Lessons from Past Revolutions and Strategies for Future Growth & Sustainability

Dr. Raj Vayyavur, Senior, IEEE

 rvayyavur@gmail.com

 Abstract— The evolution of business landscapes has been profoundly shaped by technological revolutions, from the Industrial Revolution to the current age of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and blockchain. Each revolution has significantly altered the way companies operate, innovate, and compete, pushing businesses towards new frontiers of efficiency, growth, and sustainability. This research paper explores the critical success factors in business transformation, focusing on the roles of leadership, organizational culture, and technology adoption. It provides a historical overview of major technological revolutions, analyzing how companies have successfully adapted to these changes while others have failed. The paper highlights contemporary disruptions driven by AI, with companies like OpenAI leading innovation across industries. It also examines the challenges faced by traditional sectors, such as banking, in adopting new technologies like blockchain. Drawing on over twenty scholarly sources, this research identifies key indicators of successful transformation and offers a roadmap for companies aiming to achieve sustainable growth in a rapidly evolving technological landscape.

Keywords—Business Transformation, Technological Revolutions, Leadership and Vision, C-Level Executives, D-Level Managers, Organizational Culture, Innovation and Agility, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Blockchain Technology, Digital Transformation, Sustainability

I. INTRODUCTION

    Business transformation has emerged as a critical imperative for organizations seeking to adapt and thrive in a rapidly evolving global landscape. Driven by continuous technological advancements, shifting consumer expectations, and dynamic competitive environments, business transformation involves the comprehensive rethinking and restructuring of an organization’s strategy, processes, culture, and technological infrastructure. The goal is to achieve sustained growth, improve operational efficiency, and maintain a competitive edge.

Historically, business transformation has been catalyzed by significant technological revolutions. The Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century marked the beginning of mass production and mechanization, reshaping economies and societies. This was followed by the Second Industrial Revolution in the late 19th century, which introduced electricity, the internal combustion engine, and telecommunication technologies, further accelerating industrial and economic growth. The late 20th century witnessed the Digital Revolution, characterized by the advent of computers, the Internet, and mobile communication, which fundamentally transformed how businesses operate and interact with customers.

Today, we find ourselves at the cusp of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, often referred to as Industry 4.0, which is characterized by the fusion of digital, physical, and biological worlds. This revolution brings together advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), robotics, and big data analytics, driving unprecedented levels of automation and connectivity. Alongside this, the rise of blockchain technology is revolutionizing how transactions are secured and verified, offering new paradigms for data transparency and trust. Additionally, emerging developments in quantum computing promise to redefine the limits of computational power, paving the way for breakthroughs in complex problem-solving across various industries.

In this context, business transformation is no longer a one-time initiative but a continuous process of adaptation and innovation. Organizations that successfully navigate these technological waves are able to reinvent their business models, improve customer experiences, and streamline operations. For instance, companies like Amazon have leveraged cloud computing to redefine IT infrastructure management, while Tesla has disrupted the automotive industry through its pioneering efforts in electric vehicles and autonomous driving technologies. Conversely, organizations that fail to adapt to these changes risk obsolescence, as seen in the decline of traditional brick-and-mortar retailers who could not compete with the agility and customer reach of online marketplaces.

The success of business transformation initiatives largely depends on several key factors: leadership, culture, and technology. Leadership plays a pivotal role in setting the vision for transformation and ensuring alignment with strategic goals. C-level executives, particularly Chief Executive Officers (CEOs), Chief Information Officers (CIOs), and Chief Digital Officers (CDOs), are instrumental in driving innovation and fostering an environment that supports change. They must champion transformation efforts, allocate necessary resources, and guide their organizations through the complexities of technological adoption.

Equally important is the role of organizational culture. A culture that encourages innovation, continuous learning, and agility can significantly enhance an organization’s ability to respond to market changes and technological advancements. Employee engagement and empowerment are crucial, as the success of transformation initiatives often depends on the willingness and capability of employees to adopt new ways of working. Organizations that cultivate a culture of inclusiveness and open communication are better positioned to harness the creative potential of their workforce and drive successful transformation.

Furthermore, the integration of cutting-edge technologies is central to business transformation. Technologies such as AI and blockchain offer vast potential to automate processes, enhance decision-making, and secure transactions. Organizations must strategically invest in technology that aligns with their business objectives, ensuring that these technologies are not just adopted for their novelty but are integrated into the fabric of their operations to drive tangible business outcomes.

This paper aims to explore the critical success factors in business transformation by examining historical precedents, contemporary examples, and emerging trends. It highlights the importance of leadership, organizational culture, and technology in shaping successful transformation efforts and provides insights into how organizations can navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by the ongoing technological revolution. By drawing on a wide range of scholarly sources and case studies, this research provides a roadmap for companies aiming to achieve sustainable growth and maintain competitiveness in a fast-paced, technology-driven world.

II. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTIONS

A. The First Industrial Revolution

The First Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century catalyzed a shift from agrarian economies to industrialized production. Innovations such as the steam engine and mechanized textile manufacturing drove mass production and urbanization. Early adopters of these technologies experienced unprecedented growth, while those resistant to change faced obsolescence [1].

B. The Second Industrial Revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution, occurring in the late 19th century, was characterized by the introduction of electricity, steel production, and the internal combustion engine. The rise of assembly line production, as pioneered by companies like Ford, revolutionized industries such as manufacturing and telecommunications, facilitating global market expansion [2], [4].

C. The Digital and Internet Revolution

The Digital Revolution, often referred to as the Third Industrial Revolution, was marked by the advent of computers, the Internet, and mobile communications. Businesses that embraced these changes, such as Amazon and Google, were able to set new standards for digital transformation and customer experience [3]. Companies that failed to adapt were quickly left behind, exemplifying the importance of agility in business transformation [5].

D. The Fourth Industrial Revolution

The Fourth Industrial Revolution, or Industry 4.0, is driven by advancements in AI, robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT), and big data. Industry 4.0 emphasizes the integration of cyber-physical systems and smart manufacturing. Early adopters like Siemens and General Electric have embraced these technologies, leading to higher efficiency levels and innovation [6], [7].

E. AI and Blockchain Revolution

AI and blockchain are transforming industries by enabling automation, predictive analytics, and secure, decentralized transactions. OpenAI’s success with AI-driven tools demonstrates the disruptive potential of these technologies. The financial sector, particularly through the use of blockchain, exemplifies how industries can innovate and streamline operations [8], [9].

F. Green and Sustainability Revolution

The Green Revolution is driven by a growing focus on sustainability and eco-friendly technologies. Tesla’s leadership in electric vehicles and renewable energy solutions demonstrates the opportunities that lie at the intersection of business transformation and sustainability [10].

G. Quantum Computing Revolution

Quantum computing, though still in its early stages, holds the potential to transform industries requiring immense computational power, such as cryptography and material science. As quantum technology advances, industries will need to adapt rapidly to leverage its capabilities [11].

III. SUCCESS FACTORS IN BUSINESS TRANSFORMATION

    Business transformation success hinges on several critical factors that encompass leadership, organizational culture, strategic alignment, technological adoption, and competencies at both technical and functional levels. These factors, when effectively integrated, can drive sustainable growth and innovation, enabling organizations to navigate technological revolutions and maintain a competitive edge.

Fig.1. Business Transformation Success Factors

A. Leadership and Vision

Effective leadership is a cornerstone of successful business transformation. C-level executives, including CEOs, CIOs, and CDOs, are responsible for setting a clear vision that aligns with the organization’s strategic goals and market realities. Leaders must articulate this vision, ensuring that all levels of the organization understand the objectives and their roles in achieving them. They play a pivotal role in fostering a culture of innovation, where employees feel encouraged to contribute ideas and embrace new technologies. Leaders must also manage change effectively, guiding the organization through transitions, overcoming resistance, and ensuring that resources are allocated efficiently to support transformation initiatives [10][18].

Strong leadership also involves the ability to make decisive and timely decisions that capitalize on emerging opportunities. In the context of technological disruption, leaders must possess a forward-looking mindset, staying abreast of industry trends and potential disruptions. Their ability to anticipate market shifts and react quickly is essential in maintaining a competitive advantage. Leaders must champion innovation, driving initiatives that leverage new technologies such as AI and blockchain to optimize operations and enhance customer experiences [19].

B. Organizational Culture and Agility

A successful business transformation requires an organizational culture that supports agility, continuous learning, and innovation. Agility enables organizations to respond swiftly to technological advancements and changing market conditions. Companies that foster a culture of agility can pivot quickly, seize new opportunities, and address challenges effectively. This requires an environment where employees are empowered to take risks, experiment with new ideas, and learn from failures without fear of retribution [12][20].

Cultivating a culture of innovation is equally important. Organizations should encourage cross-functional collaboration, enabling teams to work together, share knowledge, and develop creative solutions. Employee engagement is critical, as engaged employees are more likely to embrace change and contribute to transformation efforts. Providing ongoing training and development opportunities helps employees build the skills needed to adapt to new technologies and processes. This not only enhances technical and functional competencies but also boosts morale and retention [21].

C. Strategic Alignment and Technology Integration

Aligning technological initiatives with overall business strategy is crucial for effective transformation. Strategic alignment ensures that technology investments directly support the organization’s goals, such as improving customer experience, increasing operational efficiency, and entering new markets. Companies must take a holistic approach, integrating technology with business processes and customer interactions to create seamless, efficient, and scalable operations [13][14].

The successful integration of new technologies requires careful planning and execution. Organizations must assess their existing technological infrastructure, identify gaps, and prioritize investments that deliver the most value. This involves not only adopting cutting-edge technologies but also optimizing legacy systems to enhance compatibility and performance. Effective technology integration supports data-driven decision-making, enabling organizations to leverage insights for strategic planning and execution [22].

D. Technical and Functional Competencies

Building technical and functional competencies within the organization is vital for successful business transformation. Technical competencies refer to the skills and knowledge required to understand, implement, and manage new technologies effectively. This includes expertise in areas such as AI, data analytics, cybersecurity, and cloud computing. Organizations must invest in training and upskilling their workforce to ensure that employees have the technical proficiency needed to operate in a technology-driven environment [23].

Functional competencies, on the other hand, relate to the ability to apply technical knowledge to specific business functions. This includes skills in project management, process optimization, and customer relationship management. Developing these competencies enables employees to use technology effectively to improve workflows, enhance product quality, and provide better customer service. Organizations that excel in building both technical and functional competencies can drive innovation, streamline operations, and achieve their strategic objectives [24].

E. Managing Teams Effectively

Effective team management is crucial for driving business transformation. This involves assembling diverse, cross-functional teams that bring together different perspectives and expertise. Leaders must foster collaboration and communication within teams, ensuring that members work towards common goals and objectives. Establishing clear roles, responsibilities, and accountability helps streamline workflows and avoid confusion or overlap in tasks [25].

Managing teams effectively also requires motivating and engaging employees. Leaders should recognize and reward contributions, provide constructive feedback, and create an inclusive environment where all team members feel valued. By promoting a sense of ownership and belonging, organizations can enhance employee commitment to transformation initiatives, resulting in higher productivity and better outcomes [26].

F. Speed to Market and Innovation

In the fast-paced business environment, speed is a critical factor in gaining a competitive edge. Organizations must be able to bring innovative products and services to market quickly to capitalize on new opportunities and meet customer demands. This requires streamlined development processes, efficient decision-making, and the ability to rapidly prototype, test, and refine new ideas. Agile methodologies, such as iterative development and continuous integration, can help organizations accelerate product development cycles and reduce time to market [27][28].

Speed to market also involves effectively managing the product lifecycle, from ideation to launch. Organizations need robust processes for market research, product design, testing, and feedback collection. By continuously monitoring market trends and customer preferences, companies can anticipate shifts and adjust their product strategies accordingly. This proactive approach enables organizations to stay ahead of the competition and maintain relevance in their industry [29].

G. Marketing and Customer Engagement

Successfully marketing and bringing new products to customers is a vital component of business transformation. Organizations must develop marketing strategies that effectively communicate the value of their innovations, build brand awareness, and attract customers. This involves leveraging digital marketing tools, social media platforms, and data analytics to reach target audiences and tailor messages to their preferences [30].

Customer engagement is equally important. Organizations must create meaningful interactions with customers, providing personalized experiences that build loyalty and trust. This can be achieved through customer-centric approaches, such as using AI-driven insights to understand customer behavior, preferences, and feedback. By actively engaging with customers, organizations can foster long-term relationships and enhance brand reputation, ultimately driving growth and success [31].

IV. CONTEMPORARY EXAMPLES OF BUSINESS TRANSFORMATION

A. OpenAI and the AI Industry

OpenAI has set benchmarks in AI applications by developing technologies like ChatGPT, which have transformed customer service, content creation, and other business functions. OpenAI’s success showcases the potential of AI to drive efficiency and innovation, providing companies with competitive advantages [6].

B. Fintech Disruption in the Banking Industry

Fintech innovations and blockchain technology have disrupted traditional banking by offering more efficient, user-friendly services. Fintech startups, with their agility and technological expertise, have challenged traditional banks, highlighting the importance of embracing digital transformation to remain competitive [7][16].

C. Tesla and the Automotive Industry

Tesla has revolutionized the automotive industry by promoting electric vehicles and autonomous driving technology. Tesla’s focus on sustainability and innovation exemplifies how aligning business transformation with environmental goals can drive success [8].

D. Amazon’s Cloud Computing Revolution

Amazon Web Services (AWS) has transformed IT infrastructure management through scalable, on-demand cloud computing solutions. AWS’s success demonstrates the impact of strategic innovation and technology adoption on market leadership and growth [17].

V. CONCLUSION

    Business transformation towards growth and sustainability requires strategic leadership, a culture of innovation, and technological agility. Historical and contemporary examples illustrate that companies must proactively embrace change, leverage new technologies, and align transformation initiatives with strategic goals to remain competitive. Success in business transformation is a collective effort involving leadership, middle management, and every employee. By understanding and applying the key success factors identified in this research, organizations can navigate the complexities of technological evolution and achieve sustainable growth in the future.

VI. RESEARCH LIMITATION

    While this research paper provides a comprehensive overview of the critical success factors in business transformation, several limitations should be acknowledged:

A. Scope of Technological Coverage:

The paper focuses primarily on major technological revolutions, including AI, blockchain, and quantum computing, which are currently prominent. Other emerging technologies, such as biotechnology and 5G, were not explored in depth, potentially limiting the comprehensiveness of the analysis.

B. Industry-Specific Analysis:

The paper provides a generalized view of business transformation across various sectors. While examples from industries such as automotive, finance, and cloud computing were highlighted, a deeper industry-specific analysis could provide more tailored insights and reveal sector-specific success factors and challenges.

C. Geographical Focus:

The research predominantly references cases and examples from developed economies, particularly focusing on companies in the United States and Europe. Emerging markets and developing economies might experience different challenges and opportunities in business transformation, which were not extensively covered in this study.

D. Time Frame:

The analysis is based on current and historical trends up to the early 21st century. Rapid advancements in technology and shifts in global economic conditions could alter the landscape of business transformation, meaning that findings could evolve quickly as new developments emerge.

E. Qualitative Nature of Analysis:

The study primarily utilizes qualitative data from existing literature and case studies. While this approach provides valuable insights, incorporating quantitative analysis and empirical data would strengthen the conclusions and provide a more data-driven perspective on business transformation success.

F. Organizational Culture and Employee Engagement:

Although the importance of organizational culture and employee engagement in successful business transformation is acknowledged, the paper does not delve deeply into specific strategies for fostering such a culture or measuring employee engagement quantitatively. Future research could explore these areas in greater detail.

Focus on Large Enterprises: The examples and case studies used in the paper are mostly from large, well-established organizations. Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) face different challenges and may require distinct strategies for business transformation, which are not extensively covered in this paper.

Acknowledgment

    I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the researchers, scholars, practitioners, and experts whose invaluable contributions have laid the foundation for this research. Your dedication, insights, and pioneering work have been instrumental in shaping the understanding and knowledge within this field. Without your relentless pursuit of excellence, this research would not have been possible. Thank you for your commitment to advancing the boundaries of knowledge, which continues to inspire and guide future endeavors.

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AUTHOR

Dr. Raj Vayyavur (Senior, IEEE) is a distinguished practitioner, expert, and leader in the IT field with over two decades of experience, currently serving as the Director of Enterprise Architecture at Public Consulting Group (PCG). His extensive expertise covers Enterprise Architecture (EA), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Project Portfolio Management, Software Engineering, and IT Management & Governance, and more. Dr. Vayyavur is renowned for his strategic vision, deep technological expertise, and strong business acumen, which he leverages to lead transformative initiatives that align IT strategies with business goals, driving organizational success and delivering measurable outcomes.

A prolific author, Dr. Vayyavur has published numerous research papers on technology, enterprise architecture and project portfolio management, solidifying his position as a thought leader in the field. His work has been featured in leading journals and conferences, where he explores cutting-edge trends and provides actionable insights that bridge the gap between theory and practice. Additionally, Dr. Vayyavur frequently speaks at prestigious forums such as IEEE conferences, sharing his insights on the latest trends in technology and enterprise architecture.

Holding advanced degrees in Computer Science, Business Administration, an MBA, and a Doctorate, Dr. Vayyavur is committed to continuous learning and staying at the forefront of industry developments. His active participation in the IEEE and PMI communities, where he serves as a senior member, reviewer, judge, and chair for various committees, further reflects his dedication to the advancement of the field.

Through his visionary leadership, Dr. Vayyavur has set new standards for technology management, making him a sought-after expert known for driving innovation and excellence in every project he undertakes.

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Srinivasa Madhur[1]

Abstract

India has a potential demographic dividend, as more than three-thirds of its growing population is in the working-age group of 15-64 years. Historical experience as well as cross-country evidence show that a vibrant, labor-intensive manufacturing sector is a pre-requisite for maximizing a country’s demographic dividend. This paper provides a synthesis of the vast literature related to the subject. The paper does use a fair amount of quotes from the existing studies relating to the subject in an effort to put ‘the right pieces in the right places’. The key conclusion of the paper is that India is far from maximizing its demographic dividend. Therefore, there is much merit in the policy makers considering four sets of economic reforms to boost the labor-intensive segment of  India’s manufacturing sector: liberalizing external trade; attracting foreign investment; deregulating domestic labor  laws; and keeping up India’s traditional strength in IT-related services.

Key terms

Demographic dividend; informal sector; labor-intensive; liberalization; productive jobs; structural reforms; unemployment untapped potential.

1. Introduction

India has now surpassed China as the most populous country in the world. Moreover,  at 68%, India has one of the highest percentage of working-age population — defined as people in the   age-group of 15-64 years. The median age of the Indian population is about 28 years, compared to 37 years in China and the United States (US), 45 years in Western Europe, and 49 years in Japan (Business Today 2023, 24 September). Indeed, while the rest of the world is ageing, India is getting younger (Ernst and Young 2023, October).

When a country’s share of  working-age population remains high, that country is supposed to be enjoying a ‘demographic dividend’.  It is a ‘dividend’ because the much larger supply of its workforce could allow the country’s economy grow faster. However, for the country to maximize the demographic dividend, it has to find productive employment to the increasing number of working-age  population (Kapoor 2023, 3 November). “The ‘Asian Miracle’ was built on harnessing this trend: Japan entered this sweet spot in 1964, South Korea in 1967, and China in 1994” (Chakravorti and  Dalmia 2023, 6 September).

Demographic dividend is thus a plausibility, not a certainty. Put differently, if the demand for a country’s young and growing workforce does not keep pace with the increasing supply, the country would end up with either higher unemployment rate and/or higher underemployment rate (a scenario in which a person is engaged in a job that is far less commensurate with her/his skills). If that happens, the demographic dividend could turn out to be a demographic disaster.

This paper is a synthesis of issues and challenges that India faces in realizing its demographic dividend. The key contribution of the paper lies in systematically weaving through the storyline that emerges from the existing work and thinking on the subject. While doing so, the paper does use a fair amount of quotes from the existing studies on the subject — in an effort to put ‘the right pieces in the right places’. Section 2 of the paper examines how far India has utilized its demographic dividend. Section 3 comes up with policy options that the policy makers could consider to maximize the demographic dividend in the coming years. Section 4 sums up.

2. India’s Demographic Dividend: The Evidence

India did post admirable economic growth rates in the last decade and a half. Indeed its economy has been one of the fastest growing large economies in the world. However, it seems that the growth in the manufacturing sector has been somewhat tardy to absorb the rapidly growing young workforce.  One of the key indicators that could be used to assess how far the country has realized the demographic dividend is trends in the unemployment rate (Figure).

Figure: Recent Trends in Unemployment Rate in India

Source: Forbes India (2024, 8 July) “Unemployment Rate in India: Current Rate, Historical Trends and More”, https://www.forbesindia.com/article/explainers/unemployment-rate-in-india/87441/1 (accessed on 25 August 2024). These rates were estimated by Forbs India using data from India’s Center for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE). Unemployment rate is calculated as number of unemployed persons as a percent of civilian labor force.

Trends in the unemployment rate indicate that there is significant scope for maximizing the country’s demographic dividend.  This is especially so because unemployment rate among the youth (who are in the age group of 20-24 years) is reported to be a whopping 42% (Bloomberg News 2024, 9 May). It is not surprising that: “While India has experienced growth levels of approximately 8% or higher over 10 nonconsecutive years between 2003 and 2022,  its performance in the creation of jobs has been disappointing” (Mitra 2024, 10 January). Reasons for the country not realizing its potential demographic dividend could be many, but the most important one seems to be the inability to develop a labor-intensive manufacturing sector.

Almost a decade ago, a study by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) had highlighted that India’s manufacturing sector has not contributed much to the country’s  economic growth and employment generation; in addition,  the sector’s share in total merchandise exports has been declining (Joumard et.al., 2015, 8 January). The study also found that even the little employment the manufacturing sector generated has been in the ‘informal sector’ where productivity is low because of the small size of the firms that precludes them from realizing economies of scale.

A 2020 study by the Asian Century Institute did also point out that the weak spot in an otherwise robust economic growth and development India has posted lies in the slow progress in its labor-intensive manufacturing sector. No wonder that the country’s “manufacturing exports have fallen as a share of total exports and their composition has shifted from labor-intensive to high-skill and technology-intensive items. Indeed, for textile, garment and footwear, India has seen its share of world trade decline in recent years, while Bangladesh has almost caught up to India, and Vietnam has well overtaken it” (West 2020,18 February).

The study cautioned that the lack of labor-intensive exports is very costly for India. It pointed out that the country has 11 million youngsters entering the labor market every year. These youngsters could indeed offer the country a demographic dividend, something that Japan, Korea and China enjoyed during their high growth periods. However, India has not been generating enough productive jobs for these youngsters (West 2020,18 February).

More recently,  another expert came to similar conclusion: “India’s idiosyncratic structural transformation from agriculture to services — leapfrogging the phase of manufacturing growth — has generated limited opportunities for  well-paid employment for those at the lower end of the education and skills ladder” (Kapoor 2023, 3 November). A recent Report by the international Labor Organization put it so aptly “…the Indian economy has managed to surpass expectations in its recovery and is likely to remain the fastest-growing among G20 economies in 2024. However, rapid economic growth has not translated into productive employment and decent work opportunities for the vast majority of India’s labor force” (International Labor Organization 2024, 29 March).

A 2020 Report on India by McKinsey and Company had underscored the need for India to create 90 million new nonfarm jobs in the decade between 2020 and 2030 if the country were to fully utilize its demographic dividend (McKinsey &Company 2020, 26 August). The Report went on to say that “A clarion call is sounding for India to put growth on a sustainably faster track and meet the aspirations of its growing workforce” (McKinsey &Company 2020, 26 August). Similar cautionary notes have been sounded by other experts too (UNFPA 2022, 13 January; Mehrotra 2023, 30 October; Mitra 2024, 10 January; Singh and Sheriff  2024, 1 September)

A 2023 International Monetary Fund (IMF) Report had emphasized that  excluding those at school, the number of young people who completed more than upper primary level education increased by 44 million over the eight years before the outbreak of the ‘corona’ pandemic. However, only 10 millions of them could find employment, while the rest of them either struggled to find descent job or remained unemployed (International Monetary Fund 2023, April).

One-third of young Indians is neither pursuing education nor is employed. Moreover, about two-fifths of the country’s youngsters have an education level below the secondary level (Mahapatra 2024,15 April). It seems that “half of urban workers have full-time jobs, while far too much of India’s employment is in low productive informal sectors” (Chakravorti and Dalmia  2023, 6 September). “India needs at least 10-12 million new nonfarm jobs each year to realize its demographic dividend. For the country to generate new jobs of that magnitude, it needs to anchor its economic growth on a vibrant, labor intensive manufacturing sector, just as China and the East Asian countries did in their high-growth phase” (Mehrotra 2023, 30 October).

A recent report by Standard and Poor’s – the global credit rating agency – went on to say that increasing the share of manufacturing in the economy is a major challenge for the country’s policymakers (Standard and Poor’s 2023, 3 August). In a similar vein, a 2023 report by Ernst and Young noted that India’s structural change has been accompanied by a rising share of the surplus labor released by agriculture moving in to service sector rather than to the manufacturing sector (Ernst and Young 2023, October). In 2023, the share of manufacturing in India was 12.8%, compared to some of the other Asian countries – China ( 26.2%), Vietnam (23.9%), and Malaysia (23.0%) (World Bank 2023). In 2022, the share of manufacturing jobs in India stood at 11.7% , compared to  figures in, say, China (28.7%), Vietnam (21.7%), and Malaysia (16.7%) (UNIDO 2023).

Other experts too echo this sentiment: “India and Indonesia, two of most promising candidates for transformative industrialization over the coming decades, stand at a critical juncture in their development strategies. Their youthful populations and recent strong economic performance put them in a demographic sweet spot… The attunement of their development strategies to the principles derived from the East Asian experience would position them better both to fulfill their economic potential and avoid the danger that both now face of jobless growth” (Drsysdale and Joshi 2023, 6 November).

It is also important to note that India’s informal manufacturing sector has been inhabited by miniscule enterprises. “The small informal sector firms which employ over 75% of the manufacturing workers cannot compete in world markets. In contrast, China’s manufacturing employment is concentrated in 1000+ worker firms and has much higher productivity. This means that it is necessary to create conditions for small-scale units to evolve into medium and large industries with much higher productivity and wages” (Rao 2024, 2 February).

In 2017, one expert had put it so very aptly: “ One of the most labor-intensive industry is textiles, and India has been a long-term player in this field. So long term and unsuccessful that both Bangladesh and Vietnam, significantly behind us a few years ago, are rapidly catching up. Five years ago, India exported $ 33 billion worth of textiles, with Bangladesh $ 19.1 billion, and Vietnam $16.8 billion. In 2015, Indian textile exports were at $ 37.2 billion, Bangladesh at $ 28.1 billion and Vietnam, $ 27.3 billion” (Bhalla 2017, 28 January). This phenomenon has not changed much since then. In 2022, India’s share in global textile trade was 4.4%, behind China (32.2%), Bangladesh (6.1%), and Vietnam (4. 4%).

All these evidences indicate that India is far from maximizing its demographic dividend. A more positive way of summarizing that assessment is that the country has a huge untapped potential to exploit its demographic dividend. East Asian countries initially and China subsequently grew at exceptionally high rates and at the same time provided productive manufacturing jobs to their workforce.  Their remarkable performance was anchored on deeper integration of their economies with the global production networks and supply chains in the manufacturing sector. As a result, their economies were subject to the disciplines of international markets (Madhur 1994, 5 February).

Overall, it looks as if  “India and the Indians have made some progress in the seventy-five years after Independence. It looks good but not good enough… the shine from the story fades when India is compared with the East Asian Tigers and China” (Lahiri 2023, p.306). Indeed, following the economic liberalization of China beginning late 1970s, its economy grew at an annual average rate of 10% for three decades (Bloomberg News 2024, 8 April).

Such huge economic expansion made China a magnet for foreign investment. To put it figuratively, every big international company then had to have a ‘China Strategy’. Labor-intensive manufacturing has consistently been the most important route to achieving high economic growth and job creation. “Vietnam’s manufacturing miracle is the most recent evidence to support that establishing large scale manufacturing exporting to the world market can catalyze economic growth and employment generation in a country” (Srinath and Sagar 2023, 3 October).

 Indeed,  “the space vacated by China was fast being taken over by Bangladesh and Vietnam in case of apparels; Vietnam and Indonesia in case of leather footwear. What was worse, even Indian apparel and leather firms were relocating to Bangladesh, Vietnam, and even Ethiopia” (Kaul 2020, 13 May). All these evidences sound a wakeup call to India.

3. Issues and Policy Options

The historical experience and cross-country empirical evidence presented in the previous section unequivocally show that a vibrant manufacturing sector is the kingpin for a country to realize its demographic dividend. India is now in a favorable position to give a big boost to its labor-intensive segment of its manufacturing sector. The most of important of these favorable factors are two. First, in recent years,  the investor sentiment towards China has been deteriorating, as the United States and its allies began following the so called ‘de-risking strategy’. Second, China is slowly but surely moving up the global production networks and supply chains – from being an ‘imitator to an innovator’ (Madhur 2024, February; Madhur, July). India should, therefore, look out for opportunities arising from the relocation of labor-intensive manufacturing away from China.

With the right policies that would subject domestic firms to global competition, it is quite possible for India to develop an efficient manufacturing sector by taking up the labor intensive manufacturing that are being vacated by China. In particular, India’s policy makers need to recognize that the demographic dividend has an expiry date. Indeed, the country’s policymakers owe  a huge debt to the younger generation of Indians, if they fail to fully reap the country’s potential demographic dividend. If they fail in this task,  the demographic dividend could turn into a demographic disaster.

Encouragingly, The Chief Economic Officer of India’s NITI Ayog (meaning ‘Policy Commission’ if translated into English),  Subramanyam put it aptly: “…in the next 15 to 20 years’ time span, India has an opportunity in manufacturing. But the opportunity and the window for India is at best two to three years, because supply chains are unwinding, they’re becoming shorter, and they’re looking for new geographies” (reported in The Economic Times 2023, 8 December).

He went on to add: “India has a two-to-three-year window to capitalize on the global strategy of de-risking from China and the government needs to be very alert to come up with a set of policies that make the shift of businesses to India attractive and easier” (reported in The Economic Times 2023, 8 December). From now on, if the country were to provide productive employment to about 11 million youngsters entering the labor market every year, it is critical that the country’s policy makers focus on increasing the export competitiveness of labor-intensive manufacturing products.

The government recognizes the importance of creating more manufacturing jobs in the country, but its response to the problem tends to be introduction of a new government-sponsored ‘administrative scheme’. In the 2024 Budget, the Union Government introduced three government subsidized schemes under which about 300,000 youths are expected to benefit (Sharma 2024, 23 July). Stripped to its core, the Scheme provides government subsidies to firms for hiring youth who are eligible under the Scheme. The 2024 Budget has allocated Rs.150,000 to finance the subsidy.

This is a good gesture on the part of the government. However, it is important to remember that these three government schemes introduced in 2024 simply add to about 41 somewhat similar schemes that already exist – 40 of them initiated since 2014 (Directorate General of Employment (2024, 19 July).  Despite these large number of previous government schemes, there still remains a huge shortage of productive manufacturing jobs                 

Government sponsored schemes such as these may just about provide a chip on the margins, without addressing the core problem of youth unemployment and shortage of productive manufacturing jobs.  Such schemes are typically administrative measures rather than hardcore policy liberalization that the country badly needs to realize its demographic dividend. Creating jobs through government subsidies have more often than not played a minor role in creating productive jobs over the long term. Such schemes involve the government departments administering them taking the economy back to the good old ‘Permit Raj’ system or its variants. Moreover, “given the shortage of resources and administrative capacity, the time is opportune to rethink the role of the State. It should complement the market rather than compete with it” (Rao 2024, 2 February).

Moreover, the policy makers need to recognize the slow pace of productive manufacturing employment in the country is fundamentally a structural problem – which require structural reforms, not piecemeal, temporary, government-subsidy schemes. The government would, therefore, be better off if it could create an enabling business environment for the private manufacturing sector to grow and create productive employment to the country’s growing young population. “While India’s policy environment and business climate have improved in recent years, there is much need for improvement before India can be a major player in Asia’s Global Value Chains” (West 2020, 18 February).To do that, there is an enormous merit in the policymakers considering four sets of economic reforms: liberalizing external trade; attracting foreign investment; deregulating the domestic labor laws; and keeping up India’s strength in IT-related services.

            3.1 Liberalizing External Trade

 “India still retains many restrictions on international trade, despite the impressive trade liberalization from the early 1990s. (West 2020,18 February). “Indian trade policy has long had a protectionist bent. Even the liberalizing reforms of the early 1990s – as important and beneficial as they were – were limited, and vested interests and populist domestic politics continue to trump policies that would be beneficial for India now and into the future” (Batra, 2023, 6 February).

Another expert  put it so aptly: “International experience shows that opening up the economy for trade and investment is important to accelerate growth and create employment. Exports have been strong engines in every country that has shown high growth performance such as South Korea, Taiwan and, more recently, China. India has 17% of the world’s population but accounts for just about 2.5% of global exports” (Rao 2024, 2 February).

High import duties are acting as a huge deterrent to the country’s ambitions of “Make in India, Make for World” — a government initiative to make Indian manufacturing globally competitive and enhance exports (Dewan 2023, 20 January). In the past 11 years preceding 2023, India’s trade-weighted average Most Favored Nation (MFN)  rate rose from 7.7% to 11.4%, in comparison to a decline in the global average from 7.7% to 6.9% (Pandey (2023, 18 July).

Moreover, India imposes higher import duties on  capital and intermediate goods such as machinery and transport equipment than on the end-products – the phenomenon of tariff-inversion (Mitra 2024, 10 January). The 2023-24 Budget continued the trend of raising import duties (International Trade Administration (2024, 12 January).  The multiple clearances that enterprises are required to get from government departments adds to the burden of manufacturing enterprises.

As one expert pointed out: India’s high import tariffs on electronic parts and components have hurt assembly and input processing, which was the engine of growth and employment generation in China; similarly 60–125 per cent tariffs on import of automobiles have made the domestic automobile industry enormously inefficient and uncompetitive – another case of missed opportunity in labor-intensive automobile assembly line (Mitra 2024, 10 January).

“India would need to raise its competitiveness in high-potential sectors like electronics and capital goods, chemicals, textiles and apparel, auto and auto components, and pharmaceuticals and medical devices, which contributed to about 56 percent of global trade in 2018. India’s share of exports in these sectors is 1.5 percent of the global total” (McKinsey &Company 2020, 26 August). “Despite our contrarian experience, there has been steadily increasing protectionism since 2017, and this has led to a fall in exports as a percentage of GDP” (Rao 2024, 2 February). In order to change this policy regime, far-reaching policy reforms are badly needed now.

A quintessential part of the required policy reforms should involve dismantling all the hurdles to the country’s external trade and foreign investment. Indeed, at this juncture, policymakers should avoid a ‘piecemeal’ approach to policy reforms; instead, they should adopt a ‘big bang’ approach to its external trade liberalization. The Indian economy needs a long-overdue shake up, if it were to wake up to international competition and fully reap its demographic dividend – no more negative lists of imports, no constraints on exports, and just adopt a low customs duty across all imports, if at all it is required. In other words, India needs a ‘free trade and investment regime’. Let the entire country be a ‘large free economic zone’ for external trade and foreign investment.

“The time is ripe for India to become a major manufacturing player, and the present geopolitical system has given us the right opportunity. Given the sheer size of India, we should ideally be in a position create at least 5 Vietnam’s within India! This will only be possible if we can successfully create a globally competitive ecosystem in manufacturing” (Srinath, Nitya and Ayaan Sagar 2023, 3 October). Another expert nearly echoed that sentiment: “To absorb its large and still-growing labor force into the future, India still needs a strong, broad-based, internationally competitive and dynamic manufacturing sector. For this, trade openness is essential” (Batra, 2023, 6 February).

Vijay Kelkar, a well-known Indian economist  was once reported as saying: “If you want to be  great economic power, you can’t  be protectionist” (Shirali and Mehra 2021, 21 January). Those words are even more important in today’s global setting. Indeed, the policy slogan should be: free up the economy to let the young Indians flourish! Moreover,  at this juncture, India could liberalize the its external trade regime from a position of strength, as the country’s foreign exchange reserves are at an all-time high of about $684 billion (The Economic Times 2024, 7 September). These reserves provide a coverage for about 11 months of the country’s import bill. If policymakers do not implement a big-bang trade liberalization now, posterity would judge them as denying the country’s youngsters productive employment and a descent standard of living!

3.2Attracting Foreign Investment

“Attracting foreign direct investment is often a starting point for participating in global value chains. And while India has been attracting growing amounts of FDI, its restrictions on FDI remain higher than most OECD countries, based on the OECD’s Foreign Direct Investment Regulatory Restrictiveness Index” (West 2020,18 February).

The rapidly changing geopolitical configuration, including the ‘de-risking’ strategy of the U.S and its allies is translating into new business opportunities for India (Chakravorti and Dalmia 2023, 6 September). A good example of this trend was the recent plan of Apple to relocate its iPhone production from China to India (Time Magazine 2023, 2 October). In 2022, about 232 million iPhones that Indian consumers bought were made in a single massive Foxconn facility in Zhengzhou city in China. However, as per Apple’s plan, beginning 2024, the Indian Plant is expected to quadruple its production of iPhones to around 20 million a year, creating about 50,000 jobs.

Similarly, in recent years Boeing India has grown its India team in engineering, research and development,  with more than 6000 employes as of December 2023. Indeed, Boeing’s India team has the largest number of employees, more than in any country outside the United States (Bloomberg News 2024, 8 April). The company has also set up a new engineering center in Bengaluru in southern India. The setting up of the center will cost $200 million. In addition, the company has pledged to spend $100 million on infrastructure and training pilots to meet the growing demand for pilots.

Foreign investment such as these should help India reduce its unemployment and at least partially help it reap its demographic dividend. Indeed,  India could and should attract many more such big-ticket foreign investments, just as China did during its 3 decades of double-digit annual economic growth. India has a great opportunity to allure many more international companies to relocate their labor-intensive  manufacturing production to India. That, in turn, would require India to dismantle most of its hurdles on external trade and foreign investment.

In recent years, India has strengthened its infrastructure and logistics. Reflecting that, “India’s overall logistics performance index (LPI) score has risen from 3.08 in 2014 to 3.40 in 2023, and its global rank has improved from 54^th to 38^th” (Khurana 2024, 21 March). However, quite a few hurdles such as inadequate handling facilities at ports and delays in customs clearance of imports at times increase India’s overall trade costs. “Becoming a global player means raising standards at home” (Khurana 2024, 21 March).

3.3 Deregulating Domestic Labor Laws

“The prevailing factor-market rigidities, generated by existing land and labor laws, prevent the structural change required for economic development and the creation of better jobs” (Mitra 2024, 10 January). Similarly, “The cost of doing business in India has improved, but many challenges remain. Land acquisition can stall construction projects and the courts are slow-moving institutions. Land records may be non-existing or outdated and environmental clearances have created additional barriers. On top of this, contract enforcement remains challenging… A legacy of protectionism still persists” (Chakravorti and Dalmia 2023, 6 September)

It is encouraging that recently the policy makers have specified that to form a trade union in any firm, the majority of the workers have to be represented. This should discourage formation of trade unions which more often than not become ‘vested interest groups’ hindering employment expansion. “Shorter, fixed-term labor contracts and a new web portal for self-reporting of labor law compliance have also been introduced” (Mitra 2024, 10 January). “The reforms initiated by the Union Government to impart flexibility to the labor market by merging 24 laws into four codes should help in the medium and long term. The new Industrial Relations Code allows manufacturing units up to 300 workers to hire and fire without the government approval” (Rao 2024, 2 February).

These are welcome moves from the government, but effective implementation of these measures is as important as their initiation.  Moreover, “While the government has offered production subsidies and protective tariffs, many companies have not boosted manufacturing capacity at a rate commensurate with India’s rapid economic growth” (Sharma 2024, 10 September). Indeed, there is enormous merit in policymakers completely abolishing the requirement of government approval for hiring and firing labor, irrespective of the size of labor employed in a firm. In other words, India needs a quick move to ‘constructive destruction’ – it is high time that firms that cannot compete in the world markets should give way to those that can.

Without such a process, the country would continue to have zombie firms hanging in there, neither offering quality products to the consumers nor providing productive employment to the youngsters. “When a firm goes out of business, we feel a certain sorrow about its departure. But a key idea of economics is that birth and death of firms is healthy and desirable. The great economist Joseph Schumpeter termed this process ‘creative destruction’” (Kelkar and Shah 2022, p.104)

3.4 Keeping Up the Strength in IT-Related Services

To be sure, none of these policy options should be taken to mean that the country should give up its strength in service sectors related to such Information Technology and Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning–based analytics (McKinsey & Company (2020, 26 August).

As one expert put it so aptly: “India has a lot of extremes. It has the brightest minds, and then the greatest institutes in India that compete with the Ivy League universities, but then on average human capital levels are just not quite comparable to most other countries in the region, let alone higher or more developed countries,” (Alexandra Hermann – Quoted in Bloomberg News 2024, 8 April). The country needs to manage these extremes effectively so that the benefits of its economic diversity helps, rather than hinders economic growth and employment

generation

India’s prowess in AI is not just a temporary phase of excellence.  It indeed is “a testament to the nation’s growing availability of talent, ample resources, and sustained government support” (Wheebox 2024). It is estimated that India now has more than 2 million AI professionals. By 2025, that figure is estimated to surge to about 5 million.

India’s commitment to build a talent pool in artificial intelligence is evident from the efforts from institutions ranging from industry to academics. On the part of the government, it has initiated the National Skill Development Mission (NSDM), a flagship program designed to propel skill development in the country. As part of the NSDM, the FutureSkills Prime program is a noteworthy initiative, offering free online AI training courses that seems to have reached millions of youngsters nationwide (Wheebox 2024)

More recently, The United States has come forth to explore the possibility of a joint venture with India on semiconductor supply chain (U.S Department of State 2024, 9 September). Manufacturing of essential products ranging from vehicles to medical devices relies on the strength and resilience of the semiconductor supply chain.  This collaboration between the United States and India underscores the potential to expand India’s semiconductor industry to the benefit of both nations. A comprehensive assessment of the feasibility study shall provide the groundwork for this joint venture.

That said, “The shape of tech leadership has evolved from core tech to digital and AI, and now it’s moving into business and functional leadership. The potential value from rewiring enterprises is growing, as are advances in tech. The link between creating tech and creating business value is stronger than ever. To meet the moment, company leaders and tech leaders must capture the rewards of this shift in mindset” (McKinsey & Company 2024, 11 September).

4. Summing Up

India is in its demographic prime. India needs to make sure that its demographic dividend is realized fully, especially if India has to play a major role at the global level.  “India’s ambitions of assuming major power status are justified – it is the world’s largest democracy … and has huge economic and political potential. But its ambitions will remain just that – ambitions – if its economic growth doesn’t deliver upon its potential. Fundamental will be an update to trade strategy that encourages, rather than hinders, participation in global value chains and the development of a competitive manufacturing sector” (Batra 2023, 6 February).

Indeed,  “We have been through similar surges of Indo-optimism before. But the on-the-ground reality has continued to frustrate even the most ardent of India’s champions. From bold predictions that it would overtake China (an economy still five times larger than India’s), to McKinsey’s 2007 “bird of gold” promise of the Indian consumer that never quite panned out, to deregulation followed by policy reversals and crises of confidence in doing business with India, to devastating periods through the pandemic, the country’s promised inevitable rise has remained elusive” (Chakravorti and Dalmia 2023, 6 September).

Moreover “economic policy lies within the subject of political economy, the dark crossroads where economics and politics meet” (Kelkar and Shah 2022, p.13). “In a democracy, politicians and their parties, who aspire to capture positions of governance and formulate policies, must carry the people along with them. Doubtless, they can sway public opinion to some extent, and some charismatic leaders can do that better others, but within finite and region-specific limitations” (Lahiri 2023, p.41).

“Economics provides the principal rationale for human cooperation. Politics provides the framework within which that cooperation works. Economics and politics are necessarily symbiotic … They are married to each other. But theirs is also a difficult marriage. Managing this productive, yet fraught, relationship requires awareness of these realities” (Wolf 2023, p.13). Effective political leaders would circumvent the political constraint rather succumb to it.

While addressing the G20 meeting in September 2023, PM Modi did so eloquently articulate the need for India to be well integrated with the rest of the world: “our global conduct is rooted in the fundamental principle of ‘Vasudeva Kutumbakam’, which means ‘world is one family’” (Government of India 2023, 8 September). One hopes that he puts this mindset into action.

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[1] Srinivasa Madhur is an Adjunct Professor at the Faculty of Social Sciences and International Relations at the Pannasastra University of Cambodia, Phnom Penh and a former Senior Director at Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines. The views expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author and should not in any way be attributed to the Pannasastra University of Cambodia and/or Asian Development Bank. Moreover, the author would like to confirm that no funding was received to finance the paper from any financing agencies and thus no conflict of interest in any form is involved. The contact email of the author is: srinimadhur@gmail.com

^*Ega, I. J., Oluwalowo, I. A and Giwa Musibau

Department of building/woodwork technology, school of secondary education (Technical) Federal college of education (Technical) Asaba. ^*Tel; +2348035998855,                                  email; egasaves@gmail.com

Abstract

Technical education is thought to empower the citizenry, enhance employment and stimulate sustainable development through industrialization or small-scale businesses; thus, reduces poverty, improves quality of life, reduces the frequency of social vices and encourage a culture of peace. However, these have appear to be an illusion in southern Nigeria. This study is on assessment of acquired skills for establishment and effective management of small-scale industries among technical education students in southern Nigeria. Four research questions guide the study with survey research design adopted. The population for the study consists of final year Technical Education Students in Federal Colleges. Purposeful sampling was used. A five-point rating-scale questionnaire was used for data collection. The researchers administered the research instrument and collected the data through the help of three research assistants. The data collected were analyzed using mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions and determine the spread of the responses. The findings of the study reveal inadequacy of skills among the graduating students of the Nigerian Certificate in Technical Education for the establishment and effective management of small-scale industry without additional training. The implication is that the graduates are not likely to participate in the establishment and management of small scale industry except those with special ingenuity. However it was concluded that due to the high level of unemployment in Nigeria, there is a need to prepare the students for both teaching and industry. Thus, the training should cover both areas so that the graduates can have optional career.

INTRODUCTION

Technical education as intended for colleges of education according to Federal Republic Nigeria (2014) is an education obtained at tertiary institution with the goals to contribute to national development through high level of manpower training to produce skills relevant to the needs of the labour market; promote and encourage scholarship, and entrepreneurship among others. Consequently, the graduates are expected to be self-reliance since they are required to be theoretically and practically sound teachers. This means that the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) graduates should be well equipped for paid employment order than teaching or to become self-employed and employers of labour with requisite skills to establish and manage a business or industry effectively. In line with that Omorodion, (2016) opined that the graduate teachers should have the ability to understand basic aspects of their field of study and make life out of it by managing their own businesses.

Small-scale industry which is the focus of this study can be seen as a firm that employs 10-15 workers and does not have a high volume of sales (Ayozie, Oboreh, Umukoro & Anozie, 2013). Ayozie et al (2013) further observed that small-scale industries are generally privately owned and are sole proprietorships, corporations or partnerships. With the acquired skills the graduates are expected to be able to establish their own businesses since skills are the lens through which business opportunity are viewed by an entrepreneur (Ega & Ega 2023). Therefore, with the skills acquired, the NCE graduates should be entrepreneurially able to own or manage small-scale industries. That is hope to mitigate the serious economic and financial crisis that Africa continent had due to unemployment as a result of lack of skills (Ubulom & Enyekit, 2017). This is to improve quality of life, reduce poverty, limit the incidence of social vices due to joblessness and promote a culture of peace, freedom and Democracy (Federal Ministry of Education, 2016).

However, these objectives seem to be an illusion as many of the graduates are unemployed and in standard unproductive. It has been reported that, industrialists are becoming increasingly skeptical of the products from the technical programme in Nigeria (Abdulkadir & Ma’aji, 2014). Consequently, most of the graduates of technical education join the already large number of unemployed youths due to inadequate skills (Dantawaye, 2014). This is attributed to lack of adequate resources to train students in Technical Education to acquire the skills needed by employers of labour by the higher institutions (Akinyele & Bolarinwa, 2018).

Consequently, this study, is concerns with the increasing level of joblessness among graduates of NCE in the Southern Nigeria which appears to be inadequate training and subsequent lack of relevant skills to establish and effectively manage Small Scale Industries. It is on the above framework that this study on assessment of acquired skills by technical education students for establishment and effective management of small-scale enterprises was considered imperative to offer appropriate empirical data for actionable objectives by relevant stakeholders. The study is thus designed to determine the extent of technical, entrepreneurial, management, and human relation skills acquired by technical education students for effective management of small-scale industries.

METHODOLOGY

This study used survey research design in its investigations; Survey research design is most suitable when an investigation is centered on opinions, attitude and perceptions (Omorodion, 2016). Survey research design is considered most appropriate for this study due to the involvement in gathering of opinions data from technical students on their acquired skills.

The study was conducted among the Federal Colleges of Education (Technical) in Southern Nigeria.  Southern states comprise South-South, South-East and South-West. The Federal Colleges Education (Technical) selected for the current study include; FCE,(T) Asaba, Delta State for South-South, FCE, (T) Umunze, Anambra State, for South-East and FCE, (T) Akoka-Yaba, Lagos State for South- West. These zones were chosen because there were considered as the industrial hub of the Nigeria yet many youths are unemployed, due to the failure of technical education graduates to embark on the operation of small-scale industries and create jobs (Idowu, 2023).

 The population for the study comprises of the final year technical education students in the three colleges of education (technical) selected in southern Nigeria. The population of this study basically consisted of graduating students from the following department; Automobile, Building, Electrical/Electronic, Metalwork and Woodwork technology education from the three colleges. The total population thus are 142 respondents which were purposively sampled. The instrument for data collection was structured based on a five-point rating scale of Very High (VH – 5points), High (H – 4 points), Average (A – 3 points), Low (L – 2 points) and Very Low (VL – 1 point).

Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation determine the respondents’ closeness. Decision on the research questions were based on limit of numbers as presented in Table 1.

1. Table 2; Questionnaire Decision Rating 

Codes	Keys	Range
VH	Very High	4.50-5.00
H	High	3.50-4.49
A	Average	2.50-3.49
P	Poor	1.50-2.49
VP	Very Poor	1.00-1.49

RESULTS

Cluster 1; the extent of acquired technical skills for establishment and effective management of small-scale industry.

Table 2: Means and standard deviations of the respondents on the extent of acquired technical skills.

S/N	ITEM	Very high	High	Average	Poor	Very Poor	Mean	Standard  deviation	Decision
1	Knowledge of tools and equipment in my area of specialization for small-scale industry.	32	50	40	12	5	3.66	0.45	High
2	Skills on how to handle relevant tools and equipment in my area of specialization for small-scale industry.	20	35	50	32	10	3.34	0.12	Average
3	Knowledge of relevant materials used in the production or operation in (my area of specialization) small-scale industry.	40	50	30	10	9	3.73	0.53	High
4	Knowledge of the process of production or construction of a product in (my area of specialization) small-scale industry).	40	42	29	21	7	3.63	0.40	High
5	Skills on repair or maintenance of tools and equipment used in (my area of specialization) small-scale industry.	9	35	30	45	20	2.77	0.05	Average
	Grand mean						3.37	1.22	Average

Table 1 clearly shows the extent of acquired technical skills rating for effective management of small-scale industries or businesses by the respondents.  It expresses that the respondents agreed on having high knowledge of tools/equipment, and of relevant materials used in the production or operation in small-scale industry. Also, the knowledge of the process of production or construction of products in small-scale industry was also rated high. However, the skills in handling relevant tools/equipment and the skills on repairs and maintenance of tools and equipment were rated average. The grand mean of 3.37 so indicated an average value of the acquired technical skills.

Cluster 2: the extent of acquired entrepreneurial skills to establish and effective management of small-scale industry.

Table 3: Means and standard deviations of the respondents on the extent of acquired entrepreneurial skills.

S/N	ITEM	Very high	High	Average	Poor	Very Poor	Mean	Standard  deviation	Decision
6	Skills on how to identify business opportunity for small-scale industry in my area of specialization.	26	50	40	20	3	3.55	0.30	High
7	Skills on how to organize business ideas for small-scale industry.in my area of specialization	15	29	60	35	10	3.10	0.01	Average
8	Skills on how to manage risks in small-scale industry in my area of specialization.	10	18	40	60	11	2.68	0.10	Average
9	Skills on how to write and organise plan for small-scale industry in my area of specialization.	7	20	30	58	19	2.55	0.20	Average
10	Skills on how to generate and organise resources for small-scale industry in my area of specialization.	3	10	37	69	20	2.33	0.11	Poor
	Grand total						2.84	0.72	Average

Table 3shows clearly the means and standard deviations of the respondents on the extent of acquired entrepreneurial skills to establish and effective management of small-scale industry. The analysis shows that the respondents rated high the Skills on how to identify business opportunity for small-scale industry, while skills on how to oranised resources was rated poor.

However, the other items in the cluster; skills on how to organize business ideas, Skills on how to manage risks in small-scale industry and Skills on how to write and organise plan for small-scale industry were rated average. Again, the grand mean of 2.84 indicated an average value of the acquired entrepreneurial skills.

Cluster 3: The extent of acquired management skills for effective management of small-scale industry.

Table 4: Means and standard deviations of the respondents on the extent of acquired management skills.

S/N	ITEM	Very high	High	Average	Poor	Very Poor	Mean	Standard  deviation	Decision
11	Acquired skills in materials management in small-scale industry in my area of specialization.	10	26	55	41	7	2.61	0.15	Average
12	Acquired skills in personnel management in small-scale industry in my area of specialization	0	16	55	41	27	2.43	0.32	Poor
13	Acquired skills in time management in small-scale industry in my area of specialization	10	12	33	67	17	2.50	0.25	Average
14	Acquired skills in tools/ equipment management in small-scale industry in my area of specialization	3	10	30	60	36	2.32	0.68	Poor
15	Acquired skills in financial management in small-scale industry in my area of specialization	9	21	39	61	9	1.83	1.37	Poor
	Grand total						2.34	2.77	Poor

The analysis of data presented in Table 4 shows the responses of the respondents on the extent of acquired management skills for effective management of small-scale industry. The respondents rated skills on materials management and skill on time management as average. The other items; skills in personnel management, skills on tools/ equipment management and skills in financial were rated poor. The average mean of 2.34 also shows that the rating of acquired management skills is poor and the discrepancy between the mean respondent is reasonable.

Cluster 4: The extent of acquired human relation skills for effective management of small-scale industry.

 Table 5: Means and standard deviations of the respondents on the extent of acquired human relation skills.

S/N	ITEM	Very high	High	Average	Poor	Very Poor	Mean	Standard  deviation	Decision
16	Acquired skills on Leadership for the effective management of small-scale industry.	16	28	50	30	15	3.0	0.00	Average
17	Acquired skills on motivation of staff for the effective management of small-scale industry.	4	10	25	60	40	2.12	0.77	Poor
18	Acquired skills on how to work with others or team for the effective management of small-scale industry.	10	40	40	30	19	2.94	0.00	Average
19	Acquired skills on staff training for the effective management of small-scale industry.	30	60	31	10	8	3.67	0.45	High
20	Acquired skills on customer’s satisfactions for the effective management of small-scale industry.	3	14	30	52	40	2.19	0.66	Poor
	Grand total						2.78	1.98	Average

The data presented and analysed in Table 5 shows the responses of the respondents on the extent of acquired human relation skills for effective management of small-scale industry: while the skills on staff training was rated high, skills on Leadership and skills on working with others or a team were rated average. However, the skills on motivation of staff and skills on customer’s satisfactions were rated poor. But the grand total mean rate is 2.98 signifying average rating and the standard deviation of 1.98 shows that the disparities between the respondents rating is insignificant.  

SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDINGS

The following are the summary of the findings of this study;

1. The acquired technical skills by the graduating students of the Nigeria Certificate in Education is of average.
2. The acquired entrepreneurial skills among the graduating students of the Nigeria Certificate in Education is also of average.
3. The acquired management skills among the graduating students of the Nigeria Certificate in Education is poor.
4. The acquired human relation skills among the graduating students of the Nigeria Certificate in Education is again of average.

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

The capacity to be self-employed or manage a small scale industry the graduates must acquire both sound knowledge and high skills in their area of specializations. Firstly, technical education students should have versatile technical skills at the same time a good entrepreneurship skills to be able to establish their own businesses. That is not all, to sustain the business and work with others, there is the need to have good management skills and human relation skills.

However, the findings of the current study have shown that the acquired technical skills is of average. The details of the findings show that the students are better acquainted with knowledge or information rather than skills. The implication of this is that the graduates are limited in identifying business opportunity since skills is the lens through which entrepreneur could view business opportunity (Ega & Ega, 2023). It may also be difficult for the graduates to assess the risks involved in the business.

This average rating of technical skills could be attributed to respondents training programme (NCE). The NCE by its established objectives is mainly designed to train students to teach technical related subjects in primary and junior secondary schools. Thus the curriculum does not cover in details or prepared them for business hence the average knowledge or the skills. The implication of this is that the graduates can only conveniently teach and may not have the charisma to venture into business without additional training or apprenticeship.   

The average acquired entrepreneurial skills recorded again shows that the curriculum required modification to increase their skills on how to expressly identify business opportunity, organise the plan, write business plan, and take risk. Again, it is also very necessary to understand how to gather resources for such business.  Entrepreneurial skills is the key to starting any business venture and the lack of it or half-baked of it as in this study will not encourage starting a business.

Management skills is necessary to sustain a small-scale industry. However, the findings of this study has shown that the acquired management skills is poor. This result is thus expected since the graduates are yet to enter into the job market or industry, they do not have the confidence on their ability to manage such industry. They may be having the theoretical knowledge but not practical or field experience.  However, Diran (2016) observed that the acquisition of management skills contribute immensely to the effective management of business. Again, Dantawaye, (2014) iterates that management competencies are needed by technical college welding and fabrication graduates for self-employment.

Further, the human relation is another skills necessary to sustain a business in Nigeria. Human relation involve leadership skills, motivation skills, and ability to work with others. Others include skills on staff training and skills on customer’s satisfactions. The absence of these skills will prevent effective management of a business. However, the findings of the current study have rated human relation skills of the graduating students as average. The average rating again could be attributed to inadequate or absence of these special skills training in their curriculum. Although the students industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) is expected to partly take care of this, however, the SIWES is hardly taken seriously by some of the students. Yet according to Chia (2018) possession of human relation skills is very important for enhancement of productivity.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study reveal inadequacy of skills among graduating students of Nigerian certificate in technical education for the establishment and effective management of small-scale industry without additional training. This is because some basic skills are still lacking in their training. This can be attributed to the emphasis of the programme as focus is mainly for the graduates to teach in the class room.  The implication is that the graduates are not likely to participate in the establishment and management of small scale industry except those with special ingenuity.

However, due to the high level of unemployment in Nigeria, there is a need to prepare the students for both teaching and industry. Consequently the training should cover both areas so that the graduates can have optional career, and to do this the curriculum should be reviewed.

REFERENCES

Abdulkadir, M. & Ma’aji, S.A. (2014). Assessment of workshop resources management   practices in technical colleges of Niger State. International Journal of Scientific and    Research Publications, 4(1); 1-6.

Ayozie, D. O, Oboreh S.O. Umukoro, F., & Anozie, V. (2013). Small and medium scale   enterprises (SMEs) in Nigeria: the marketing interface. Global journal of management and business research marketing Vol. 13 Issue 9 Version 1.0 year 2013

Dantawaye, J. B, (2014). Management competencies needed by technical college welding and                  fabrication graduates for self-employment in Kaduna State. Unpublished masters’ thesis submitted to the Department of teacher education- industrial technical education unit,          University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Diran, M. (2016). Entrepreneurs: perception of skills needed for management of Small-Scale       businesses in Okitipupa local government of Ondo State. Unpublished maters’ thesis,      submitted to the Department of Vocational and Technical Education, Delta State      University, Abraka

Ega, I. J., & Ega, E. F. (2023). Entrepreneurial model for business development from skill to        enterprise. In H. S. Nalado, R. O. Igbodo, A. O. Isibor, & A. O. Attah (Eds), Current trends in entrepreneurship (569-575). Rupee-com publisher & coy, Asaba.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2014) National policy on education. Abuja: NERDC

Omorodion, S. O. (2016). Assessment of the level of technological literacy possessed by   vocational and technical education students in tertiary institutions.  Unpublished   masters’ thesis submitted to the department of technology and vocational education,             Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka 2016)

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Komal Ashok Raisinghani

Email: raikomal2109@gmail.com

Abstract

In Leah Kaminsky’s The Waiting Room (2015), the spectral presence of the protagonist’s mother and various memory objects serve as powerful symbols for the enduring effects of trauma across generations. This study examines how Kaminsky uses these elements to explore the interplay between past and present, where unresolved grief and historical trauma manifest in both tangible and intangible forms. The ghostly figure of Dina’s mother symbolizes the persistent, haunting memories of the Holocaust, while objects such as cardboard boxes function as conduits for trauma that refuse to fade into history. This research analyses how Kaminsky intertwines spectral figures with memory objects to create a narrative space where the dead and the living coexist, revealing the continuous psychological toll of inherited trauma. The study further investigates how the novel portrays trauma as an omnipresent force that shapes identity, disrupts time, and blurs the boundaries between reality and memory. By delving into the narrative’s unique use of these elements, this paper sheds light on the complexities of post-war trauma and the ways in which literature can articulate the often invisible yet pervasive nature of historical suffering. This approach offers new insights into the representation of trauma in contemporary literature, emphasizing how Kaminsky’s novel contributes to the understanding of the intergenerational transmission of grief.

Keywords: Spectral figures, Memory objects, Intergenerational trauma, Historical haunting, The Waiting Room

Trauma leaves a mark far deeper than the physical scars of war, violence, or personal loss. It permeates the psyche, shaping the individual’s relationship with themselves, their family, and the broader world. While the wounds may be invisible, they linger across generations, embedding themselves in objects, memories, and familial bonds. Leah Kaminsky’s novel, The Waiting Room (2015), provides a profound exploration of how trauma transcends time, geography, and even life itself. Set in Israel, where the echoes of past wars reverberate alongside present conflicts, The Waiting Room delves into the life of Dr. Dina Ronen, a woman haunted by her mother’s death during the Holocaust, and her overwhelming fear of passing on that trauma to her son, Shlomi. Trauma fiction has long served as a crucial avenue for exploring not only the psychological aftermath of traumatic events but also their socio-political dimensions. Vickroy (2002) highlights the significance of trauma literature as a vital lens through which readers can access the lived experiences of individuals shaped by ideology and public policy. Through a sociocultural critical analysis, trauma literature provides a deeper understanding of how people navigate oppressive systems and historical contexts that have profoundly impacted their lives. The blending of literary narratives with research from fields such as psychology and history not only enriches our understanding of trauma but also supplements other fields of study, offering a multi-dimensional perspective on the psychological and social aftermath of traumatic events. Horvitz (2000) reinforces this idea, asserting that trauma fiction serves as a means of unmasking the very ideologies and sociopolitical conditions that give rise to traumatic incidents. By exposing these oppressive forces, trauma fiction becomes a powerful tool for both critiquing and challenging systems that produce or legitimize suffering. The combination of these perspectives underscores the power of trauma literature not only to document individual and collective experiences but also to critique the broader forces that shape and sustain those experiences, contributing to a richer and more comprehensive understanding of trauma. In Kaminsky’s The Waiting Room, these ideas are embodied in Dina’s internal and external struggles as she navigates the overwhelming burden of intergenerational trauma. Cathy Caruth, one of the foremost scholars in the field, suggests that “the story of trauma, then, as the narrative of a belated experience, far from telling of an escape from reality—the escape from a death, or from its referential force—rather attests to its endless impact on a life” (1996, p. 7). It implies that trauma does not always manifest immediately after a distressing or violent event. In many cases, people do not fully process or understand what has happened to them until much later. This is why trauma is often described as belated—its emotional, psychological, and sometimes even physical impact can emerge long after the initial event. In this sense, trauma is not just about the past event itself but about how that event continues to affect the person over time. Trauma narratives do not offer an escape from the painful reality of the event; instead, they highlight how the traumatic experience continues to linger and shape the individual’s reality. The traumatic event is not something that the person simply gets over or leaves behind, but rather something that they carry with them, sometimes unconsciously. This further refers to the idea that even if someone survives a traumatic event, the psychological consequences of that event continue to impact the survivor. In other words, while the person may have physically escaped death, they have not escaped the emotional or mental toll it takes. This emphasizes the enduring nature of trauma. The traumatic event keeps surfacing in a person’s life—through flashbacks, nightmares, emotional triggers, or unconscious behaviours—demonstrating that its impact is never fully left behind. Trauma has a ripple effect, shaping the person’s future experiences, relationships, and emotional state in ways that can feel endless. Caruth’s seminal work, Unclaimed Experience (1996), offers a framework for understanding how trauma operates in fiction, particularly through its disruptive effect on narrative temporality. In Kaminsky’s The Waiting Room, this disruption is evident in Dina’s oscillation between past and present, with her mother’s ghost serving as the embodiment of unresolved trauma.

Freud’s theories of trauma provide a compelling lens to understand Dina’s behaviour in The Waiting Room. Freud (1924) posits that trauma victims, in response to memory loss or repressed memories, unconsciously repeat the traumatic event, not as a recollection but as an action. This phenomenon, known as “acting out,” occurs because the victim is unable to process the memory properly, leading them to relive the trauma in various ways without recognizing the repetition. Victims of trauma are often unable to articulate their memories of the traumatic event and instead re-enact the trauma unconsciously. In The Waiting Room, Dina’s constant interaction with objects tied to her mother’s memory, as well as her obsessive anxiety over Shlomi’s safety, can be understood as manifestations of this repetition compulsion. She is trapped in an endless cycle of reliving her mother’s death, unable to break free from the shadow of the Holocaust. In The Waiting Room, Kaminsky engages with Israel’s ongoing history of war and conflict, as well as the cultural weight of the Holocaust. Dina’s personal trauma is deeply intertwined with the collective trauma of the Jewish people, suggesting that her inability to escape her mother’s ghost is symbolic of a larger societal struggle to come to terms with historical atrocities. The novel reveals Dina’s deep-seated anxiety, foreshadowing the persistent presence of trauma in her life. As Kaminsky writes, “…a past she carried along with her everywhere she went; a heavy sack filled with the dead, permanently hoisted over her shoulder” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 32) This encapsulates the key idea that trauma, particularly Holocaust-related trauma, is never truly forgotten; instead, it lingers, reemerging in spectral figures and memory objects that continuously shape Dina’s perception of the present. In The Waiting Room, Dina is a second-generation Holocaust survivor. Although she was not alive during the Holocaust, her mother’s death in a concentration camp casts a long shadow over her life. Dina’s obsessive need to protect Shlomi from the dangers of the world, her inability to let go of objects tied to her mother’s memory, and her constant fear of loss can all be seen as manifestations of intergenerational trauma. This concept is central to Kaminsky’s exploration of how trauma is inherited and how the past continues to shape the present.

In The Waiting Room, the ghost of Dina’s mother looms large, serving as both a literal and metaphorical representation of the trauma that haunts Dina’s life. Kaminsky uses the spectral figure to explore the idea that trauma is not confined to the past but continues to haunt the present, often in ways that are difficult to articulate or understand. Freud’s theory of melancholia, which suggests that individuals who are unable to properly mourn their losses become trapped in a state of perpetual mourning, is particularly relevant here (Freud’s Mourning & Melancholia). Dina’s inability to let go of her mother’s memory mirrors this process of melancholia, as she is unable to move forward and is instead trapped in the cycle of reliving her mother’s death. “In each room of memory lies a corner reserved for her mother’s dead; the family lost in the war” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 83). This line encapsulates the idea that Dina’s mother is not simply a memory but an omnipresent force in her life. The physical spaces Dina inhabits are marked by her mother’s absence, suggesting that the trauma of loss has infiltrated every aspect of her existence. Dina’s mother’s ghost is not just a figure from the past; she is a constant presence, reminding Dina of the trauma she cannot escape. Cultural trauma refers to the collective experience of a traumatic event that affects an entire community or nation. The Holocaust is perhaps the most well-known example of cultural trauma, and it plays a significant role in The Waiting Room. Dina’s trauma is not only personal but also collective, as it is tied to the larger history of Jewish persecution and survival. Dina’s inability to let go of her mother’s memory is symbolic of the larger struggle within Jewish communities to come to terms with the trauma of genocide.  Scholars such as Michael Rothberg (2009) have explored how cultural trauma is represented in literature, particularly in relation to memory and identity. Kaminsky’s novel engages with this idea by situating Dina’s personal trauma within the broader context of collective history. Dina’s fear for Shlomi’s safety is not only a reflection of her personal trauma but also of the collective anxiety that permeates in the society. This is particularly evident in Dina’s relationship with Shlomi, as she fears that her trauma will be passed down to him, just as it was passed down to her. “No child deserves to be born with the handicap of having to endure its parent’s pain, carry the madness of a history that belongs to someone else, become infected with the white-hot touch of other people’s wounds” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 131). This line speaks to the overwhelming burden of intergenerational trauma and Dina’s desperate attempts to protect Shlomi from inheriting her suffering. The novel, therefore, serves as both a personal and political commentary on the long-lasting effects of cultural trauma.

In The Waiting Room, objects play a significant role in preserving and transmitting trauma. Dina’s relationship with objects, particularly those tied to her mother, serves as a powerful metaphor for the way trauma is stored in the material world. Objects, in this context, become repositories of memory, carrying the weight of the past and acting as conduits for the transmission of trauma across generations. “Dina lives her life surrounded by cardboard boxes, filled with objects she cannot give away… She hoards. She keeps stuff, collects stuff, is unable to let go of stuff. Boxes she shipped from Melbourne, filled with her parents’ junk that she could never bring herself to throw out…” (Kaminsky, 2015, pp. 28-29). This behaviour is a clear manifestation of Dina’s inability to let go of the past, as she clings to objects that remind her of her mother and the trauma she endured. Freud’s theory of “repetition compulsion” (1924) provides insight into this behaviour, as Dina’s hoarding can be seen as a form of unconscious repetition, a way of keeping her mother’s memory alive while simultaneously preventing herself from moving forward. This is further reflected in the lines, “She has never really unpacked; she lives neither here, nor there. The boxes float above her bed as she sleeps, ready to be filled with dreams and instantly locked away” (Kaminsky, 2015, pg. 29). This suggests that Dina is living in a state of limbo, not fully grounded in her present life nor entirely disconnected from her past. The act of unpacking is often symbolic of settling down and becoming comfortable in a new place, but Dina has not done this. Her failure to unpack indicates her emotional and psychological displacement—she cannot fully commit to her present life because her mind is still tied to unresolved trauma from her past. This liminal space signifies how she is psychologically stuck. The “boxes” (p. 29) symbolize the memories, unresolved emotions, and traumas that she keeps locked away but that still loom over her, even in sleep. They are not grounded or stored somewhere—they hover above her, indicating that they are always present in her subconscious, ready to intrude on her peace. Even when she tries to rest or escape into sleep, the weight of these memories threatens to come crashing down. This line reveals how Dina manages her trauma—she may experience dreams or memories that connect to her unresolved past, but she quickly represses them, locking them away in the metaphorical boxes. This suggests a coping mechanism where she avoids confronting or unpacking her trauma fully. Instead of processing these painful memories, she tucks them away to avoid dealing with them head-on, though they still exist in her psyche, ready to resurface at any moment. This adds to the broader narrative of how past trauma, especially related to war and displacement, continues to affect survivors long after the actual events have ended, shaping their present existence.

The significance of objects in The Waiting Room is further emphasized by the way Dina interacts with them. “She glances at the reflection of a wedding photo hanging on the wall behind her” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 24). The wedding photo symbolizes a moment of joy and stability in Dina’s life. Yet, the fact that she only sees it through a reflection rather than directly signals a disconnect between her present happiness and the burdens of her past. The act of Dina circling her husband during the wedding symbolizes protection and tradition, yet this protection is overshadowed by the historical trauma she has inherited. Her marriage and her present life are haunted by the unresolved legacy of her family’s past. Dina’s understanding of wartime Poland is shaped entirely by the stories her mother told her, yet those stories are so powerful and traumatic that they have created a mental image in Dina’s mind as if she had lived through them herself, which is reflected when Dina says, “…people, buildings and landscapes only appear in varying tints of black and grey, often tinged with a wash of red taken from the bloody palette of her mother’s stories. Dina keeps returning there, even though she’s never set foot near the place” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 24). The black and grey shades reflect a world devoid of life and hope, echoing the Holocaust’s overwhelming darkness, destruction, and death. This colour imagery signifies how the trauma of war has erased all vibrancy from these memories and landscapes, turning everything into a shadowy, mournful world in Dina’s mind. The monochromatic view suggests that Dina’s perception of this place is entirely shaped by tragedy and loss, as conveyed through her mother’s stories. The red symbolizes blood, violence, and death, underscoring the horrifying nature of her mother’s experiences. The “bloody palette” (p. 24) represents the physical and emotional brutality of the Holocaust. This visual description conveys that while Dina never experienced these events, the emotional intensity of her mother’s stories has coloured her imagination with the same fear, pain, and loss that her mother lived through. The red “wash” (p. 24) further emphasizes the inescapable presence of violence in these memories, as if blood has stained the very landscape of her imagination. These memories haunt her, even though they are not technically her own. This reflects Marianne Hirsch’s concept of postmemory, where the second generation inherits the traumatic memories of the first generation and internalizes them so deeply that they feel as though they belong to them (2008).

Storytelling is also portrayed as a haunting element in the novel. It is reflected in the scene when “Dina digs inside her bag trying to find her phone, searching for a lifeline out from the shoemaker’s past. The threads of his story are wrapping around her chest. She takes several slow breaths, trying to connect again to the here-and-now. The screen of her phone is blank…” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 122). Dina’s attempt to find her phone symbolizes her desperate need to escape from the heavy emotional burden that the shoemaker’s story brings. The phone, a tool of modern communication and connection to the present, represents a way for Dina to ground herself in the “here-and-now” (p. 122) and escape from the overwhelming emotions triggered by the shoemaker’s traumatic narrative. The “lifeline” (p. 122) metaphor suggests that she feels trapped and needs a means to pull herself out of the entanglement created by the story. This metaphor vividly captures the suffocating impact that the shoemaker’s story is having on Dina. The “threads” (p. 122) of the story symbolize how trauma—whether experienced directly or through others—can weave itself into one’s mind and emotions, making it difficult to disentangle from it. The physical sensation of the story “wrapping around her chest” (p. 122) suggests emotional constriction, anxiety, and suffocation. It highlights how listening to stories of trauma can evoke a visceral, almost physical reaction in the listener, especially someone like Dina, who is already carrying her own burdens of inherited trauma. The practice of slow breathing suggests mindfulness or grounding, a common technique used to combat anxiety or panic attacks. Dina is actively trying to resist being pulled too deeply into the past and the trauma it represents, attempting to restore her focus on the present. However, this action also shows how difficult it is to remain detached from traumatic stories once they start to pull at emotional threads. The blank phone screen is symbolic of Dina’s current state of disconnection, both from the present and from the people or things that might help her find grounding. Recording memories of the traumatic events in the survivor’s mind has also been studied by Dominic (2001), according to whom trauma survivors continuously carry remnants of their past, describing this as a persistent presence that haunts their minds. He explains that when survivors recount their traumatic experiences, they are mentally transported back to the original event, becoming trapped in that moment once again. In doing so, they do not simply recall the event but are emotionally and mentally re-immersed in the trauma, effectively reenacting the situation as if they are still living through it.

In The Waiting Room, one of the central tensions Dina grapples with is the fear of passing on her trauma to her son, Shlomi. In Dina’s case, her inherited trauma from her parents—survivors of the Holocaust—continues to exert a profound influence on her, and she is deeply fearful that this legacy of suffering will affect her child. This dynamic is particularly evident in Dina’s obsessive anxiety over Shlomi’s safety, as she goes to great lengths to protect him from the dangers of the world. Dina’s protective instincts—rooted in her own unresolved trauma—lead her to create scenarios in her mind where her worst fears, such as Shlomi’s death, come true. This constant state of fear is not only harming Dina but also potentially affecting her relationship with her son, which is reflected in the statement, “She is losing him. For too long she has grasped him tight, trying to keep him safe. But she has been playing out her false tragedies at her son’s expense” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 139), Dina acknowledges that her attempts to keep Shlomi safe have, in some ways, become harmful. The phrase “false tragedies” (p. 139) suggests that Dina is aware she is projecting her traumatic past onto her son, imagining worst-case scenarios that may never occur. However, this realization does not alleviate her anxiety. Instead, it reveals the depth of her trauma, as her efforts to protect Shlomi from danger are shaped by the unresolved fears and insecurities that stem from her own experiences. “She somehow feels Shlomi’s school is the place where her worst fears are about to come true” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 129), Dina’s irrational fear transfers to everyday spaces, like Shlomi’s school. Schools, which should be places of safety and growth, become in Dina’s mind sites of potential catastrophe. This anxiety is an extension of her trauma—she sees danger where there may be none because her traumatic memories are deeply intertwined with fear and loss. The school becomes a metaphor for her inability to escape the past, as Dina sees even the most mundane environments as threatening. This sense of perpetual danger aligns with the theory of hypervigilance, which is typically associated with high levels of anxiety (state and trait) and has been conceptualized to represent a bias in information processing aimed at increasing the chances of survival (Craske et al. 2009; Beck and Clark 1997; Richards et al. 2014). With disordered anxiety/fear, the perception of threat has been shown to be overestimated in comparison to the needs of the environment (Beck and Clark 1997; Rosen and Schulkin 1998). Dina’s fear is no longer bound to the traumatic events of the past but seeps into the present, affecting how she views her son’s future. Her belief that Shlomi’s school is a place where her worst fears will come true shows how trauma reshapes reality, creating constant fear even in ordinary situations. The vivid imagery of birth—of him being jettisoned into the world—conveys Dina’s sense of helplessness. From the very beginning, she associates his birth with danger, and this fear has persisted throughout his life. The term “bloated jellyfish” (Kaminsky, 2015, p. 47) suggests that Dina views both the process of childbirth and the world outside the womb as vulnerable and precarious. Her trauma, inherited from her mother’s Holocaust experiences, has made her hyper-aware of the fragility of life.

In The Waiting Room, Leah Kaminsky masterfully portrays the long-lasting and pervasive effects of trauma, particularly Holocaust trauma, and its deep psychological impact on individuals and families. Dina’s life is defined by her inherited trauma, the echoes of her mother’s Holocaust experiences, and her own struggles to break free from these memories. The novel demonstrates how trauma is not confined to the past—it is an ongoing presence, resurfacing in various forms and influencing not only the survivor but also their children, as seen in Dina’s overwhelming fear for her son, Shlomi. The narrative underscores the cyclical nature of trauma, illustrating how unprocessed and unacknowledged pain can transcend generations. Dina’s anxious attempts to protect her son from an uncertain future stem from the unresolved grief and loss she inherited. This persistent trauma creates a psychosocial crisis—one that is deeply internal, silent, and potentially more destructive than any physical danger, much like a pandemic of the mind and spirit. Such a crisis, left unaddressed, could be as harmful as the global pandemic, if not more so, because it seeps into the very fabric of family life, quietly eroding emotional resilience and well-being. Kaminsky’s portrayal of Dina’s fractured existence, living between the shadows of her mother’s past and the fears for her son’s future, emphasizes the urgent need for addressing trauma before it escalates into a generational psychosocial crisis. The novel calls attention to the dangers of suppressing or ignoring trauma, highlighting the importance of acknowledging and processing these experiences to prevent them from overwhelming individuals and societies. In a world increasingly grappling with the psychological fallout of war, violence, and displacement, Kaminsky’s work serves as a reminder that unresolved trauma can have widespread and devastating consequences, much like an invisible pandemic. Ultimately, The Waiting Room offers a message of both caution and hope. It emphasizes that while trauma may not be entirely escapable, healing is possible through awareness, self-reflection, and, most importantly, through the conscious effort to live in the present. By facing the ghosts of the past, Dina—and by extension, all trauma survivors—can begin to reclaim their future and protect the next generation from carrying the same burdens. Kaminsky’s novel is a powerful testament to the resilience of the human spirit and the necessity of addressing trauma to avoid the silent, pervasive dangers of a psychosocial crisis.

References

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