizing available scientific research information for adequate and effective utilization of Nigeria’s solid minerals sector to explore minerals like tin for national economic benefits. Meanwhile, globally, considerable interest in tin ore has continued to grow, with the focus being on the application of modern techniques for tin ore deposits assessment, mining, and tin metal extraction. Nevertheless, it is necessary to understand that humans have extracted tin from cassiterite ores for thousands of years, since it is relatively simple to refine, as tin was one of the first metals that humans learned to use during the Bronze Age (Hong, 2015; Fosu et al., 2024). 

Tin metal and tin-related processed products like tin cans (Cumhur, 2012), have found several applications, with many examples of tin products such as solder, tin plating alloy wire, tin chemicals, brass and bronze, specialized alloys, PVC stabilizers, and Li-ion batteries being used in our everyday life. Additionally, Süli (2019) and Warr ((2021)indicated that tin is essential for producing solder on PCBs and in packaging applications, and many other uses, such as in the manufacture of biocides and fungicides. With the extensive applications of tin metal, cassiterite ore is essential and beneficial to human life and a reliable source of minerals for industrial advancement (Idongesit et al., 2025). Furthermore, it is not probable to assert that cassiterite ore mining and processing have been conducted for thousands of years, with tin metal continuing to play a very significant role in human history, particularly in the production of bronze and in copper alloys (Fosu et al., 2024; Idongesit et al., 2025).  In addition to these, it was widely used in ancient civilizations for tools, weapons, and in artwork (Klein and Philpotts, 2013; Hong, 2015; Fosu et al., 2024). It is important to note that the tin market is undoubtedly driven by global demand, supply and production trends, and various applications across industries (Idongesit et al., 2025).

However, despite its usefulness, cassiterite ore has continued to receive little attention regardless of its common occurrence and economic importance and surprisingly, the mineralogical information on cassiterite ores is generally scarce and in Nigeria in particular where tin mining activities have been known to have existed in Plateau state for over two decades, there is almost no available substantial information on cassiterite ores mined in the state (Idongesit et al., 2025). Except, it is striking that most of the studies conducted in that area are on tailings for the extraction of other metals like iron and copper. Again, although commercially important quantities of cassiterite occur in placer deposits in tailings, however, there is also considerable other evidence that cassiterite also occurs in granite and pegmatite-associated deposits (Idongesit et al., 2025). Meanwhile, Abubakre and co-workers have reported on exploring the potential of tailings of Bukuru Jos South cassiterite Deposit in Plateau State, Nigeria for the Production of Iron ore Pellets (Abubakre et al., 2009). Furthermore, in another classic study, Ogwuegbu and co-workers have reported on the mineralogical characterization of Kuru cassiterite ore in Plateau State by SEM-EDS, XRD, and ICP Techniques (Ogwuegbu et al., 2011).  Other available reports on tin mining activities in Jos, Plateau include that of Cooper (2021), and that of Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA) records volume 14, under the Ministry of Mines and Steel Development (NGSA, 2017). Very recently, Idongesit et al. (2025) have reported the study of the eco-friendly chemical leaching of cassiterite ore obtained from Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria, in acidic media for tin extraction.   

Essentially, as the global demand for tin metal has received attention quite out of proportion to its general importance, there is considerable interest in other sources of tin metal for the possible extraction of tin. In that regard, Bunnakkha and Jarupisitthorn (2012), reported the extraction of tin from Hardhead by oxidation and fusion with sodium hydroxide, and equally recently, Yuma et al. (2020), have reported hydrometallurgical extraction of tin from cassiterite ore in Kalima (DR Congo) by alkaline fusion with a eutectic mixture of alkali hydroxides (sodium and potassium). More recently, it has been recognized that it might become a serious issue for original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to meet up the annual high rising demand for tin for production of wires, in the coating of electronic enclosures and housings (Süli, 2019; Idongesit et al., 2025), and the idea still persists in some quarters, perhaps because little efforts have been directed to cassiterite ores analysis and provision of mineralogical information for reasonable extraction of tin metal. Interestingly too, as this view is still persisting for some time, it has caused many other researchers to spring up in an attempt, like this very particular study, to provide useful information that would guide, in general, the extraction of tin metal from cassiterite ores.

Meanwhile, it should however, be mentioned that the desirability of human to effectively exploit mineral resources like cassiterite ores and maximize their full economic benefits could be accomplished through the use of modern technologies based on available information about such minerals. Therefore, it is pertinent to note that the identification and characterization of mineral compositions of mineral ores is of fundamental importance in the development of technologies and operations of mining and mineral processing systems (Khairulnizan, 2022), and it is equally very important in choosing suitable technologies and flowsheet that are less cost, eco-friendly and minimize greenhouse gases emission for the recovering of the constituent metals (Idongesit et al., 2025). Additionally, and more importantly, it is also critical in optimizing the actual technological conditions of either pyrometallurgical plant or hydrometallurgical methodologies for improving both operational performance and expected outputs (Khairulnizan, 2022; Idongesit et al., 2025). According to Khairulnizan (2022) and Idongesit et al. (2025), the growing need for detailed information about the mineralogical composition of a mineral deposit therefore determines that mineral characterization studies form an integral and often critical part of investigations of mineral ore deposits.

Interestingly, it is imperative to further establish that it has been well recognized that the knowledge of mineralogical or chemical composition, ores’ particle sizes, morphology and elemental association with other minerals in mineral ores like cassiterite is therefore expected to provide insights and information on the characteristics, type, nature and amount of minerals and elements present within the ore at different locations that would permit an assessment and determination of the optimal processing route for its constituent minerals/metals extraction (Khairulnizan, 2022; Idongesit et al., 2025). In addition, various researchers have evaluated different mineral ores and have provided evidence that a rather unlikely but feasible possibility of mineral ore deposits located even in a particular geographical location do not have the same mineralogical and elemental compositions due to different processes of formation, soil mineral compositions and conditions, and different geological locations and disposition (Anthony et al., 2005; Idongesit et al., 2025). Based on the foregoing, although it is true that all mineral ore deposits at a particular location in a community or state or country or continent may have different mineralogical compositions, it is also true that the different mineralogical compositions can be ascertained through proper experimental mineralogical assessment like this kind of ours. It can be argued that more commonly, the preceding observations are often used as the rationale to assess mineral ores so as to decide and establish the gainfulness of such ores using modern technologies for a specific deposit to ascertain the various applications and value chain addition.

Clearly, it is somewhat ironic that despite the abundant deposits of cassiterite ores in Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria, and increased global interest in the cassiterite ores and with the global high demand for tin metal in the telecommunication industry for soldering work (Idongesit et al., 2025), cassiterite mineralogical assessment has received very little attention. In fact, at the moment, there is a drought of information on the mineralogical/chemical and elemental composition of cassiterite ore deposits in the Du community in Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria. Therefore, with the global increasingly scarce supplies of cassiterite concentrates and tin metal, there is an urgent and growing need for cassiterite ore deposits to be adequately assessed in terms of their mineralogical and chemical compositions in order to ascertain their suitability for the preparation of cassiterite concentrates and the extraction of tin metal.

Given the above, this study is aimed at not only assessing the mineralogy of the cassiterite ore but also its elemental composition for possible processing into concentrates and tin and other metals for value chain addition that would enhance economic, industrial, and technological advancement of Nigerian society in particular and the African continent in general. In general, the purpose of this study is to gain some understanding of the mineralogical composition of the cassiterite ore for the extraction of tin metal, and it is reasonable to expect that this study, as vital as it is, has obtained accurate mineralogical, physico-chemical properties, elemental compositions, and the percentage tin content of the cassiterite ore mined from Du. The mineralogical composition and elemental characteristics of Du Cassiterite ore deposit were performed by a combination of different instrumental methodologies, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Graphite Furnace Atomizer and flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) to examine the chemical compositions of the samples and SEM for crystal structural analysis. The rationale and the general impression are that it would be of great value if the results of this study would be carefully used over the coming years and we equally believe that these results will become increasingly widespread for a variety of mineralogical studies to add a further tool to the arsenal of parameters and information available for mineralogical study of cassiterite ores in particular and other mineral ores in general.

            MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

The study area is located at Du, a local village in Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State of Nigeria. There are ongoing mining activities for tin in the area, with active mining sites where cassiterite ore (SnO₂), used for this work, was collected. Geographically, Du in Jos South of Plateau State (9.8965^o N, 8.8583^o E) is in the North central zone of Nigeria, and the occupations of the local community are predominantly subsistence farming, hunting, and local mining. The tribal dwellers of Du community in Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State are typical the Berom tribe who are mainly peasant farmers and while Figure 12.0 is the map of Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State showing Du, Figures 13a 13b, 13c, 13d, 13e and 13f show the plates of snapped images of mining sites in the area and Figure 14.0 shows the plates of snapped images the cassiterite ores.

Figure 12.0: Map of Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State, Showing Du (adapted from Research Gate).

(13a) (13b)

(13c) (13d)         

(13e) (13f)

 Figures 13a, 13b, 13c, 13d, 13e & 13f: Plates of Snapped Images of Cassiterite Ore Mining Sites at Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria, Showing Miners on Mining Activities.

 Figure 14.0: Plates of Images of Cassiterite Ores Mined from Du, Jos South, Plateau State

Sample Collection

 Up to 5.0 kg of the crude cassiterite ore was purchased from the local miners who are also the indigen of the community at five different active mining sites located at a distance apart. The samples were collected in sterilized polyethylene bags and were transported to the laboratory prior to analysis.

Sample Preparation

Crushing and Grinding

 1.0 kg cassiterite tin ore (SnO₂) was crushed into 1-inch size using a laboratory jaw crusher (10- 300TPH concrete crusher, China), and then followed by homogenization and sieving, and then divided into two equal portions. One portion was further crushed to less than (-2 mm) particles using jaw and roller crushers (2PG series, 350 x 350Jpeq, Japan). The samples were then riffled to obtain a representative sample by using a Jones Riffler according to the descriptions in Idongesit et al. (2025) and Soltani et al. (2021). The representative sample was, in addition, milled into a powder form by using a laboratory ball mill, and the well-prepared powder form of the sample was ready for mineralogical analysis and leaching experiments.

Analysis

SEM and XRF Analysis

A portion of the powdered ore samples (20.0 g) was analyzed for structural arrangement of particles in the ore using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and for optical mineralogical properties. For the XRF analysis, fine powder ore samples were mixed with a binding aid and pressed to produce homogeneous sample pellets, and thereafter the samples were subjected to XRF analysis (Soltani et al., 2021).

Thermochemical Tests

Thermal tests were performed by heating 25.0 g of the cassiterite ore powder mixed with fine crystals of K₂SO₄ in the ratio of 2:3 to high temperatures (2000 °C) using a muffle electric furnace (SX-5-12; PC:22070222/2000 °C), and the melting behavior of the ore was carefully observed within four hours.

Density Measurement

 This measurement was performed using a density balance and also with a relative density glass bottle (50 ml/20 °C) in order to determine the density of the ore, and this has provided additional information for the characterization of the ore. Additionally, Archimedes’ principal method was further utilized to confirm the density of the ore using this relationship.

    Density =          = 

Magnetism Test

Magnetism property tests of the cassiterite ore were performed using a bar magnet and were further confirmed using a magnetic separator.

            RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1.0: Result of Physico-Chemical Properties of Cassiterite Ore             

Property	Result
Colour	Greyish black
Hardness	6.72
Thermal property (Melting Point)         Density	1698 oC/3,088 oF/1971 K                                           6.52
Specific Gravity              Loss of Ignition (LOI)         Magnetic Property  Lustre	6.52                                          2200                                     Non-magnetic                                     High metallic lustre

The results of the physico-chemical properties of the ore (Table 1.0) show that the ore is heavily dense which is in agreement with the reports of many other researchers in the literature who have reported that cassiterite ore has a density within the range of 6.4 to 7.1 g/cm³. Additionally, the tin ore has a high thermal property (melting temperature) of 1698 ^oC/3,088 ^oF/1971 K which is in agreement with the report by Henckens (2021), (1720 °C). The result of the magnetic property suggests that the ore possesses non-magnetic behavior with dense and black-grayish in appearance in colour.

The result of the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of the ore and the weight loss observed under the temperature range between 210 °C and 250 °C. It is believed that it may be due to the loss of physically absorbed water or the evaporation of adsorbed water from the surface of the ore particles. The weight loss was also observed between 1175 ^◦C and 1250 ^◦C is believed to be mainly due to the decomposition of the K₂SO₄ as the salt decomposes at temperatures above 1150 ^oC (Wang et al., 2019). The weight loss observed under the temperature range between 1600 ^◦C and 1650 ^◦C may be due to the decomposition of the ore and the steady weight loss under the temperature ranges between 1650 ^◦C and 1698 ^◦C with an endothermic curve noticed within the temperatures as shown in (Figure 15.0)

     Figure 15.0: Thermochemical Behaviour of Cassiterite Ore

Table 2.0: Result of Crystal Properties of Cassiterite Ore              

	Property	Result
Unit Cell    Space group   Refractive Index Dispersion         Crystal System     Crystal Class		a = 4.7384(4)Å, c = 3.1872(1) Å; Z = 2.0              P42/mnm          nω = 2.00; nε = 2.095 0.069                                           Tetragonal Tetragonal dipyramidal (4/mmm); (4/m 2/m 2/m)

The crystallographic information of the ore shown in Table 2.0 indicates the general impression that the ore crystal system is tetragonal with cubic crystal sides (a(Å)/c(Å) (in Armstrong unit) as a = 4.7384(4)Å, c = 3.1872(1) Å. Interestingly, also, a noteworthy feature of the data in (Table 2.0) is the space group (P4₂/mnm) and the contribution number to one cell (Z = 2), which further confirms the crystal information.

Table 3.0: Result of Mineralogical Composition of the Cassiterite Ore

Mineral                           Composition in (ppm)

% Composition

    SiO₂                                              87000                                                      8.70

Fe2O3

55600

5.56

    SnO₂                                                                  609800                                                  60.98

     ZrO₂                                              57000                                                    5.70

     WO₃                                              2986                                                      2.99

     NbO                                              48110                                                    4.81

     TiO₂                                                                    40675                                                    4.07

     Bi₂O₃                                                                  32628.2                                                 3.26

     CuS₂                                             23250                                                    2.33

     MnO₂                                                              6939                                                      0.694

     SeO₂                                             649                                                        0.065

     K₂O                                              602.50                                                   0.0603

     Na₂O                                            449.29                                                   0.0449

     As₂O₃                                                                629                                                        0.063

     Al₂O₃                                                                 6500                                                      0.65

     Co₃O₄                                                                33                                                          0.0033

     Cr₂O₃                                                                 17                                                          0.0017

     VO₂                                                                    11                                                          0.0011

     SrO                                              5.4                                                         0.00054

     LOI                                              2200                                                      0.22

The result of the mineralogical composition of the ore presented in Table 3.0 shows that the ore is rich in tin oxide content amounting to 60.98 % of the oxide. As shown in (Table 3.0), the ore is low in silica content of about 8.70 %. The low silica content will lead to low consumption of processing chemicals and will enhance the availability of the metals for processing. From the mineralogical standpoint, the total percentage of minerals detected is 100 %, including loss of ignition (LOI) at (> 1000 °C), and the total percentage of minerals identified with a significant amount in the ore is 99.05 %. The traditional explanation for this is that those are the principal minerals of the ore. The ore is made up of two major types of minerals, oxides and sulphides. The oxide minerals are more abundant due to the mineralization process and the available Earth’s minerals, and the geological location. The minerals identified in their order of abundance are: SiO₂ > ZrO₂ > Fe₂O₃ > NbO > TiO₂ > Bi₂O₃ > WO₃ > CuS₂. From the result, the ore has a significant percentage of tin metal oxide which can be economically exploited for the extraction of an appreciable percentage of tin metal. Contrary to the unequivocal assertion that only stanniferous pegmatites cassiterite ore formed in the areas where mineralization is associated with deep-seated intrusions of acid granites are the type of cassiterite ores mined in the Republic of Congo, and Nigeria (Khairulnizan, 2022), it is equally worthwhile to become aware of the occurrence of Placer-mined tin which is also called “stream tin” in Du, Plateau State, Nigeria and it is important also to note that these are silt-to-sand-size particles of cassiterite ores (Bowles, 2021) as shown in Figures 14.0.  

Table 4.0:  Result of Elemental Composition of the Cassiterite Ore

Element	Percentage Composition
Sb	0.00
Sn	7.168
Cd	0.00
Pd	0.00
Ag	0.022
Bal	75.194
Mo	0.00
Nb	2.976
Zr	6.146
Sr	0.003
Rb	0.00
Bi	0.542
As	0.053
Se	0.187
Au	0.00
Pt	0.00
Pb	0.00
W	1.176
Zn	0.00
Cu	0.665
Ni	0.00
Co	0.032
Fe	3.471
Mn	0.257
Cr	0.015
V	0.010
Ti	2.027
Ca	0.00
K	0.055

The result in Table 4.0 shows the XRF elemental composition of the ore. The ore contains 7.168 % of free tin metal, 6.146 % of zirconium metal, 3.471 % of iron and 2.976 % of niobium. Other metals with significant percentage abundance include titanium (2.027 %), tungsten (1.176 %). Fundamentally, the ore has a high abundance of boron aluminide (Bal) mineral (75.194 %). The elements identified in their order of concentrations are Bal > Sn > Zr > Fe > Nb > Ti > W > Cu >Bi > Mn > Se (Table 5).  The ore contained some other elements that include: K (0.055), As (0.053), Co (0.032), Ag (0.022), Cr (0.015), V (0.010), Sr (0.003). From the results obtained, however, boron aluminide (Bal) is found naturally in the ore and the alloyed substance is of interest because of its usefulness and application in aerospace. As shown in Table 4.0, the cassiterite ore has tin, zirconium and iron in significant concentrations for consideration in terms of processing for application. The presence of a high percentage of boron aluminide (Bal) in the ores, as shown in Figure 16.0, suggests that the cassiterite ore from Du in Plateau State, Nigeria, is strategic for exploitation for prospective applications in both energy and aerospace industries, in addition to the solid mineral industry. Meanwhile, although it is unclear what forms the alloy in association with the ores and with our meager information in that regard, we will suggest that further studies be carried out on the cassiterite ores.

 Figure 16.0: A Chart of Percentage Elemental Composition of the Cassiterite Ore

Result of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

The result of the scanning electron microscope is presented in Figure 17.0. The image shows the distribution of the minerals in the ore which are finely distributed in the ore as shown in the image. This will be used to evaluate the extent of leaching of the ore. Additionally, the SEM result in (Figure 17.0) shows the image of cassiterite ore as the arrangement of fine particles within the ore crystallographic structure. The cassiterite mineral is irregularly spread through the pegmatite body as large black or dark brown dipyramidal crystals, which agrees with the assertion made in Khairulnizan (2022).

                   Figure 17.0: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) of Cassiterite Ore Obtained by Thermo Fisher Scientific Machine, 2 Radcliff Road, Tewksbury, Ma 01876, USA; XL3-98293.

CONCLUSION

The cardinal focus of this study was to use various instrumental methodologies to analyze cassiterite ore mined from Du in Jos South, Plateau, Nigeria to characterize the ore in terms of its mineralogical and elemental compositions and to ascertain whether the ores are rich in tin and other metals for possible commercial industrial extraction. Certainly, the recognition of the existence of Placer cassiterite ores in Du deposits is not surprising as such has been mentioned in the literature as being in Jos, Plateau State. Meanwhile, the general impression of the results of the mineralogical composition of the cassiterite ore is that the ore is rich in tin oxide (SnO₂) to the tone of 60.98 %, followed by silica (8.70 %), zircon dioxide (5.70 % of ZrO₂), hematite (5.56 % of Fe₂O₃), niobium oxide (4.81 % of NbO) and titania (4.07 % of TiO₂). A noteworthy feature of cassiterite ore, as indicated by mineralogical data, is that the ore is approximately 97.61% rich in oxide minerals, while the remaining 2.39% is comprised of sulphide minerals. Another exciting conclusion drawn about the ore is that its tin metal content of 7.168 % is moderately good and adequate for large-scale or commercial extraction. Again, it is also crystal clear and reasonable to agree that the ore is moderately good in content of other metals, such as 6.146 % of Zr, 3.471 % of Fe, 2.976 % of Nb and 2.027 % of Ti. Additionally, we the investigators, have argued that the discovery of the existence of naturally occurring boron aluminide (Bal) in the ore which has not been reported elsewhere in the literature, has made this work novel.  

At this point, it is worthwhile, after all, to believe that the above detailed explanations suggest that the assessment of the inherent mineralogical composition of the cassiterite ores mined from Du community in Jos South of Plateau State, Nigeria, reveals that the ores contain low silica content and significant percentage of tin metal and other valuable metals and are therefore suitable raw materials for utilization for production of cassiterite concentrates and extraction of tin metal.  We therefore call on the governments of Nigeria at all levels (Idongesit et al., 2025b) (Local government, Plateau State government and the Federal Ministry of Solid Minerals), private industries, foreign investors and individual manufacturers to avail themselves with this information to explore the possible maximum exploitation of the natural abundance mineral resources of the area for economic benefit of Plateau State and Nigeria in particular and African continent in general.

SUGGESTION

We would like to suggest that further studies be carried out on the cassiterite ore deposits at Du in Jos, South Plateau State, Nigeria, particularly for the extraction of boron aluminide (Bal) that is found to be naturally occurring in a large percentage of 75.194 % of the ores.

AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS

Professor Ambo, I. Amos, conceptualized and composed the topic, supervised the research work, and read-proof the paper’s manuscript. Professor Baba, N. Mohammed, co-supervised the work and the drafting of the paper’s manuscript, while Idongesit Nnammonso Akpan performed the tasks of carrying out the research work, drafting the manuscript, typesetting, editing, and proper referencing, as well as the production of the final draft of the paper’s manuscript.   

FUNDING

 This research work was not sponsored by any internal or external institutional-based sponsors or National or International organizations.

DATA AVAILABILITY

The data backing up the findings of this investigation will be made readily accessible by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

CONSENT AND ETHICAL APPROVAL

Since all the sources of information used in this investigation, which are in the public domain, have been duly acknowledged, and additional ethical approval and consent were obtained while taking the snapped shots pictures of the local miners, therefore, there was no ethical violation in this work.

DECLARATIONS OF CONFLICT OF INTERESTS

The authors of this paper declare that they have no known existed competing interest during and after the production of the paper.

REFERENCES

Abubakre, O.K., Sule, Y.O. and Muriana, R.A. (2009). Exploring the Potentials of            tailings            of Bukuru cassiterite Deposit for the Production of Iron ore Pellets. JMMCE,             Vol. 8,             No. 5, pp. 359-366.

Adam, A. (1998). Mineralogy. Encyclopaedia Britannica, (15^th Ed.) the University of       Michigan, Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc.; Vol. 1; ISBN: 0852296630, 9780852296639;             https://www.britannica.com/science/mineralogy.

Anthony, J.W., Bideaux, R.A., Bladh, K.W., Nichols, M.C. (2005). “Cassiterite,    SnO₂“ (PDF). Handbook of Mineralogy. Mineral Data Publishing version 1 Report        (2005); http:llwww.handbookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/cassiterite.pdf.

Bowles, J.F.W. (2021). Cassiterite. In Encyclopedia of Geology; (2^nd Edition), Vol.1;             https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/cassiterite.

Bunnakkha, C. and Jarupisitthorn, C. (2012). Extraction of Tin from Hardhead by Oxidation and Fusion with Sodium Hydroxide. Journal of Metals, Materials and           Minerals, Vol.22 (1), pp. 1-6.

Cooper, N. (2012). Tin Mining on the Jos Plateau. Open Educational Resources, 230,       pp.1-8;             https://scholarworks.uni.edu/oermaterials/230.

Cumhur, A. (2012). An Introduction to Mineralogy, An Introduction to the Study of          Mineralogy,             (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-896-0, In Tech, from:      http://www.intechopen.com/books/an-introduction-to-the-study-of-mineralogy/an-  introduction-to-mineralogy.

Ebbing, D. and Gammon, S.D. (2009). General Chemistry: (9^th ed), Houghton Mifflin       Company, 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116-3764; ISBN-10: 0-618-93469-3;         ISBN-13:978-0-618-85748-7; https://books.google.com.ngs/books?id=BnccCgAAQBAJ.

Fosu, A.Y., Bartier, D., Diot, F. & Kanari, N. (2024). Insight into the Extractive    Metallurgy of Tin from Cassiterite. Materials, 17, 3312. https://doi.org/10.3390/      ma17133312; HAL     Id: hal-04644428 https://hal.science/hal-04644428v1.

Grant, R.M. (2001). Tin Production– Resources and Beneficiation: In Encyclopedia of Materials: Science and Technology, Science Direct. Elsevier. pp. 9354-9357.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b0080431526016880.

Haldar, S. K. (2018). Heavy Mineral Survey in Mineral Exploration. In Exploration          Geochemistry, (2^nd Edition); 5.4.12;

https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128140222/mineral-exploration.

Henckens, T. (2021). Thirteen scarce resources analyzed in Governance of the World’s Mineral Resources; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/b9780128238868000075.

Hong, T. (2015). Fundamental Study on Tin Recovery in Acidic Aqueous Systems. Master          Thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.

Idongesit, N. A., Ashishie, C.A., Muhammed, A. D. and Ambo, I. A. (2025a). Study of the           Eco-Friendly Chemical Leaching of Cassiterite Ore Obtained from Du, Jos South,        Plateau State, Nigeria in Acidic Media for Tin Extraction. ChemClass Journal Vol. 9            Issue 1; 425-441; e-ISSN:0198-2734 p-ISSN:0198-5680         doi.org/10.33003/chemclas_2025_0901/034; https://chemclassjournal.com/.

Idongesit, N. A., Ashishie, C.A., Muhammed, A.D. and Ambo, I. A. (2025). Assessment of the             Mineralogical and Elemental Compositions of the Clays of Otukpo, Benue State, Nigeria            as Potential Raw Materials for Manufacturing of Bricks, Refractories and       Geopolymers. ChemClass Journal, Vol. 9, Issue 1; 190-204 e-ISSN:0198-2734 p-          ISSN:0198-     5680;             doi.org/10.33003/chemclas_2025_0901/016;            https://chemclassjournal.com/.

Khairulnizan, H.A.B. (2022). Mineral Characterization of Cassiterite Ore from Selected   Area in             Malaysia. Dissertation for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Mineral             Resources             Engineering) Universiti Sains Malaysia.

King, H.M. (2022). Cassiterite: Mineral Properties and Uses. Geoscience News and Information in Geology.com; https://geology.com/minerals/cassiterite.shtml; www.iRocks.com.

Klein, C. and Philpotts, A. (2013). Earth materials: introduction to mineralogy and            petrology. New York: Cambridge University Press; pp. 54-55; ISBN 9780521145213.

Ministry of Mines and Steel Development- Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA) Records (2017), Volume 14. Tin in Nigeria-Exploration and Investment Opportunities in Nigeria.

Nesse, W. D. (2011). Introduction to Mineralogy; (2^nd Ed); Oxford University Press, New            York, U.S.A.;            pp. 97-113; amazon.com; https://www.amazon.com/Introduction-   Mineralogy-William-            Nesse/dp/0199827389; ISBN-10: ‎ 0199827389; ISBN-13: 978-       0199827381.

Ogwuegbu, M., Onyedika, G., Hwang, J., Ayuk, A., Peng, Z., Li, B., Ejike, E.N.O. and     Andriese,         M. (2011). “Mineralogical Characterization of Kuru Cassiterite Ore by            SEM-EDS, XRD        and ICP             Techniques,” Journal of Minerals and Materials      Characterization and Engineering, Vol. 10, No. 9, pp. 855-863.    doi: 10.4236/jmmce.2011.109066;     https://www.scirp.org/journal/articles.aspx?.

Soltani, F., Darabi, H., Aram, R. and Ghadiri, M. (2021). Leaching and solvent     extraction        purification of zinc from Mehdiabad complex oxide ore; Scientific Reports,       Natureresearch, PMCID; PMC7810752; PMID: 33452391; doi: 10.1038/s41598-021- 81141-7. 

Süli, F. (2019). Tin (Sn) in Electronic Enclosures, Housings and Packages, and      Sustainability;             https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780081023914/electronic-    enclosures-      housings-and-packages.

Tapster, S. and Bright, J.W.G (2020). High-precision ID-TIMS cassiterite U–Pb systematics using a low-contamination hydrothermal decomposition: implications for LA-ICP-MS and ore deposit geochronology. Geochronology, 2, pp. 425–441;       https://doi.org/10.5194/gchron-2-425-2020.

US Geological Survey (USGS) (2020). Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020 U.S. Department of the Interior U.S Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia; t https://www.usgs.gov; https://store.usgs.gov/.; https://bookstore.gpo.gov.

Wang, Z., Yang, W., Liu, H., Jin, H., Chen, H., Su, K., Tu, Y. and Wang, W. (2019).        Thermochemical behaviour of three Sulfates (CaSO₄, K₂SO₄ and Na₂SO₄) blended with       Cement raw materials (CaO-SiO₂-Al₂O₃-Fe₂O₃) at high temperature. Journal of            Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, Vol.142, 104617; ScienceDirect;             https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2019.05.006; www.sciencedirect.com/.

Warr, L.N. (2021). “IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols”. Mineralogical     Magazine. 85 (3):        291-320; https://api.semanticscholar.org/corpusid:235729616; 

            Bibcode:2021MinM…85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.

Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., (2023). Tin (Sn) Ore Modified. Wikipedia, Free Encyclopedia;  License 4.0; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiterite.

Yuma, M. P., Bertinkitungwa, K., Kateule, M. C., Crépinkyona, W., and Idorewakenge,   B.        (2020). Hydrometallurgical extraction of tin from cassiterite ore in Kalima (DR     Congo)            by alkaline fusion with eutectic mixture of alkali hydroxides (sodium and        potassium).      OSR Journal of Applied Chemistry (IOSR-JAC) ,13(5); Ser. II, pp. 60-67;           e-ISSN: 2278- 5736; www.iosrjournals.org.

Introduction to Tiranga Game 

Tiranga Game has emerged as a captivating platform that blends excitement with strategic thinking. Inspired by vibrant colors and simple predictions, it offers users an engaging way to test their intuition and enjoy interactive challenges. Named after the iconic tricolor, it resonates with a sense of national pride while providing a modern digital experience. This game stands out for its accessibility, making it suitable for beginners and seasoned players alike. Whether you’re looking for a quick session or a deeper dive into prediction strategies, Tiranga Game delivers a seamless blend of fun and mental stimulation. 

In today’s fast-paced world, digital games like this one provide a refreshing break, allowing users to immerse themselves in colorful scenarios. The platform’s design emphasizes ease of use, with intuitive interfaces that guide players through every step. From the moment you log in, the vibrant visuals and straightforward mechanics draw you in, creating an environment where creativity and quick decision-making thrive. As we delve deeper, we’ll explore what makes Tiranga Game a standout choice for entertainment seekers.

Understanding the Core Concept 

At its heart, Tiranga Game revolves around color prediction, where players anticipate outcomes based on patterns and probabilities. The primary colors involved are red, green, and violet, each representing different possibilities in the game’s rounds. This mechanic draws from basic observational skills, encouraging users to analyze trends and make informed choices. Unlike complex simulations, the simplicity here is key—predict the next color, and see how your choice aligns with the result. 

The game also incorporates elements like number predictions and size comparisons, such as big or small, adding layers of variety. These features ensure that no two sessions feel the same, keeping the experience fresh and dynamic. Players can engage in solo modes or explore community-driven challenges, fostering a sense of progression. The underlying algorithm ensures fairness, with random generations that mimic real-world unpredictability, making each prediction a thrilling test of foresight. 

What sets Tiranga Game apart is its educational undertone. By participating, users inadvertently sharpen their analytical abilities, learning about sequences and likelihoods in a playful manner. It’s not just about the immediate outcome but building a mindset for better decision-making in everyday life. This conceptual foundation makes it more than a pastime—it’s a tool for cognitive enhancement wrapped in entertainment. 

How to Get Started 

Getting involved with Tiranga Game is straightforward and user-friendly. First, users need to access the platform through its dedicated app or website. Registration requires a mobile number for verification, ensuring a secure and personalized entry point. Once registered, a simple login process grants access to the dashboard, where all features are neatly organized. 

Newcomers are greeted with tutorials that explain the basics, from selecting colors to understanding round durations. These guides are concise yet comprehensive, helping users build confidence quickly. The app is available for both Android and iOS devices, with smooth performance across various screen sizes. Regular updates keep the interface modern, incorporating user feedback to enhance navigation. 

For those new to prediction games, starting with practice modes is recommended. These allow experimentation without pressure, perfect for honing skills. As comfort grows, transitioning to standard rounds becomes natural. The platform’s 24/7 customer support is a boon, offering assistance via chat or guides for any queries. This supportive setup ensures that everyone, regardless of tech-savviness, can enjoy the game fully. 

Key Features and Gameplay Mechanics

Tiranga Game boasts a rich array of features that elevate the player experience. The color prediction core is complemented by additional modes like Win Go, which involves timed challenges, and Aviator, a dynamic progression-based activity. Rummy enthusiasts will find familiar card elements integrated, while color trading adds a strategic twist to predictions. 

One standout feature is the referral system, where inviting friends unlocks shared experiences and collaborative play. This social aspect transforms solitary sessions into group adventures, enhancing enjoyment through interaction. The platform also includes expert-guided sessions via integrated channels, providing tips from seasoned players to improve prediction accuracy. 

Advanced tools, such as AI-assisted predictions, offer insights into potential patterns without spoiling the fun. These are optional, allowing users to rely on their instincts or leverage technology for an edge. Visual elements are stunning, with high-quality graphics that make colors pop and animations that celebrate successful predictions. Audio cues add immersion, creating a multisensory environment. 

Customization options let players tailor themes and difficulty levels, ensuring the game adapts to individual preferences. Whether you prefer fast-paced rounds or thoughtful deliberations, the mechanics support diverse playstyles. This flexibility is a major draw, keeping engagement high over extended periods. 

Benefits of Playing Tiranga Game 

Engaging with Tiranga Game offers numerous advantages beyond mere entertainment. Cognitively, it boosts pattern recognition and probability assessment, skills transferable to professional and personal scenarios. Regular play can improve focus and quick thinking, as decisions must often be made under time constraints. 

Socially, the platform fosters connections. Through referrals and community features, users build networks, sharing strategies and celebrating achievements together. This communal vibe adds a layer of motivation, turning individual pursuits into collective triumphs. 

On a personal level, it’s a stress reliever. The colorful interface and satisfying prediction successes provide a positive distraction from daily routines. Many users report feeling more relaxed after sessions, attributing it to the game’s rhythmic flow. Additionally, the educational components subtly teach about randomness and strategy, making it a subtle learning tool. 

Accessibility is another benefit—play anytime, anywhere, with minimal requirements. This convenience fits modern lifestyles, allowing short bursts of fun during commutes or breaks. Overall, Tiranga Game enriches users’ lives by combining thrill with skill-building in an approachable format. 

Building a Community Around Predictions

The community aspect of Tiranga Game is vibrant and inclusive. Players from across regions connect through shared interests in color dynamics and strategic forecasting. Forums and integrated chats allow discussions on techniques, creating a knowledge-sharing ecosystem. 

Events and challenges periodically unite the community, offering themed predictions that encourage participation. These foster camaraderie, with leaderboards highlighting top performers and inspiring others. New users often find mentors in experienced players, accelerating their learning curve. 

The platform’s emphasis on positive interactions ensures a welcoming environment. Moderation tools maintain respect, while features like group predictions promote teamwork. This sense of belonging enhances loyalty, with many users returning for the social bonds as much as the gameplay. 

Beyond the app, enthusiasts form external groups to discuss trends, further expanding the community’s reach. This organic growth underscores Tiranga Game’s appeal as a hub for like-minded individuals passionate about prediction arts. 

Tips and Strategies for Success 

To excel in the Tiranga Game, adopting effective strategies is essential. Start by observing patterns over multiple rounds—note recurring colors and adjust predictions accordingly. Avoid impulsive choices; instead, base decisions on observed trends. 

Diversify your approaches: mix color predictions with number or size elements to spread risks and explore varieties. Utilize practice modes to test theories without consequences, refining techniques before main sessions. 

Stay updated with platform guides and AI tools for advanced insights. These can highlight subtle probabilities, giving an analytical boost. Time management is crucial—allocate sessions to avoid fatigue, ensuring sharp focus. 

Engage with the community for shared wisdom. Veteran tips often reveal overlooked strategies, like timing predictions during peak patterns. Patience is key; success builds gradually through consistent play and learning from outcomes. 

Remember, enjoyment is paramount. Approach each round with curiosity, turning predictions into a joyful exploration rather than a rigid task. With these strategies, users can maximize their experience and achieve satisfying results. 

The Future of Tiranga Game

Looking ahead, Tiranga Game is poised for exciting evolutions. Planned updates include new prediction modes, enhanced graphics, and deeper social integrations. These will expand the platform’s scope, attracting even more users. 

Innovation in AI will offer smarter assistance, while maintaining the core fun. Cross-platform play could enable seamless experiences across devices, broadening accessibility. Community-driven content, like user-created challenges, may further personalize the game. 

As technology advances, virtual reality elements could immerse players in colorful worlds, elevating predictions to new heights. The focus remains on user satisfaction, with feedback shaping developments. 

In essence, Tiranga Game’s future promises continued growth, blending tradition with modernity for enduring appeal. 

Conclusion 

Tiranga Game encapsulates the essence of engaging digital entertainment through its color prediction framework. With intuitive features, community spirit, and cognitive benefits, it offers a multifaceted experience. Whether for casual fun or strategic depth, it delivers value in every session. As players continue to explore its vibrant world, the game stands as a testament to innovative play in the digital age. Dive in and discover the thrill of accurate predictions today.