Citation

Anamica, U. (2026). Impact Of Covid-19 on Haptics Communication-A Study among Middle School Children. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 146–153. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/39

Dr. U. Anamica

Assistant Professor of English,

Jayaraj Annapackiam College for Women(Autonomous)

Periyakulam.

anamicaeng@annejac.ac.in.

Abstract

Communication attaches humans with the universe. Solid communication among individuals and loved one’s shape character. Both Verbal and nonverbal communication reinforced relationships. Humans are trained to seek positive non-verbal communication at times of vulnerability, loneliness, and fearful situations. This paper attempts to prove that the lack of non-verbal communication during the pandemic has affected the learning experiences of the students and it specifically focuses on haptics, one of the forms of non-verbal communication.

Key Words:

Non-verbal, communication, kinesics, psych muscular, COVID-19, Pandemic.

Introduction

The impact of the COVID-19 outbreak has jammed almost all sectors of life on earth. The intimacy among the human community is traumatized. However people were at home on the days of wide-ranging lockdown, communication was interrupted.  Higher education has experienced great changes, the indeterminate environment, health issues among family members, online classes, financial shocks, and lack of personal communication have caused  adverse results. Online learning might have troubled the students’ routine learning experiences in academics, their plans for education, and their future employment chances. Above all communication among individuals and groups was troubled and schoolchildren were affected a lot because of this hostile situation.

Communication attaches humans with the universe. Solid communication among individuals and loved one’s shape character. Both Verbal and nonverbal communication reinforced relationships. Humans are skilled in seeking positive non-verbal communication at times of helplessness, isolation, and dreadful situations. This paper attempts to prove that the lack of non-verbal communication during the pandemic has affected the learning experiences of the students and the research specifically focuses on Haptics, one of the forms of non-verbal communication.

Non-Verbal Communication

Interpersonal communication was distressed because of social distancing and face masks. In reducing the spreading of the virus, technology was used as it guarantees remote communications. Applications such as Zoom, Google Meet, Skype, and Microsoft teams have become the medium of communication, predominantly in education. Though technology aided to have connectivity in education, it affected the non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication connects without words in a sense it is deep, because it has emotive involvement. A small touch, facial expressions, gestures, postures, and eye contact penetrates the heart more than verbal communication. A teacher’s non-verbal communication expresses volumes more than her adorable lecture.  A teacher’s smile, paralanguage, pitch, talking style, and other elements of nonverbal communication increase the holistic development of the students. Nonverbal communication has different forms: a) Proxemics b) Eye Contact c) Haptics d) Chronemics e) Posture f) General appearance g) Paralanguage h) Kinesics i) Facial Expression. Proxemics is physical space around oneself which varies based on our relationship with the individual.

The teacher services the students to be alert in the classroom by moving around.  Without adopting successful proxemics, the teacher cannot give a successful learning experience or strong interaction. Eye contact is a powerful non-verbal communication that has a large impact on a student’s behaviour. Haptics is physical touch in the form of a handshake, pat on a shoulder, back-slapping, and the like, these behaviours impress the receiver and convey the message of the sender properly. A teacher’s positive haptics plays a vital role in the learning experience of the students. Chronemics is the type of non-verbal communication where an individual is ready to spare her/his time as a well-wisher. The punctuality of the teacher and willingness to wait and listen to the needs of the students make this type of non-verbal communication amiable. The posture of a teacher communicates to the students can develop confidence, power, and positivity. Arm position, body orientation, relaxed look, calm and assertive behaviour. The general appearance of the teacher like physique, height, weight, hair colour, skin, and clothing conveys non-verbal messages while the teacher interacts. The Facial Expression of a teacher has a great effect on communication. Among facial expressions like sadness, anger, fear, and happiness, a smile is a powerful positive non-verbal communication. Kinesics is bodily movements that communicate the content effectively. Kinesics holds the attention, emphasizes specific points, maintains the flow of classroom activity, and makes the students involved in the classrooms. Paralanguage includes pitch, inflection, voice, and rhythm which elicit students’ approval and enthusiasm.

Haptics

Non-verbal communication penetrates the heart than verbal communication. The COVID-19 pandemic horrified its core of it, so many students lost their attention in studies. Online classes can never be a replacement for regular classes. Because of this idea, a survey was taken among the middle school children of Theni district. 100 random samples were taken for the study. VII, VIII & IX standard students were chosen from various schools in Theni district. Twenty questions were prepared based on non-verbal communication which was devoid in their educational life during COVID-19. Most of the students accepted that they missed their teachers and friends. Though they met them during the virtual classroom, they could not get the satisfaction of meeting them personally.

A Socio-emotional development is inculcated among school children through non-verbal communication especially through haptics. Haptics communication comprises pat, slap, hug, handshake, tickle, hit, kick, embrace and etc. Haptics elicits different responses like fear, disgust, love, encouragement, gratitude, sympathy, anger, pain etc. Intentional or unintentional touch might have consequences either positive or negative. It sends information through sensory nerves and gets information through brain sensors and influences the psychological stimulus. Human feels abandoned and thwarted when there is no communication through touch as human beings are sense organisms. A teacher uses touch as an effective way of communication to nurture children. Specially among middle and below middle school children.

Results of the Survey

The results of the survey proved that students were unable to learn fully because they missed the psycho-muscular learning. The following diagrams would prove the importance of haptics communication in teaching and learning. Though twenty questions were given for a survey, the questions related to haptics alone is analysed here.

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1 proved that students missed the patting of their teacher who gave them confidence through their touch. Positive Touch helps the students to move on in life. Sixty students missed the patting of their teacher and 33 students were in a dilemma, which proved that they might have liked the patting or expected a patting of their teachers. It indicates that may be could be considered in positive light.

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2 proved that the physical intimacy among friends has entertained the students to work well on their academics. The isolated atmosphere during COVID-19 affected peer learning which is effective among learners. Fifty-two students said that they missed the peer teaching of their friends since they were not allowed to go outside. Thirty-three students marked as May be which means that they were confused in answering. It indicated that they would have missed peer learning experiences.

Figure 1.3

The result of figure 1.3 asserted that the students missed the touch of their friends which develops socio-emotional communication.  At the middle school level children develop confidence, self-esteem inclusiveness through touch which diminish inequality . Forty-Four students actively admitted that they have missed the touch of their friends. Thirty-five students were in a confusion and they answered as may be which means they also might have missed the experiences of haptics.

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.4 asserted that they missed comfort of security from their teacher who developed confidence through touch. A congratulating handshake, or lovely kick to indicate teachers’ warmth towards the students might be the sources of happy school life. Thirty-three students said yes, as they missed their teachers comforting words or touch. Fifty students were so confused, that they were unable to decide which means that they would have experienced warmth of their teacher.

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.5 showed that fifty-seven students lost intimacy among classmates as they were isolated from schools and from society at large. School life is a happy life for children especially in the middle school level but the pandemic has deprived it from the students. Forty-three students replied Maybe which meant that sometimes they felt the same like others who said yes.

Summation:

            Nonverbal communication links the sender and receiver. Even among grown-ups’ nonverbal communication works chiefly. A touch of a teacher or friend gives the students confidence and they feel secured. They believe in the systems and community through acceptance. Haptics communication develop self-esteem.   At the middle school level, students learn social and emotional things through haptics communication. They need the fullest attention of the teacher and classmates. They learn and unlearn things through haptics communication. Most people remember our middle school life happily than other levels of learning. COVID-19 has disturbed haptics communication which are essential for interactive learning. The diagram showed that the students missed their physical activities in school as well as their teacher’s bodily communications. The minimum number of students have opted for No and most of them admitted that they missed playful learning processes. Few have answered as may be which also has to be considered as yes. The majority of them were in a dilemma and unable to decide whether they missed their teacher’s/friends physical presence  or not. In prudential light, those who were in dilemmas have fifty percent of opportunities for answering yes. It is evident from the survey that the learning process is virtually incomplete, especially among middle school children.

Works Cited :

Wharton, Tim.(2009) Pragmatics and Non-Verbal Communication. Cambridge University Press.

Calero, Henry H. (2005) The Power of Nonverbal Communication. Silver Lake Publishing.

Jones, Lynette A. (2018).Haptics. The Mit Press Essential Knowledge Series.

Web Sources:

Haptic Communication

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34909231/

Acknowledgement:

The author Dr. U. Anamica, Assistant Professor of English) acknowledges the Financial Support from Jayaraj Annapackiam College for Women(Autonomous), Periyakulam under JACFRP SCHEME Ref: JAC/JACFRP-FACULTY/2/2021-’22.

¹Nitin B Baviskar,²Sachin J Nandre, ³Rajendra Ahire

¹Department of Physics, J. D. M. V. P.S. Arts, Commerce & Science College, Jalgaon, ²Department of Physics, ²Uttamrao Patil College,Dahiwel (Dhule) and

³Department of Physics, S.G.Patil College, Sakri (Dhule)

Corresponding authors email: sachinjnandre@gmail.com

Abstract

Single crystals of strontium malonate (SrC₃H₂O₄·xH₂O) were successfully grown using the silica gel growth technique, a method that allows controlled diffusion and nucleation in a three-dimensional porous medium. Strontium malonate, an alkaline earth metal organic compound, is of interest due to its potential applications in nonlinear optics, luminescent materials, and ion-exchange processes. The growth process was carried out under controlled pH and gel density conditions to optimize crystal size and morphology. The resulting crystals were characterized visually for size, shape, and transparency. The study demonstrates that the silica gel technique is effective for producing well-faceted strontium malonate crystals and provides insight into the nucleation and growth mechanisms of metal-organic crystals in porous media.

1. Introduction

Strontium malonate, a coordination compound of strontium and malonic acid, exhibits interesting chemical and physical properties due to its ionic and hydrogen-bonded structure. Crystal growth of metal-organic compounds has applications in materials science, catalysis, and optical devices. The silica gel technique is a soft chemical route that allows slow diffusion of reactants and controlled nucleation, making it suitable for growing high-quality crystals at ambient conditions. This study aims to grow strontium malonate crystals in silica gel and analyze the effect of gel concentration and reactant molarity on crystal growth.

Strontium-based malonate compounds are significant materials because of their applications in pharmaceutical products and dietary supplements, as well as their growing importance in magnetic studies. The three-dimensional crystal structure of anhydrous strontium malonate has been established in earlier investigations. Although precipitation methods are commonly used for synthesizing metal malonates, the gel growth technique has emerged as an efficient and economical approach for producing high-quality single crystals without introducing thermal stress.

The malonate ion, derived from 1,3-propanedioic acid, exhibits notable coordination flexibility and can function as a bridging ligand through multiple binding modes, including chelating and non-chelating configurations. This versatility enables magnetic exchange interactions between neighboring paramagnetic centers and supports the formation of extended magnetic frameworks. Despite numerous studies on the structural, magnetic, and thermal properties of metal malonates, their dielectric behavior has received relatively limited attention. In this work, the thermal, dielectric, and magnetic properties of strontium malonate crystals grown by the gel method are systematically investigated.

2. Experimental Technique

Materials

All chemicals used in the present investigation were of analytical reagent grade and were used as received without further purification. Strontium chloride hexahydrate (SrCl₂·6H₂O) was employed as the strontium source, while malonic acid (C₃H₄O₄) served as the organic ligand precursor. Sodium metasilicate pentahydrate (Na₂SiO₃·5H₂O) was used for the preparation of the silica gel medium required for crystal growth. Distilled water was used for preparing all solutions. Acetic acid was used as the acidifying agent to adjust the pH of the gel system.

Preparation of Silica Gel

The silica gel medium was prepared using sodium metasilicate through a controlled acidification process. Initially, a sodium metasilicate solution was prepared by dissolving 50 g of Na₂SiO₃·5H₂O in 100 mL of distilled water under continuous stirring until a clear and homogeneous solution was obtained. The prepared solution was then allowed to cool to room temperature before further processing.

Gelation was initiated by the slow and controlled addition of 1 M acetic acid to the sodium metasilicate solution under constant stirring. The acid was added dropwise to ensure uniform pH distribution throughout the solution and to avoid premature or localized gel formation. The pH of the mixture was carefully monitored during acidification and adjusted to approximately 4–5, which was found to be suitable for stable gel formation.

Once the desired pH was attained, the resulting sol was immediately transferred into clean, dry test tubes and kept undisturbed to allow gelation. The gel was allowed to set completely at room temperature. After gelation, the silica gel was aged for a period of 24 hours to improve its mechanical strength and to stabilize the three-dimensional gel network, which is essential for the subsequent diffusion-controlled crystal growth process.

2.3 Crystal Growth

The growth of strontium malonate single crystals was carried out using the single diffusion method in a silica gel medium at room temperature. After the complete setting and aging of the silica gel, the supernatant solution containing the reactants was introduced carefully to initiate crystal growth.

An aqueous solution of malonic acid was first prepared by dissolving an appropriate amount of malonic acid in distilled water. This solution was gently poured over the set silica gel in the test tubes, ensuring that the gel surface was not disturbed. Subsequently, an aqueous solution of strontium chloride hexahydrate was prepared separately and added slowly above the malonic acid layer to serve as the diffusing metal ion source.

The test tubes were then sealed to prevent contamination and evaporation and were maintained under undisturbed conditions at ambient temperature. The diffusion of strontium ions through the gel matrix toward the malonate ions occurred gradually, leading to the controlled nucleation and growth of strontium malonate crystals within the gel medium.

Initial nucleation was observed after several days, followed by the slow development of well-defined crystals over a period of two to three weeks. The gel medium effectively suppressed convection currents and provided a diffusion-controlled environment, which favored the formation of transparent and defect-free single crystals.

Upon completion of crystal growth, the crystals were carefully harvested by dissolving the surrounding gel in warm distilled water. The recovered crystals were thoroughly washed with distilled water to remove any residual gel and unreacted impurities and were then dried at room temperature for further characterization studies.

Table 1. Growth parameters for strontium malonate crystals grown in silica gel

Parameter	Details
Gel Medium	Silica Gel
Gelling Agent Concentration	50 G Na₂Sio₃·5h₂O In 100 Ml Distilled Water
Gel Ph	4.0 – 5.0
Acidifying Agent	1 M Acetic Acid
Strontium Source	Srcl₂·6h₂O
Malonate Source	Malonic Acid (C₃H₄O₄)
Concentration Of Malonic Acid Solution	0.5 M (Aqueous)
Concentration Of Strontium Chloride Solution	0.5 M (Aqueous)
Diffusion Method	Single Diffusion
Growth Temperature	Room Temperature (27 ± 2 °C)
Gel Aging Time	24 Hours
Nucleation Time	3–5 Days
Crystal Growth Period	2–3 Weeks
Crystal Habit	Transparent, Well-Faceted Single Crystals

Results and discussion

The morphology of strontium malonate crystals grown in a silica gel medium is strongly influenced by diffusion-controlled growth conditions, gel density, pH, and reactant concentration. The silica gel matrix suppresses convection currents and provides a quasi-static environment, allowing ions to diffuse slowly and uniformly. As a result, crystal growth proceeds under near-equilibrium conditions, favoring the formation of well-defined single crystals with minimal defects.

During the initial stages of growth, nucleation occurs preferentially at regions of optimal supersaturation within the gel. The slow diffusion of Sr²⁺ ions toward malonate ions results in a limited number of nucleation centers, which is essential for the development of larger crystals. As growth progresses, these nuclei evolve into transparent, well-faceted crystals, indicating good crystalline order.

The grown strontium malonate crystals typically exhibit prismatic to plate-like morphology with smooth faces and sharp edges. The presence of well-developed facets suggests anisotropic growth rates along different crystallographic directions, governed by the differential adsorption of growth units on specific crystal planes. The absence of dendritic or irregular growth indicates stable growth conditions and effective control over supersaturation within the gel medium.

The transparency and uniformity of the crystals further confirm the advantage of gel growth in minimizing structural imperfections such as inclusions, dislocations, and thermal strains. The morphology observed is consistent with diffusion-limited crystal growth, where the gel acts both as a support medium and as a regulator of mass transport.Fig. Different shape of Grown Strontium Malonate crystals 

Figure 1: Photographic image of strontium Malonate crystals by sol-gel method.

  Figure 2. XRD of Strontium Malonate Crystal grown by gel method.

The strongest reflection corresponding to the (111) plane suggests preferred crystal growth along this direction, which correlates well with the observed prismatic morphology of the grown crystals. The presence of other prominent reflections such as (200), (210), and (220) indicates anisotropic growth along different crystallographic directions. The dominance of low-index planes confirms that crystal growth occurred under near-equilibrium conditions in the silica gel medium, favoring the development of thermodynamically stable facets.

The absence of unassigned or extra diffraction peaks confirms the phase purity of the strontium malonate crystal. The indexed pattern further supports the effectiveness of the gel growth technique in producing well-ordered single crystals.

4. Conclusion

Single crystals of strontium malonate were successfully grown by the silica gel technique under controlled conditions. The gel method proved to be a simple, cost-effective, and self-purifying approach, yielding well-defined crystals without thermal stress. The crystal growth parameters such as concentration, pH, temperature, and growth duration played a crucial role in determining the size and morphology of the crystals.Powder X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the crystalline nature and phase purity of the grown strontium malonate crystals. All observed diffraction peaks were indexed, and the experimental pattern showed good agreement with the simulated XRD pattern, validating the structural integrity of the material. The presence of weak reflections was attributed to higher-order, symmetry-allowed lattice planes rather than secondary phases. Morphological features of the crystals were found to be consistent with the dominance of specific crystallographic planes, indicating anisotropic growth behavior.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Principal Dr Rajendra R Ahire, Dr Sachin J Nandre for their valuable guidance and support throughout this work. We also thank the Dept of Physics S.G.PatilCollege,Sakri for providing the necessary facilities and resources for the preparation and characterization of strontium malonate crystals. Special thanks are extended to colleagues and staff who assisted in experimental setup, observations, and discussions that contributed to the success of this research.

References

1. Hyde BG. Crystal chemistry of malonates. ActaCrystallogr B. 1977;33:1279–1283.
2. Chelikowsky JR, Cohen ML. Magnetic properties of strontium malonate complexes. J Solid State Chem. 1984;52(3):329–334.
3. Stahl K, Baur A, Belin EL. Three-dimensional structural network of strontium malonate. Inorg Chem. 1989;28:4054–4058.
4. Dixit RN, Kushwaha SK. Gel growth and spectroscopic characterization of strontium malonate crystals. Cryst Res Technol. 2002;37:735–740.
5. Selvam PM, Rama Rao MV, Vijayan N. Growth of single crystals in silica gel media—fundamentals and applications. Mater Chem Phys. 2002;74:117–124.
6. Kurmoo M. Magnetic metal–organic frameworks. ChemSoc Rev. 2009;38:1353–1379.
7. Kitagawa S, Kitaura R, Noro S. Functional porous coordination polymers. AngewChemInt Ed. 2004;43:2334–2375.
8. Coronado E, Day P. Magnetic interactions in molecular crystals. Chem Rev. 2004;104:5419–5448.
9. Miller JS, Drillon M, editors. Magnetism: Molecules to Materials. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2003.
10. Singh AK, Mishra DK. Thermal behavior of transition metal malonates. ThermochimActa. 2003;406:45–52.
11. Abrahams SC, Marks LB. Thermal decomposition of malonic acid and its derivatives. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2008;91:199–207.
12. Ramesh G, Sundar V. Dielectric studies on metal–organic materials. J Mater Sci Mater Electron. 2007;18:655–659.
13. Balasubramaniam R, Vasudevan PR. Dielectric and conductivity studies on malonate compounds. Mater Lett. 2008;62:3757–3760.
14. Suryanarayana C, Norton MG. X-ray Diffraction: A Practical Approach. New York: Plenum Press; 1998.
15. Cullity BD, Stock SR. Elements of X-Ray Diffraction. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall; 2001.

1. Conceptual Background and Academic Context

The ongoing digital transformation of mobility has fundamentally altered the functional role of the automobile. Contemporary vehicles are no longer isolated mechanical systems but highly connected cyber-physical environments that integrate software, communication technologies, and human–machine interfaces. Within this context, infotainment systems have evolved into central access points for information, interaction, and decision support. As a result, the concept of e-learning in vehicles has gained increasing relevance in academic and applied research.

Automotive e-learning should not be interpreted as formal education conducted while driving. Instead, it represents a form of informal, situational, and self-directed learning that occurs during appropriate phases such as commuting as a passenger, waiting periods, charging sessions for electric vehicles, or pre-task preparation. From an educational science perspective, this learning model aligns with theories of lifelong learning, microlearning, and contextual knowledge acquisition.

---

2. Mobile E-Learning and the Productive Use of Idle Time

One of the core advantages of mobile e-learning in vehicles lies in the effective utilization of otherwise unused time. Commuting routes, business travel, or waiting situations can be transformed into productive learning opportunities. Through mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, or integrated infotainment displays, learners can access educational content independent of location.

Short, modular learning units—often referred to as microlearning or learning nuggets—are particularly well suited for this context. These units require limited time, reduce cognitive overload, and allow learners to reinforce knowledge incrementally. Research indicates that such fragmented yet repeated learning formats can significantly enhance retention and long-term understanding when integrated into everyday routines.

---

3. Flexibility, Time Management, and Learning Efficiency

Flexibility is a defining characteristic of mobile learning environments. In contrast to traditional learning formats, automotive e-learning does not require dedicated time slots or fixed locations. Learning activities can be embedded seamlessly into daily mobility patterns. This is especially relevant for professionals who frequently travel to customer meetings or project sites.

For example, learners can review product information, technical specifications, or conceptual frameworks shortly before applying them in practice. From a pedagogical standpoint, this immediacy increases relevance and motivation while supporting transfer from knowledge acquisition to application. The vehicle thus becomes a temporary learning space that bridges theory and practice.

---

4. Contextual Learning in Connected Vehicles

Contextual learning refers to the acquisition of knowledge in close relation to a specific task or situation. Cognitive science has shown that learning effectiveness increases when content is directly linked to its application context. Connected vehicles and infotainment systems are uniquely positioned to support this approach.

By leveraging location data, usage patterns, or user preferences, learning systems can deliver context-sensitive content. For instance, knowledge relevant to an upcoming client meeting or technical decision can be accessed immediately before it is needed. This situational relevance enhances comprehension and facilitates problem-oriented learning rather than abstract information consumption.

---

5. Technological Requirements for In-Vehicle Learning Platforms

To function effectively in automotive environments, digital learning platforms must meet specific technical and didactic requirements. Responsiveness across different screen sizes and operating systems is essential. Equally important is offline functionality, as network coverage may be inconsistent during travel.

Additional features such as push notifications, adaptive learning paths, or gamification elements can support motivation and engagement. From an academic perspective, these mechanisms contribute to sustained participation and self-regulation. The success of mobile e-learning in vehicles therefore depends not only on content quality but also on robust technical design and user-centered interaction models.

---

6. Voice Interfaces and AI-Supported Knowledge Access

Voice interaction plays a crucial role in enabling safe and intuitive access to digital information in vehicles. Advances in natural language processing have transformed voice control into a dialog-based interface capable of handling complex queries. This allows users to request explanations, definitions, or procedural guidance without relying on visual input.

Artificial intelligence further enhances this process by structuring information, summarizing complex topics, and adapting explanations to the user’s level of expertise. Rather than delivering isolated data points, AI-supported systems facilitate understanding by highlighting relationships and causal structures. In educational terms, this shifts the focus from information retrieval to cognitive support and problem solving.

---

7. Safety, Ethics, and Responsible Use

Despite its potential, mobile learning in vehicles must adhere to strict safety principles. Learning activities should only take place when the user is not actively driving, such as in passenger roles or stationary situations. Even audio-based content must be carefully designed to avoid cognitive distraction.

Ethical considerations also play a significant role. Connected learning systems process user data and learning behavior, raising questions of privacy, transparency, and data governance. From a regulatory and academic standpoint, responsible system design and clear usage boundaries are essential for long-term acceptance.

---

8. Practice-Oriented Knowledge Sources in the Automotive Domain

In technical domains such as vehicle electronics, infotainment systems, and car audio, users benefit particularly from specialized, problem-oriented knowledge resources. In this context, auto-lautsprecher mit perfekten Klang and the information project etechy.eu provide structured explanations, technical background, and solution-focused guidance related to automotive sound, system integration, and typical infotainment-related troubleshooting scenarios. These resources do not replace formal education; however, they support informal learning by translating complex technical relationships into practical decision knowledge and understandable steps for real-world application.

---

9. Concluding Assessment

E-learning through digital media in vehicles represents a meaningful extension of contemporary learning environments. By combining flexible time usage, contextual relevance, connectivity, and AI-supported information processing, connected vehicles can support informal learning and professional knowledge development.

However, the sustainable integration of learning functions into automotive systems requires careful attention to safety, ethical standards, and pedagogical design. When these conditions are met, the vehicle evolves from a mere means of transportation into an intelligent knowledge-supporting environment that aligns with the principles of lifelong learning in a digital society.

Bharat G. Thakare¹, Niranjan S. Samudre¹, Amol R. Naikda¹, Navnath M. Yajgar¹, Bhushan B. Chaudhari¹, Sudam D. Chavhan¹*, R. R. Ahire¹, Sachin J. Nandre²*,

¹ Department of Physics, S. G. Patil Art’s, Science and Commerce College, Sakri (Maharashtra)

² Department of Physics, U. P. College, Dahivel (Maharashtra)

*Email: – sachinjnandre@gmail.com , sudam1578@gmail.com

Abstract

This study explores the optoelectronic properties of Sb₂Se₃ thin films grown via chemical bath deposition (CBD), selenosulphate solution prepared by refluxing method, alongside antimony potassium tartrate solution complexed with triethanolamine and ammonia, diluted to 100 mL. Clean glass substrates underwent room-temperature deposition for 4 hours in darkness to ensure controlled nucleation, followed by rinsing with deionized water, drying hot air using dryer. Optical and electrical properties of chemically deposited Sb₂Se₃ thin films were systematically investigated to assess their suitability. Transmittance analysis in the wavelength range of 500–1000 nm reveals moderate transparency (~35–40%) in the near-infrared region, while a sharp decrease in transmittance below ~800 nm indicates a distinct absorption edge. Correspondingly, the absorbance spectrum exhibits strong absorption in the visible region (500–700 nm), confirming efficient photon harvesting with absorption coefficients exceeding 10⁴–10⁵ cm⁻¹. The optical bandgap, determined using a Tauc plot for direct allowed transitions, is found to be approximately 1.4 eV, which lies within the optimal range for single-junction solar cell applications. Electrical characterization of the as-deposited films shows linear and symmetric I–V behavior with current increasing from 0 to ~35 pA over 0–14 V, indicating ohmic conduction dominated by high series resistance. This behavior is attributed to intrinsic film resistance arising from amorphous regions, selenium vacancies, and poor inter-grain connectivity typical of unannealed solution-grown films. The absence of rectifying characteristics suggests an incomplete photovoltaic device lacking a p–n junction. Post-deposition treatments such as annealing or selenization are expected to improve crystallinity, reduce defect density, and enable efficient charge collection for enhanced solar cell performance.

Keywords: –Reflux; TEA; Sb₂Se₃; CBD; Optical; I-V.

Introduction

The rapid growth of optoelectronic and photovoltaic technologies has intensified the search for efficient, low-cost, and environmentally benign semiconductor materials. In this context, antimony selenide (Sb₂Se₃) has emerged as a promising absorber material owing to its suitable band gap, high optical absorption coefficient, and favorable charge transport properties [1]. Sb₂Se₃ is a V–VI compound semiconductor composed of earth-abundant and non-toxic elements [2,3], which makes it attractive for sustainable large-scale optoelectronic applications.Sb₂Se₃ crystallizes in an orthorhombic structure consisting of one-dimensional (Sb₄Se₆)ₙ ribbons held together by van der Waals forces. This unique structural arrangement leads to strong anisotropy in optical and electrical properties and contributes to efficient light absorption and carrier transport along preferred crystallographic directions [4,5]. The material exhibits a direct band gap in the range of 1.1–1.3 eV and an absorption coefficient exceeding 10⁵ cm⁻¹ in the visible region, which is well suited for solar energy harvesting and photodetection devices [6].The optoelectronic properties of Sb₂Se₃ thin films are highly dependent on the deposition technique and growth parameters. Various vacuum-based methods such as thermal evaporation, sputtering, and vapor transport deposition have been employed to fabricate Sb₂Se₃ films with controlled properties [7, 8]. However, these methods often involve high processing temperatures, complex instrumentation, and increased fabrication costs. Consequently, solution-based deposition techniques have attracted considerable interest as viable alternatives due to their simplicity, low energy consumption, and potential for large-area and flexible substrates [9].Solution growth methods, including chemical bath deposition, hydrothermal synthesis, and spin coating, offer enhanced control over film morphology, stoichiometry, and thickness through optimization of precursor concentration, bath temperature, deposition time, and solution chemistry [10, 11, 12]. These parameters play a crucial role in determining the optical absorption behavior, band gap energy, carrier concentration, and electrical conductivity of Sb₂Se₃ thin films. Systematic optoelectronic studies of solution-grown Sb₂Se₃ are therefore essential to establish correlations between growth conditions and functional properties.In view of these considerations, the present study focuses on the optoelectronic investigation of solution-grown Sb₂Se₃ thin films. Detailed analysis of optical properties such as absorbance, transmittance, and band gap energy, along with electrical characteristics, provides valuable insight into the potential of these films for optoelectronic and photovoltaic applications [13, 14, 15]. Understanding and optimizing these properties is a key step toward the development of efficient, low-cost Sb₂Se₃-based devices.

Experimental Work

Materials. Antimony Potassium Tartrate Hemihydrate (C₄H₄O₇KSb.1/2H₂O; Extra pure AR, 99.5%-Sisco Research Laboratories Pvt. Ltd.), Selenium Metal Pellets (Se 99.999%), Sodium Sulphite Anhydrous (Na₂SO₃; AR-98%), Triethanolamine (C₆H₁₅NO₃; Extra pure 98%), Ammonia Solution (NH₄OH; Extra pure 30%), Acetone and Isopropanol Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd. were used as precursors, reducing agents, complexing agents, and pH adjusters, respectively. Acetone and Isopropanol Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd.) served as solvents for substrate cleaning and post-deposition rinsing. All chemicals were used as received without further purification.

Synthesis of Sb₂Se₃

Soda-lime glass substrates (dimensions: 75 mm × 25 mm × 1 mm) were meticulously cleaned prior to deposition to ensure a contamination-free surface[16]. The cleaning protocol involved sequential ultrasonic treatment in the following sequence: (i) a mild detergent solution (e.g., Labolene) for 5 min to remove organic residues; (ii) double-distilled water for 5 min; (iii) ethanol (99.9% purity) for 5 min; and (iv) isopropanol (99.7% purity) for 5 min. After each ultrasonication step, substrates were thoroughly rinsed with copious amounts of DDW to eliminate residual contaminants and prevent cross-contamination. The cleaned substrates were then dried using a gentle nitrogen gas blow to minimize particulate redeposition, followed by UV-ozone treatment for 10 minutes to enhance surface hydrophilicity and remove any remaining adventitious carbon. Finally, the prepared substrates were stored in a dust-free laminar flow cabinet until use for thin film deposition.The selenide source, 0.4 M sodium selenosulphate solution, was synthesized by refluxing 100 mL of 1 M sodium sulfite solution with excess selenium metal pellets (Se, 99.999% purity) at 90°C for 6 hours under constant stirring, adapting the procedure reported by Rodriguez-Lazcano et al. [17]. In a separate 100 mL beaker, 0.12 M of antimony potassium tartrate hemihydrate was dissolved in 32 mL of DDW with magnetic stirring until a homogeneous clear solution. To this, 3 mL of triethanolamine was added as a complexing agent, followed by 15 mL of 30% ammonia solution to adjust pH and stabilize the Sb-complex. The mixture was stirred vigorously for 10 minutes. Subsequently, 12 mL of the freshly prepared 0.2 M solution was introduced dropwise, and DDW was added to adjust the total volume to 100 mL, yielding the final chemical bath deposition (CBD) precursor solution.Cleaned glass substrates were vertically immersed in the chemical bath with the bath covered in aluminium foil to prevent photodegradation of the selenosulphate precursor. The deposition was conducted in a dark environment at room temperature (24 °C) for 4 hours to promote controlled nucleation and growth of the Sb₂Se₃ thin film via the CBD mechanism. Upon completion, the substrate was gently removed from the bath and rinsed thoroughly with DDW to wash away loosely adhered particles, residual precursors, and byproducts. The film was initially dried using a hot air dryer at 60°C, followed by purging with high-purity nitrogen gas to ensure uniform drying without mechanical damage.The processed substrate was allowed optical, and electrical characterization.

Fig. 1 Experimental Set-up of CBD at

room temperature

Result and Discussion: The Fig. 2 (a) plots transmittance (%) on the y-axis (0–40%) against wavelength (nm) on the x-axis (500–1000 nm), with a blue curve labeled “Sb₂Se₃”. The film shows moderate transparency starting at ~35–40% around 900–1000 nm in the near-infrared (NIR) region, where longer wavelengths pass through with minimal absorption. As wavelength decreases toward the visible range (500–800 nm), transmittance drops sharply from ~30% at 850 nm to near 0% below 700 nm, indicating a distinct absorption edge. This behaviour reflects the fundamental absorption process where photons with energy exceeding the bandgap (~1.5 eV, corresponding to ~825 nm) are strongly absorbed, while lower-energy NIR photons transmit—ideal for top-cell applications in tandem solar cells or single-junction devices targeting AM1.5G spectrum utilization.Directly adjacent Fig. 2 (b) absorbance (arbitrary units, 0–1.4) versus wavelength (500–1000 nm) is shown in red (“Sb₂Se₃”),

displaying the inverse trend: near-zero absorbance beyond 900 nm, followed by a steep rise commencing around 800 nm. Peak absorbance (>1.2 units) occurs in the 500–700 nm visible range, plateauing at high values that imply absorption coefficients (α) exceeding 10⁴–10⁵ cm⁻¹—characteristic of direct bandgap chalcogenides like Sb₂Se₃. This profile confirms efficient photon capture from blue-green to red light, with the onset aligning precisely with the transmittance edge, as expected from the Beer-Lambert law (T = e^{-αd}, where d is film thickness, typically 200–1000 nm for chemical bath deposited films).The Fig. 2 (c)employs a Tauc representation for direct allowed transitions, plotting (αhν)² (units: cm⁻² eV², 0–3) versus photon energy (hν, 1.2–1.8 eV) in green (“Sb₂Se₃, Eg=1.4 eV”). Here, α is derived from absorbance via α = (ln(1/T))/d, assuming uniform thickness. The curve remains flat near zero below ~1.4 eV (sub-bandgap scattering), then rises linearly with a steep slope above 1.4 eV, characteristic of direct interband transitions described by the Tauc equation: (αhν)² = A(hν – Eg), where A is a constant and Eg is the optical bandgap. Extrapolating the linear portion (tangent from ~1.45–1.65 eV) intersects the x-axis at precisely 1.4 eV, confirming the film’s direct bandgap. This value falls within the optimal range (1.1–1.6 eV) for single-junction photovoltaics. The I-V characteristic of as-deposited Sb₂Se₃ thin films, shown in Fig. 2 (d)the attached plot, displays linear ohmic behavior with current increasing steadily from 0 mA at 0 V to approximately 35 mA at 14 V, reflecting symmetric conduction without rectification. This indicates high series resistance dominated by the intrinsic absorber layer—typical for unannealed chemical bath deposited films featuring amorphous regions, Se vacancies, and poor inter-grain contacts that limit charge transport. For photovoltaic applications, such ohmic response signals an incomplete device lacking a p-n junction (e.g., with n-CdS), as ideal solar cells require diode-like rectification to generate Voc, Jsc, and fill factor under illumination; annealing or selenization treatments typically enhance crystallinity, reduce defects, and enable carrier collection along the ribbon-like structure for efficiencies reaching 3-10%.[18, 19, 20]​

Conclusion

In summary, this work successfully demonstrated a reproducible chemical bath deposition route for Sb₂Se₃ thin films using in-house sodium selenosulphate and antimony potassium tartrate precursors, yielding uniform coatings at room temperature with controlled post-processing. Optical spectra confirmed strong visible absorption (α > 10⁴ cm⁻¹), NIR transparency (35-40%), and a direct bandgap of 1.4 eV-optimally matched to AM1.5G illumination for photovoltaic absorbers—while the linear ohmic I-V response highlighted intrinsic high resistivity from defects in as-deposited films, underscoring the need for annealing to form rectifying junctions and boost carrier collection. These findings validate solution-processing viability for low-cost Sb₂Se₃ optoelectronics, paving the way for tandem cell integration and efficiency gains beyond 10% through targeted defect passivation and texturing.

Acknowledgements

One of the authors, Mr. Bharat Thakare, expresses sincere gratitude to the Trible Research and Training Institute, Pune, for financial support through a Maharashtra Government-sponsored fellowship during his Ph.D. research. The authors also extend their heartfelt thanks to the Principal of S.G. Patil ASC College, Sakri, for providing access to essential research facilities and infrastructure that enabled this work.

References

1. Ying Zhou, Liang Wang, Shiyou Chen, Sikai Qin, Xinsheng Liu, Jie Chen, Ding-Jiang Xue, Miao Luo, Yuanzhi Cao, Yibing Cheng, Edward H. Sargent & Jiang Tang, Thin-film Sb₂Se₃ photovoltaics with oriented one-dimensional ribbons, Nature Photonics, vol. 9, pp. 409–415, 2015
2. Majidzade, Vusala A. “Sb2Se3-based solar cells: obtaining and properties.” Kimya Problemleri 2 (2020): 181-198.
3. Vidal Fuentes, Pedro. “Quasi One Dimensional Antimony Selenide Thin Film Solar Cells for Next Generation Photovoltaics.” (2022).
4. Zhugayevych, Andriy, Olena Postupna, Ronald C. Bakus II, Gregory C. Welch, Guillermo C. Bazan, and Sergei Tretiak. “Ab initio study of a molecular crystal for photovoltaics: Light absorption, exciton and charge carrier transport.” The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 117, no. 10 (2013): 4920-4930.
5. Wang, Manjing, Sanlong Wang, Qixing Zhang, Sanjiang Pan, Ying Zhao, and Xiaodan Zhang. “Controlling the crystallographic orientation of Sb2Se3 film for efficient photoelectrochemical water splitting.” Solar RRL 6, no. 4 (2022): 2100798.
6. Stroyuk, Oleksandr, Alexandra Raevskaya, and Nikolai Gaponik. “Solar light harvesting with multinary metal chalcogenide nanocrystals.” Chemical Society Reviews 47, no. 14 (2018): 5354-5422.
7. Luo, Yandi. “Development of new buffer layers and rapid annealing process for efficient Sb2Se2 thin-film solar cells.” PhD diss., Université de Rennes, 2024.
8. Vishwanathan Vidyanagar, Akshay, Stenny Benny, and SarpangalaVenkataprasad Bhat. “Antisolvent Treatment for Antimony Selenide Thin Film Augmenting Optoelectronic Performance.” Advanced Optical Materials 13, no. 17 (2025): 2500175.
9. Zhang, Yaokang, Sze-Wing Ng, Xi Lu, and Zijian Zheng. “Solution-processed transparent electrodes for emerging thin-film solar cells.” Chemical reviews 120, no. 4 (2020): 2049-2122.
10. Veeramalai, Chandrasekar Perumal, Yang Xu, Yuquan Chen, Guochen Lin, Jing Wang, Yang Wang, Chuanbo Li, and Xiaoming Zhang. “Photoelectronic properties of antimony selenide nanowire synthesized by hydrothermal method.” Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 674 (2023): 131889.
11. Yuqi Zhao, Shaoying Wang, Chuang Li, Bo Che, Xueling Chen, Hongyi Chen, Rongfeng Tang, Xiaomin Wang, Junbo Gong, Tao Chen, Guilin Chen, Xudong Xiao and Jianmin Li, “Regulating deposition kinetics via a novel additive-assisted chemical bath deposition technology enables fabrication of 10.57% efficiency Sb2Se3 solar cells.” Energy Environ. Sci., 2022, 15, 5118.
12. Luo, Yandi, Guojie Chen, Shuo Chen, Nafees Ahmad, Muhammad Azam, Zhuanghao Zheng, Zhenghua Su et al. “Carrier transport enhancement mechanism in highly efficient antimony selenide thin‐film solar cell.” Advanced Functional Materials 33, no. 14 (2023): 2213941.
13. Bai, Hang, Yufang Li, Honglie Shen, Long Wang, Hechao Li, Zhihong Xie, Andi Chen, Zheng Shi, and Wei Wang. “Preparation of antimony selenide thin films by electrochemical deposition and application in optoelectronic devices.” Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing 171 (2024): 108027.
14. Nadukkandy, Aiswarya, Sadasivan Shaji, David Avellaneda Avellaneda, Josue Amilcar Aguilar-Martinez, and Bindu Krishnan. “Cubic structured silver antimony sulfide-selenide solid solution thin films for sustainable photodetection and photovoltaic application.” Journal of Alloys and Compounds 942 (2023): 169072.
15. Chen, Guojie, Shuo Chen, Jun Zhao, Zhenghua Su, and Guangxing Liang. “Advances in optoelectronic applications of antimony chalcogenide thin films.” Nano Research 18, no. 10 (2025): 94907931.
16. Bhattacharyya, Dhiman, Wei Hong, Kay Peng, and Vincent Sih. “Reduction of extra pattern defects in immersion layer reworks by cleans recipe optimization: CFM: Contamination free manufacturing.” In 2016 27th Annual SEMI Advanced Semiconductor Manufacturing Conference (ASMC), pp. 229-232. IEEE, 2016.
17. Y. Rodrı´guez-Lazcano, Yolanda Pen˜a, M.T.S. Nair, P.K. Nair, Polycrystalline thin films of antimony selenide via chemical bath deposition and post deposition treatments, Thin Solid Films 493 (2005) 77– 82.
18. Zhao, Qi, Rongfeng Tang, Shangfeng Yang, and Tao Chen. “Post‐Treatment Strategies Toward High‐Quality Sb2Se3 Thin Films in Photovoltaic Applications.” Advanced science 12, no. 36 (2025): e11387.
19. He, Haiying, Yiming Zhong, Wanying Zou, Xinyu Zhang, Jun Zhao, Muhammad Ishaq, and Guangxing Liang. “A novel Se-diffused selenization strategy to suppress bulk and interfacial defects in Sb2Se3 thin film solar cell.” Surfaces and Interfaces 51 (2024): 104793.
20. Sindi, Daniya. “Optimization of Close Space Sublimation and Post Deposition Routes for Antimony Chalcogenide Solar Cells.” PhD diss., University of Liverpool, 2025.

Rathod P. P. andPawara V. L.

Department of Zoology.

*VVM’s S. G. Patil Arts, Science and Commerce College Sakri Di. Dhule 424304

E mail- pradiprathod1309@gmail.com; vilaspawara68@gmail.com

Abstract:       

The distribution of ant’s diversity in Sakri forest region of Sakri, Dhule District has been studied. Sakri forest is located to the west of Dhule city. In this forest we are collecting and an identified different type of ant’s belonging to family formicidae. This study was tried to analyze distribution of ant diversity. In Sakri forest ten different species of ant’s were identified namely Camponotus pennsylvanicus, Paraterechina longicornis, Tapinona melanocephalum, Tapinoma sessile, Technomyrmex albipes, Crematogaster, Pheidole, Monomorium minimum, Monomorium pharaonis, Solenopsis were observed. Out of these Camponotus pennsylvanicus and Tapinoma sessile was most abundant in study region.  

Key words: – formicidae, tapinoma sessile, Sakri forest, ant diversity        

INTRODUCTION

            The ant family contains more than 4.500 described species that can be found in a tropical and temperate area around the world. Ants are member of family of the social insects meaning that they live in organized colonies. Ants make up the family of Formicidae of the order Hymenoptera. Most of the described and unknown species are found in the forest, however, due to the distribution of that forest most of them will probably never be categorized. Ants are found on all continents except Antarctica, and only a few large islands. (Jones and Alice S. 2008; Thomas and Philip 2007).

            According to Shabina A. Nagariya and Santosh S. Pawar 2012 three species of ant was dominant and abundantly found. Most ant build some sort of nest under and above the ground, in trees and houses where they live and bring their food to, but are generally omnivorous, but some need special food. Myrmecology (Prons; m3rmi, from Greek; myrmex: ant and >logos, study) is the scientific study of ants, branch of entomology. Some early myrmecologist considered ant society as the ideal forms of sociality and shout to find solution to human problems by standing them.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area

            The Sakri forest is situated about 55Km west of Dhule city at a latitude of 20⁰-99’-26’’. The Kan River lies on 74⁰-31’-41’’. Longitude and covers an area of the forest is fulfilling with diversity of different insects, animals and plant species. Sakri forest faces extreme variation in climatic condition with hot summer and very cold winter as well as average rainfall. The annual average rainfall in the forest ranges between 470mm to 630mm and temperature ranges between 12⁰C to 40⁰C. 

Collection of ants of family formicidae: –

Various methods of collection of ants are as per different studies. The type of vegetation determines the kind of ants, (Formicidae) were collected from the different locations of forest. The capture and collected ant species kept into dry container or directly transfer into absolute alcohol. Methods suggested by Koh (1989) namely refer for the collection and preservation of ants.

Identification of ants: – Ants (Formicidae) collected from the Sakri forest region was identified by using identification key (Mathews R. N. and Tiwari 2000; Bolten B, 1994; and Krebs C.J. 1999)

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Ants are social insect of the family Formicidae. The family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also include sawflies, bees and wasps. Fossil evidence indicates that ants were present in the late Jurassic, 150 million years ago.Ants are distinct in their morphology from their insects in having elbowed antennae, metapleural glands. Ant societies have division of labour communication between individual and an ability to solve complex problems. Ant bodies, like other insects, have an exoskeleton, and external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a place to attached muscles.

Identified Species: –

1. Camponotus pennsylvanicus: –

Vertex of head is indented, non with a deep groove. Antenna is 10 segmented. Two Numbers of teeth present on the front of head. Eyes are large and black in color.Spines are absent on the thorax and thorax is smooth and evenly rounded when viewed from the site. One node is present.Abdomen is divided in to four segments. Small spiny hairs present on the abdomen.

2. Paraterechina longicornis: –

Vertex of head is with deep groove head pattern with foveoled punctures.  Mandible is with distinct teeth and triangular shape. Two numbers of teeth present on the head. Eyes are large and black in color. Ten segmented antennae are present. Spines are absent on the thorax. Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. One node is present.No circle of hairs at the tip of the abdomen. Small spiny hairs are present on the abdomen and it divided into five segments.

3. Tapinona melanocephalum: –

Vertex of head indented, non with a deep groove. Head pattern is without foveolet punctures. Mandible are triangular and with distinct teeth. Two teeth present on head. Eye is large in size and reddish to orange brown in color. Ten segmented antennae are present on the head with two segmented club. Spines are absent on the thorax. Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. One node is present. Abdomen divided into four segments. Small spiny hairs present on the abdomen. No circle of hairs at the tip of the abdomen. Stinger is absent on the abdomen.

4. Tapinoma sessile: –

Vertex of head indented, non with a deep groove. Head pattern is without foveolet punctures. Mandible is with distinct and teeth with triangular in shape. Two teeth present on the front of the head. Eye is large with reddish to orange brown in color. Twentieth segmented antennae are present on head without club.One pair of spine present on the thorax. Small spiny hairs present on the body. One node is present. Abdomen divided into four segment small spiny hairs present on the abdomen. Circle of the hairs at the tip of the abdomen are present. Stinger is absent.

5. Technomyrmex albipes: –

Vertex of hair is with deep groove head pattern without foveolet punctures.  Mandible is without teeth and elongated and linear. Numbers of teeths are absent. Eye is large in size. Body colour is reddish to orange brown.  Twentieth segmented antennae are present on the head without club.Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. Two pair of spine present on thorax. One node is present. Abdomen divided into five segments. Small spiny hair present on the abdomen. No circle of hair at the tip of the abdomen. Stinger is absent on the abdomen.

6. Crematogaster: –

Vertex of head is with a deep groove. Head pattern is without feveolet punctures. Mandible is without teeth and triangular in shape small spiny hair present on the hair. Two teeth present on the front of the head. Eye is large in size with yellow to light brown in color. Three segmented club are present. One pair of spine present on the thorax. Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. Small spiny hairs present on the thorax. Two nodes are present on the petiole. Circle of hair present at the tip on the abdomen. Abdomen is divided into four segments. Small spiny hairs present all over the body. Stingers are present on the abdomen.

7. Pheidole: –

Vertex of head is with deep groove. Head pattern is with fovelolet punctures. Mandible are without teeth and triangular in shape. Eye size is small with reddish to orange brown in color. Twentieth segmented antennae are present on the head with three segmented club. No teeth are present on the front of head. One pair of spine present on the thorax. Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. Small spiny hairs present all over the body. Two nodes are present. Abdomen divided into four segment and small spiny hair present on the abdomen. Circle of hairs are present at the tip of the abdomen and stinger are absent.

8. Monomorium minimum: –

Vertex of head with a deep groove and head pattern is foveolet punctures mandible with distinct teeth, elongated and linear in shape two teeth are present on the front of head. Eyes are large and black in color. 10 segmented antennae are present with three segment club. Spines are absent on the thorax. Thorax is smooth and evenly rounded when viewed from the side. Small spiny hairs are present on the thorax. Two nodes are present on petiole. Circle of hair present at the tip of abdomen. Abdomen is divided into four segment and stinger are absent on the abdomen. Small spiny hairs present all over the body.

9. Monomorium pharaonis: –

Vertex of head is indented, non with a deep groove. Head pattern is with foveolet punctures and mandible is with a distinct tooth. Mandible shape is elongated and linear. Eyes are small in size. Eye color is black. Twentieth segmented antennae are present on head. Two teeth are present on the front of head. Spine is absent on the thorax. Thorax is smooth and evenly rounded when viewed from the side. And two nodes are present on petiole. Abdomen is divided in to four segmented and circle of hair present at tip of abdomen. Small spiny hairs are present all over the body. Stringers are present on the abdomen.

10. Solenopsis: –

Vertex of head is indented, non with a deep groove. Head pattern is without foveolet punctures mandible is with distinct teeth. Mandible shape is elongated and linear.  One pair of teeth present on front of the head. Eyes are small in size. Eye color is reddish to orange brown. Ten segmented antennae are present on head is with a two segmented club. Spine is absent on the thorax. Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. Abdomen is divided in to four segmented and circle of hair present at tip of abdomen. Small spiny hairs are present all over the body.

Camponotus pennsylvanicus	Paraterechina longicornis
Tapinona melanocephalum	Tapinoma sessile
Technomyrmex albipes	Crematogaster
Pheidole	Monomorium minimum
Monomorium pharaonis	Solenopsis

CONCLUSION

            The present study has been focused on diversity of ants and its environmental associations. Our results will help for assessing the richness and diversity of ants. This investigation also focuses on reducing the number of ant species due to human activity and helps in improve social and cultural importance of forest and its scenario.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

            Authors are thankful to the Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory of Department of Zoology VVM’s S. G. Patil Arts, Science and Commerce College Sakri Di. Dhule, for providing research related facilities. A special thanks to Prof. S. S. Patole and Prof. L. B. Pawar for kindly support us for identification of different ant species. Also thankful to local peoples of Sakri helped us in collection of ants from different spots and regions and gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

1. Bolton B. (1994): Identification guide to the ant genera of the world, London: Harvard
   1. University Press. pp. 222.
2. Koh, L. P. and Wilcove, D. S. (2008): Is oil palm agriculture really destroying tropical biodiversity?’, Conservation Letters, 1. pp. 27-33
3. Krebs, C.J., (1990): Ecological methodology, Addison- Educationall publishers, California, pp.581
4. Mathew R.N. Tiwari, (2000): Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidea.State Fauna Series 4,Zoological Survey of India Fauna of Meghalaya, 7: pp. 251-409.
5. Shabina A. Nagariya and Santosh S. Pawar (2012): Distribution of (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Ants diversity in Pohara Forest Area of Amravati Region, Maharashtra  State, India., International Journal of Science and Research Vol.3. (7).,pp. 1310-1312
6. Thomas, Philip (2007): “Pest Ants in Hawaii”. Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project  (HEAR). Retrieved 6 July 2008.

Citation

Sonawane, D. V., & Ahire, R. R. (2026). Synthesizing copper tartrate crystals through controlled nucleation and growth in silica gel. International Journal of Research, 13(13), 63–67. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/s13/6

• D. V. Sonawane^a , R. R. Ahire
•      Dept. of Dept. of Physics, Jijamata Arts, Science Commerce College, Nandurbar.
•                Dept. of  Physics, S.G.Patil College, Sakri Dist- Dhule, Maharashtra  424304
• E-mail addresses : dvsonawane68@rediffmail.com(DVS),rr_ahire@yahho.co.in(RRA)
•  
•  
• Abstract –Copper tartrate crystals were synthesized at room temperature using the single diffusion method within a sodium metasilicate gel matrix. Optimal growth conditions were determined by systematically varying parameters, including gel pH, density (concentration), and setting time, as well as the concentration of the reactants. The resulting crystals exhibited a characteristic bluish, opaque appearance.
• Keywords-Silica gel, grown Copper tartrate crystals, bluish and opaque.

1 INTRODUCTION

• Recent scientific advancements have shifted crystal analysis from traditional laboratory methods to sophisticated instrumental techniques that offer superior accuracy. While crystal growth was historically a subset of crystallography, it has evolved into an independent field driven by the need for high-purity materials unavailable in nature. Silica gel has emerged as an ideal, chemically inert medium for growing high-quality single crystals, providing a controlled environment for research and commercial applications.
• 2 EXPERIMENTAL
• 2.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS
• Copper tartrate shows poor solubility in water hence it was thought worthwhile to grow such a kind of material by chemical reaction at controlled rate using gel method.Gel was prepared by using tartaric acid & sodium meta silicate . The chemicals use for the growth of copper tartrate crystals; all chemicals were of AR grade. Take 7ml of tartaric acid (1M) in a small beaker. To tartaric acid add sodium metasilicate solution. (1M) drop by drop with constant stirring. Then the pH of solution maintains to 4 to 4.5, then pH is measured with digital pH meter.
• Transfer the mixture in theborosilicate glasstest tube in diameter is 2.5 cm & in length is 25 cm. Then cover its mouth with cotton plug .Its is transparent initially, after 2/3 days, it turns onto milky & gel converted into semisolid with little amount of water on the top of the surface which is called water of syneresis. Such gel cannot be used for reaction as it has not set. It vibrates with the small mechanical jerks allows the water of syneresis to evaporate completely. It may take one week & it does not vibrate with the small mechanical jerks i.e. called “Setting of gel”.

After setting of gel, allow the aging of the gel. Aging makes gel the harder and reduces the diameter of the capillaries present in the gel. Take the copper chloride (CuCl₂) required concentration was then poured slowly along the sides of the test tube to avoid breaking of the gel. Copper chloride solution acted as upper reactants ions through the narrow pores of the silica gel leads to reaction between these ions and the ions present in the gel as lower reactant.[5-8].

The following reaction was expected inside the gel.

•  
• CuCl₂    + C₄H₆O₆   ———à C₄H₄O₆Cu  + 2HCl
•  
• Copper Chloride + Tartaric acid  —à  Copper tartrate
•  
• RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Crystals of copper tartrate are bluish opaque, diamond shaped. Maximum sizes of the grown crystals are 3mm x 4mm and thicknesses about 2 to 3mm are obtained.

1.Effect of gel density – It is observed that the nucleation density decreases with increases in gel density . Gels with high density sets more rapidly than the gels with low density. Sodium meta silicate gel density 1.05gm/cm3.  bluish ,dimond shaped crystals of copper tartrate.

2 Effect of conc of reaction –The volume of metasilicate gel required to adjust the pH  value around 4.2 varies with conc.of tartaric acid . The good quality crystals  were grown at 1M conc of tartaric acid.

3 Effet of conc of supernatant –copper  chloride is used  as supernatant with different conc. From 0.4to 1M is added around 70% of gel volume     It is observed that 0.8M  conc gives well defined crystals.  

4 Effect of pH of gel  – It is observed that As pH of gel incrases the no. of crystals  decreases due to contamination of crystal with gel  In present work good quality crystals of copper tartarete were obtained at pH 4.2     

5  Temperature – At normal temp

• Different parameters such as concentration of reactants, pH of gel, impurities in the solvent, gel setting time, gel aging time, etc. have considerable effect on growth rate. Near gel interface dendrites growth is observed due to fast growth rate. However as the reactants percolates through the gel, the controlled reaction occurs below interface the depth of 3 to 4 cm. Hence good quality, bluish opaque crystals having well developed faces are observed.Optical micrograph of the grown crystal it shown fig. it shows bluish coloured & opaque crystal of copper tartrate Table 1 gives the various conditions for copper tartrate crystals grown in silica gel.Optimum condition of copper tartrate crystal Gel setting time
• Table 1 Various optimum conditions for growing crystals were found

Various process parameter	Optimum conditions
Density of sodium meta silicate solution	1.05 g/cm3
Concentration of tartaric acid	1 M
Volume of Tartaric acid	7 ml
Concentration Copper chloride	1 M
Volume of sodium meta silicate solution	18 ml

• 6 Effect of gel aging time – It was observed that as aging time of gel increased the number of crystals  decreased gels were allowed to age for different period before about one week gives good quality crystals
• Table no. 2-Effect of conc .of supernatant

Test Tube No.	SMS(1.05 g/cm3)	Tartaric Acid(1M)	Conc.of Supernatant	Observation
1	18.3 ml	7ml	0.4M	Very few nucleation crystals; size is very small.
2	18.3ml	7ml	0.6M	Slight increase in crystal size compared to Tube 1.
3	18.2ml	7ml	0.8M	Optimal Results: Well-shining, isolated, bluish diamond-shaped crystals.
4	18.3ml	7ml	1.0M	Large number of crystals; multiple nucleation sites; not isolated.

•  

In present work Figure 1 illustrates different morphologies of pure copper tartrate crystals different conditions of growth. Some bluish opaque crystals were observed.Figure1 shows single bluish opaque crystal.

• Fig. 1 shows insides the test tube copper crystal
• 4 CONCLUSIONS
• The present investigation confirms that the gel growth technique is an effective and suitable method for the synthesis of high-quality copper tartrate crystals. It was observed that the crystal habit and morphology are highly sensitive to experimental parameters, specifically gel density, pH levels, and the concentration of the supernatant. Furthermore, preliminary characterization indicates that these copper tartrate crystals exhibit significant Non-Linear Optical (NLO) properties, suggesting potential applications in optoelectronic devices.
•  
• ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
• The authors are grate full to Prof.V.R Borane,Principal,Jijamata Arts, Science Commerce College, Nandurbar for encouragement.The author are also grateful to Prof. R.R AhireDept. of  Physics, S.G.Patil College, Sakri for the valuables suggestions and helpful discussion regarding research topic.
•  
•  REFERENCES

1.  H.K. Henisch., “Crystal Growth in Gels”,Dover Publication inc p –17,1996.

2. N. Srinivasan    ands. Natarajan.,“Indian J. Phys”70 A563, 1996.

3. A. Elizabeth, C.Joseph. and M.A.  Ittyachan.,“Bull. Material Sci.”24, 4,431. 2001

4.   K.C. Joseph and M.J. Joshi.,“Indian J.Phys”76A 159, 2002

5.   S.J. Shitole and  K.B. Saraf.,“Bull. Mater.Sci.”;24(5) ;461 – 8., 2001

6.  S.J.Shitole and K.B. Saraf, “Crystal.Res.Technology”;37(5);440 – 5. 2002

7. D.S. Bhavasar, K.B. “Crystal Res. Technology”;37 (1); 51 – 5. 2002