Rathod P. P. andPawara V. L.

Department of Zoology.

*VVM’s S. G. Patil Arts, Science and Commerce College Sakri Di. Dhule 424304

E mail- pradiprathod1309@gmail.com; vilaspawara68@gmail.com

Abstract:       

The distribution of ant’s diversity in Sakri forest region of Sakri, Dhule District has been studied. Sakri forest is located to the west of Dhule city. In this forest we are collecting and an identified different type of ant’s belonging to family formicidae. This study was tried to analyze distribution of ant diversity. In Sakri forest ten different species of ant’s were identified namely Camponotus pennsylvanicus, Paraterechina longicornis, Tapinona melanocephalum, Tapinoma sessile, Technomyrmex albipes, Crematogaster, Pheidole, Monomorium minimum, Monomorium pharaonis, Solenopsis were observed. Out of these Camponotus pennsylvanicus and Tapinoma sessile was most abundant in study region.  

Key words: – formicidae, tapinoma sessile, Sakri forest, ant diversity        

INTRODUCTION

            The ant family contains more than 4.500 described species that can be found in a tropical and temperate area around the world. Ants are member of family of the social insects meaning that they live in organized colonies. Ants make up the family of Formicidae of the order Hymenoptera. Most of the described and unknown species are found in the forest, however, due to the distribution of that forest most of them will probably never be categorized. Ants are found on all continents except Antarctica, and only a few large islands. (Jones and Alice S. 2008; Thomas and Philip 2007).

            According to Shabina A. Nagariya and Santosh S. Pawar 2012 three species of ant was dominant and abundantly found. Most ant build some sort of nest under and above the ground, in trees and houses where they live and bring their food to, but are generally omnivorous, but some need special food. Myrmecology (Prons; m3rmi, from Greek; myrmex: ant and >logos, study) is the scientific study of ants, branch of entomology. Some early myrmecologist considered ant society as the ideal forms of sociality and shout to find solution to human problems by standing them.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area

            The Sakri forest is situated about 55Km west of Dhule city at a latitude of 20⁰-99’-26’’. The Kan River lies on 74⁰-31’-41’’. Longitude and covers an area of the forest is fulfilling with diversity of different insects, animals and plant species. Sakri forest faces extreme variation in climatic condition with hot summer and very cold winter as well as average rainfall. The annual average rainfall in the forest ranges between 470mm to 630mm and temperature ranges between 12⁰C to 40⁰C. 

Collection of ants of family formicidae: –

Various methods of collection of ants are as per different studies. The type of vegetation determines the kind of ants, (Formicidae) were collected from the different locations of forest. The capture and collected ant species kept into dry container or directly transfer into absolute alcohol. Methods suggested by Koh (1989) namely refer for the collection and preservation of ants.

Identification of ants: – Ants (Formicidae) collected from the Sakri forest region was identified by using identification key (Mathews R. N. and Tiwari 2000; Bolten B, 1994; and Krebs C.J. 1999)

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Ants are social insect of the family Formicidae. The family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also include sawflies, bees and wasps. Fossil evidence indicates that ants were present in the late Jurassic, 150 million years ago.Ants are distinct in their morphology from their insects in having elbowed antennae, metapleural glands. Ant societies have division of labour communication between individual and an ability to solve complex problems. Ant bodies, like other insects, have an exoskeleton, and external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a place to attached muscles.

Identified Species: –

1. Camponotus pennsylvanicus: –

Vertex of head is indented, non with a deep groove. Antenna is 10 segmented. Two Numbers of teeth present on the front of head. Eyes are large and black in color.Spines are absent on the thorax and thorax is smooth and evenly rounded when viewed from the site. One node is present.Abdomen is divided in to four segments. Small spiny hairs present on the abdomen.

2. Paraterechina longicornis: –

Vertex of head is with deep groove head pattern with foveoled punctures.  Mandible is with distinct teeth and triangular shape. Two numbers of teeth present on the head. Eyes are large and black in color. Ten segmented antennae are present. Spines are absent on the thorax. Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. One node is present.No circle of hairs at the tip of the abdomen. Small spiny hairs are present on the abdomen and it divided into five segments.

3. Tapinona melanocephalum: –

Vertex of head indented, non with a deep groove. Head pattern is without foveolet punctures. Mandible are triangular and with distinct teeth. Two teeth present on head. Eye is large in size and reddish to orange brown in color. Ten segmented antennae are present on the head with two segmented club. Spines are absent on the thorax. Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. One node is present. Abdomen divided into four segments. Small spiny hairs present on the abdomen. No circle of hairs at the tip of the abdomen. Stinger is absent on the abdomen.

4. Tapinoma sessile: –

Vertex of head indented, non with a deep groove. Head pattern is without foveolet punctures. Mandible is with distinct and teeth with triangular in shape. Two teeth present on the front of the head. Eye is large with reddish to orange brown in color. Twentieth segmented antennae are present on head without club.One pair of spine present on the thorax. Small spiny hairs present on the body. One node is present. Abdomen divided into four segment small spiny hairs present on the abdomen. Circle of the hairs at the tip of the abdomen are present. Stinger is absent.

5. Technomyrmex albipes: –

Vertex of hair is with deep groove head pattern without foveolet punctures.  Mandible is without teeth and elongated and linear. Numbers of teeths are absent. Eye is large in size. Body colour is reddish to orange brown.  Twentieth segmented antennae are present on the head without club.Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. Two pair of spine present on thorax. One node is present. Abdomen divided into five segments. Small spiny hair present on the abdomen. No circle of hair at the tip of the abdomen. Stinger is absent on the abdomen.

6. Crematogaster: –

Vertex of head is with a deep groove. Head pattern is without feveolet punctures. Mandible is without teeth and triangular in shape small spiny hair present on the hair. Two teeth present on the front of the head. Eye is large in size with yellow to light brown in color. Three segmented club are present. One pair of spine present on the thorax. Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. Small spiny hairs present on the thorax. Two nodes are present on the petiole. Circle of hair present at the tip on the abdomen. Abdomen is divided into four segments. Small spiny hairs present all over the body. Stingers are present on the abdomen.

7. Pheidole: –

Vertex of head is with deep groove. Head pattern is with fovelolet punctures. Mandible are without teeth and triangular in shape. Eye size is small with reddish to orange brown in color. Twentieth segmented antennae are present on the head with three segmented club. No teeth are present on the front of head. One pair of spine present on the thorax. Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. Small spiny hairs present all over the body. Two nodes are present. Abdomen divided into four segment and small spiny hair present on the abdomen. Circle of hairs are present at the tip of the abdomen and stinger are absent.

8. Monomorium minimum: –

Vertex of head with a deep groove and head pattern is foveolet punctures mandible with distinct teeth, elongated and linear in shape two teeth are present on the front of head. Eyes are large and black in color. 10 segmented antennae are present with three segment club. Spines are absent on the thorax. Thorax is smooth and evenly rounded when viewed from the side. Small spiny hairs are present on the thorax. Two nodes are present on petiole. Circle of hair present at the tip of abdomen. Abdomen is divided into four segment and stinger are absent on the abdomen. Small spiny hairs present all over the body.

9. Monomorium pharaonis: –

Vertex of head is indented, non with a deep groove. Head pattern is with foveolet punctures and mandible is with a distinct tooth. Mandible shape is elongated and linear. Eyes are small in size. Eye color is black. Twentieth segmented antennae are present on head. Two teeth are present on the front of head. Spine is absent on the thorax. Thorax is smooth and evenly rounded when viewed from the side. And two nodes are present on petiole. Abdomen is divided in to four segmented and circle of hair present at tip of abdomen. Small spiny hairs are present all over the body. Stringers are present on the abdomen.

10. Solenopsis: –

Vertex of head is indented, non with a deep groove. Head pattern is without foveolet punctures mandible is with distinct teeth. Mandible shape is elongated and linear.  One pair of teeth present on front of the head. Eyes are small in size. Eye color is reddish to orange brown. Ten segmented antennae are present on head is with a two segmented club. Spine is absent on the thorax. Thorax is uneven when viewed from the side. Abdomen is divided in to four segmented and circle of hair present at tip of abdomen. Small spiny hairs are present all over the body.

Camponotus pennsylvanicus	Paraterechina longicornis
Tapinona melanocephalum	Tapinoma sessile
Technomyrmex albipes	Crematogaster
Pheidole	Monomorium minimum
Monomorium pharaonis	Solenopsis

CONCLUSION

            The present study has been focused on diversity of ants and its environmental associations. Our results will help for assessing the richness and diversity of ants. This investigation also focuses on reducing the number of ant species due to human activity and helps in improve social and cultural importance of forest and its scenario.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

            Authors are thankful to the Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory of Department of Zoology VVM’s S. G. Patil Arts, Science and Commerce College Sakri Di. Dhule, for providing research related facilities. A special thanks to Prof. S. S. Patole and Prof. L. B. Pawar for kindly support us for identification of different ant species. Also thankful to local peoples of Sakri helped us in collection of ants from different spots and regions and gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

1. Bolton B. (1994): Identification guide to the ant genera of the world, London: Harvard
   1. University Press. pp. 222.
2. Koh, L. P. and Wilcove, D. S. (2008): Is oil palm agriculture really destroying tropical biodiversity?’, Conservation Letters, 1. pp. 27-33
3. Krebs, C.J., (1990): Ecological methodology, Addison- Educationall publishers, California, pp.581
4. Mathew R.N. Tiwari, (2000): Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidea.State Fauna Series 4,Zoological Survey of India Fauna of Meghalaya, 7: pp. 251-409.
5. Shabina A. Nagariya and Santosh S. Pawar (2012): Distribution of (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Ants diversity in Pohara Forest Area of Amravati Region, Maharashtra  State, India., International Journal of Science and Research Vol.3. (7).,pp. 1310-1312
6. Thomas, Philip (2007): “Pest Ants in Hawaii”. Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project  (HEAR). Retrieved 6 July 2008.

P. K. Patil^a, Dr. D. B. Salunkhe^b*, Dr. H. S. Gavale^c*

^aDept. Of Physics, S.S.V.P.S’s L. K. Dr. P. R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule

^bDepartment of Physics, KVPS Kisan ACS College Parola Dist Jalgaon 425111

^c Dept Of Physics, Z. B. Patil College, Dhule

Abstract:
The production of semiconductor materials which are lead free and eco-friendly has become a more focus of research into sustainable and renewable energy. The need for safe, eco-friendly and sustainable solar energy materials has increased interest in lead-free photovoltaic technologies. Silver bismuth chalcogenides, namely AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂, are promising absorber materials because they are environmentally friendly, chemically stable, and made from relatively abundant elements. These materials have suitable band gaps, absorb light strongly, and can tolerate crystal defects, which are important for efficient solar cell performance. AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ thin films can be produced using low-cost and scalable methods such as spin coating, successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR), hydrothermal synthesis, and other solution-based techniques. These methods are suitable for large-area and flexible solar devices. In addition, AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ show better thermal and environmental stability compared to lead-based perovskite materials. This review summarizes recent progress in their synthesis, structural and optical properties, and photovoltaic performance. The main challenges, including charge transport and interface losses, are discussed, along with future research directions to improve efficiency and long-term stability.

Keywords:AgBiX₂, AgBiS₂, AgBiSe₂, eco-friendly, lead-free chalcogenides, photovoltaics, sustainable energy, solar devices.

1.Introduction:

The rising global demand for energy and increasing environmental concerns have intensified research into renewable energy sources. Solar energy is considered one of the most promising options because it is clean, abundant, and sustainable [1,2]. However, conventional silicon-based solar cells involve high-temperature processing and costly manufacturing steps, which limit their economic feasibility for large-scale deployment [3]. This has motivated the search for alternative photovoltaic materials that are efficient, low-cost, and environmentally benign [4,5].

Lead-based perovskite solar cells have demonstrated rapid improvements in power conversion efficiency in recent years [6,7]. Despite this progress, their commercial application is hindered by the presence of toxic lead and poor long-term stability under moisture, heat, and continuous light exposure [8–10]. These issues have driven significant efforts toward the development of lead-free photovoltaic materials with improved environmental safety and operational stability [11,12].

Chalcogenide semiconductors have emerged as attractive candidates for lead-free solar cells due to their high optical absorption, tunable band gaps, and good chemical stability [13–15]. Among them, silver bismuth chalcogenides, particularly AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂, have received growing attention as sustainable absorber materials [9-13]. These compounds consist of relatively non-toxic and earth-abundant elements and possess band gap energies well suited for solar energy conversion [8-12]. Their strong light absorption enables efficient photon harvesting in thin films, while their defect-tolerant nature helps suppress non-radiative recombination losses [2].

AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ are also compatible with low-cost and scalable fabrication techniques, including spin coating, successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR), and hydrothermal synthesis [14]. These solution-based methods allow large-area deposition and integration with flexible substrates [9]. In addition, silver bismuth chalcogenides exhibit improved thermal and environmental stability compared to lead-based perovskite materials, making them promising for long-term photovoltaic applications [8].

This review presents an overview of recent progress in AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂-based photovoltaic materials, covering synthesis routes, structural, optical, and electrical properties, and device performance [10,11]. Key challenges related to charge transport, interface engineering, and efficiency optimization are discussed, and future research directions are proposed to advance stable, efficient, and environmentally friendly solar cell technologies [11].

2. Properties and Crystal Structure:
1. Crystal Structure

AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ are ternary chalcogenide semiconductors composed of silver, bismuth, and sulfur or selenium. These materials generally crystallize in a cubic or near-cubic crystal structure, which is favorable for uniform thin-film formation [1,2]. In the crystal lattice, Ag⁺ and Bi³⁺ ions occupy metal sites and are coordinated by S²⁻ or Se²⁻ anions [3].

Their atomic arrangement resembles a rock-salt-type framework, where metal–chalcogen bonds form a compact and symmetric network [4]. This structural symmetry allows the materials to accommodate a certain level of lattice disorder without severe degradation of electronic properties [5]. Such defect tolerance is particularly beneficial for solution-processed films, where perfect crystallinity is difficult to achieve [6].

2. Optical and Electrical Properties

AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ exhibit strong absorption in the visible region, with absorption coefficients high enough to enable efficient light harvesting in thin absorber layers [7,8]. AgBiS₂ mainly absorbs visible light, while AgBiSe₂ has a slightly narrower band gap, allowing absorption to extend into the near-infrared region [9,10].

1. Optical Absorption Behaviour

AgBiX₂ (X = S, Se) materials show strong light absorption in the visible and near-infrared (NIR) regions, which is essential for efficient solar energy harvesting. UV–Vis absorption studies typically reveal a clear and sharp absorption edge, indicating good crystallinity and a well-defined electronic band structure. These materials possess high absorption coefficients in the range of about 10²–10⁵ cm⁻¹, allowing effective photon absorption even with very thin films. This property is particularly beneficial for low-cost and flexible photovoltaic devices.

Replacing sulfur (S) with selenium (Se) causes the absorption edge to shift toward longer wavelengths. This red shift occurs due to the larger atomic size and higher polarizability of selenium. As a result, the material can absorb a broader portion of the solar spectrum, improving light utilization in photovoltaic applications.

• Band Gap Energy

The optical band gap (Eg) of AgBiX₂ compounds is commonly determined using Tauc plots derived from UV–Vis absorption measurements. These materials typically exhibit direct or quasi-direct band gap characteristics, which are advantageous for optoelectronic and photovoltaic applications.

AgBiS₂ generally shows a band gap in the range of 1.2 to 1.6 eV. In comparison, AgBiSe₂ has a smaller band gap, usually between 0.9 and 1.2 eV. This reduction in band gap allows AgBiSe₂ to absorb light over a wider wavelength range.

Both band gap values fall close to the optimal range required for efficient solar energy conversion, enabling effective utilization of the solar spectrum [2–3]. Furthermore, the band gap of these materials can be tuned through anion substitution (S to Se), nanostructure formation, and defect engineering, enhancing their suitability for photovoltaic devices.

• Photoluminescence (PL) Characteristics

Photoluminescence analysis provides valuable insight into charge carrier recombination processes and the presence of defects in AgBiX₂ materials. These compounds generally show weak to moderate PL emission, which indicates reduced radiative recombination and efficient separation of photo-generated charge carriers. Such behavior is highly desirable for applications in solar cells and photocatalysis.

The observed PL emission peaks are commonly attributed to recombination occurring near the band edge as well as defect-related states, including sulfur or selenium vacancies and antisite defects. Lower PL intensity suggests suppressed electron–hole recombination, which contributes to improved photovoltaic and photocatalytic performance [6].

Electrical Properties and Charge Transport:

Electrical characterization reveals that AgBiX₂ materials generally show p-type conductivity, primarily arising from intrinsic defects such as silver vacancies [1,2]. Synthesis conditions and post-deposition treatments have a strong influence on charge carrier concentration, mobility, and electrical resistivity [3,4]. Enhanced crystallinity and reduced defect density improve charge transport and suppress recombination losses, resulting in improved electrical performance [5–7]Both compounds behave as semiconductors and show effective generation of charge carriers under illumination [11]. Their electronic structure supports the transport of electrons and holes with relatively low recombination losses. Importantly, AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ are known for their defect-tolerant nature, where common point defects do not form deep trap states that severely limit carrier lifetime.

3. Thermal and Environmental Stability

A major advantage of AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ is their high thermal and environmental stability compared to lead-based perovskite absorbers [12,13]. These materials retain their structural and optical properties when exposed to air, moisture, and moderate heating conditions [7].

The strong metal–chalcogen bonds in silver bismuth chalcogenides provide chemical robustness, reducing the risk of phase degradation or decomposition during long-term operation [18,19]. Several studies have reported stable performance of AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ thin films under continuous light exposure and extended storage periods [20–22]. This stability makes them suitable candidates for durable and reliable photovoltaic devices.

In summary, AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ possess favorable crystal structures, strong optical absorption, suitable band gaps, and defect-tolerant electronic properties [21,22]. Their excellent resistance to thermal and environmental degradation further enhances their potential as lead-free absorber materials for sustainable photovoltaic applications [15-18].

3.1Chemical Synthesis Approaches for AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ Thin Films:

1. Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction (SILAR)

SILAR is a solution-based deposition technique that is widely applied for the preparation of AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ thin films because of its simplicity and low processing cost [1,2]. The method involves repeated dipping of the substrate into cationic and anionic solutions, separated by rinsing steps. Silver and bismuth ions are adsorbed from metal salt solutions, followed by reaction with sulfur or selenium ions to form the chalcogenide layer on the substrate surface [3].

The thickness and composition of the films can be adjusted by controlling the number of deposition cycles, solution concentration, and immersion time [4]. Doping can be conveniently introduced by adding suitable dopant ions into the metal precursor solution, allowing easy modification of the film properties without complex processing steps [5,6]. Due to its low-temperature operation and suitability for large substrates, SILAR is well suited for cost-effective photovoltaic fabrication.

2. Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD)

Chemical bath deposition is a commonly used technique for producing chalcogenide semiconductor films with uniform coverage [7]. In this method, the substrate is placed in a reaction bath containing metal precursors, a sulfur or selenium source, and complexing agents that regulate the release of ions into the solution [8]. Controlled chemical reactions in the bath lead to gradual film growth on the substrate.

Film quality, including thickness, grain size, and stoichiometry, can be tailored by varying parameters such as bath temperature, pH, and deposition duration [9]. Doping is achieved by introducing small amounts of dopant salts into the bath, enabling uniform incorporation during film growth [10,11]. Post-deposition heat treatment is often applied to improve crystallinity and electrical performance [12].

3. Hydrothermal Method

The hydrothermal method involves chemical reactions carried out in sealed vessels at elevated temperature and pressure [13]. This approach allows the synthesis of AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ materials with high crystallinity and controlled morphology [14]. Metal salts and chalcogen sources are dissolved in aqueous or mixed solvents and heated under carefully controlled conditions.

Dopant elements can be added directly to the precursor solution, leading to uniform dopant distribution throughout the material [15,16]. Although hydrothermal synthesis produces high-quality materials, its use in large-area thin-film deposition is limited. Therefore, it is mainly employed for nanostructured absorbers and fundamental material studies.

4. Spin Coating of TiO₂ Base Layer

Spin coating is a widely adopted technique for depositing compact and uniform TiO₂ layers that act as electron transport layers in photovoltaic devices [17]. A TiO₂ precursor solution or diluted paste is dropped onto the substrate and spread evenly by rapid rotation [18].

The final film thickness is influenced by the spin speed, spinning time, and solution viscosity [19]. After coating, thermal treatment is usually applied to enhance film densification and charge transport properties [20]. A well-prepared TiO₂ base layer improves interfacial contact and facilitates efficient electron extraction from AgBiS₂ or AgBiSe₂ absorber layers [21,22].

In summary, SILAR and CBD are particularly effective for depositing doped AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ thin films using low-cost and scalable solution-based techniques. The hydrothermal method provides high-quality crystalline materials but is less suitable for large-area films. Spin coating remains an efficient and reliable approach for preparing TiO₂ base layers, contributing to improved photovoltaic device performance

3.3 Post-Deposition Treatments and Performance Enhancement

After film deposition, additional processing steps are often required to improve the quality and performance of AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ thin films. These post-deposition treatments help enhance crystal structure, reduce defects, and improve charge transport within the photovoltaic device [1,2].

A) Heat Treatment (Annealing)

Heat treatment is widely applied to improve the structural properties of AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ films [3]. Annealing is typically performed in air, inert atmospheres, or sulfur- or selenium-rich environments. This process allows atoms within the film to rearrange into a more ordered structure, leading to larger grain sizes and improved crystallinity [4].

Annealing also removes residual solvents and improves film compactness, which enhances electrical conductivity and reduces carrier recombination [5]. However, excessive heating may cause chalcogen loss or phase instability, making careful optimization of annealing conditions essential [6].

B) Sulfurization and Selenization Treatments

Exposure of deposited films to sulfur or selenium vapor is commonly used to correct compositional deficiencies and improve phase quality [7]. Such treatments help compensate for sulfur or selenium vacancies that can form during film growth [8].

By reducing these vacancies, carrier transport properties are improved, resulting in enhanced photovoltaic performance [9]. Chalcogen-rich treatments are particularly beneficial for films prepared by solution-based methods, where slight non-stoichiometry is often observed [10].

C)Surface and Interface Modification

Surface treatments are important for minimizing charge losses caused by surface defects [11]. Chemical passivation techniques can reduce dangling bonds and surface trap states, leading to improved carrier lifetime [12].Engineering the interface between AgBiS₂/AgBiSe₂ absorber layers and the TiO₂ electron transport layer is also crucial. Improved interface quality enhances charge transfer and suppresses interfacial recombination, contributing to higher device efficiency [13,14].

D) Post-Treatment of TiO₂ Base Layer

The performance of the TiO₂ base layer can be significantly improved through post-deposition treatment [19]. Thermal annealing enhances TiO₂ crystallinity and electron mobility, while surface treatments reduce trap states at the TiO₂ surface [20].

An optimized TiO₂ layer provides better electronic contact with the absorber material, enabling efficient electron extraction and reducing recombination losses at the interface [21,22].

4.Morphological and Structural Characteristics

AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ thin films generally exhibit smooth and well-covered surfaces with uniform grain distribution when prepared using solution-based techniques. Optimized deposition conditions and post-deposition heat treatment promote grain growth, resulting in fewer grain boundaries that support improved charge transport. The film thickness typically lies in the sub-micron to micron range, providing effective and uniform light absorption across the absorber layer. Structural studies, such as X-ray diffraction, confirm that these materials commonly crystallize in cubic or near-cubic phases. Thermal treatment further enhances crystallinity and phase stability. A reduced density of structural defects contributes to better electrical transport properties. Together, these morphological and structural features play a crucial role in achieving efficient and stable photovoltaic device performance.

7Applications for Sustainable Energy

Silver bismuth chalcogenides such as AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ are increasingly explored for sustainable energy applications because they are free from toxic lead, absorb light efficiently, and show good operational stability [1,2]. Their suitable band gap energies make them effective light-absorbing layers for thin-film solar cells [3]. In addition, these materials can be deposited using inexpensive and scalable solution-based techniques, allowing the fabrication of large-area and flexible photovoltaic devices [4].

Beyond solar cells, AgBiX₂ materials have demonstrated potential in photocatalytic processes, including solar-driven water splitting and the breakdown of environmental pollutants, due to their strong visible-light response and effective charge carrier separation [5,6]. Their chemical robustness supports stable performance under prolonged illumination [7]. Overall, silver bismuth chalcogenides offer a promising and environmentally friendly pathway for advancing next-generation sustainable energy technologies [8–10].

8Problems and Future Prospects

Despite the significant progress achieved with AgBiX₂ materials, several challenges still need to be addressed. These include achieving precise control over material stoichiometry, suppressing the formation of secondary phases, and ensuring long-term device stability. Improving performance further will require effective strategies such as controlled doping, interface engineering, and defect passivation. Future research should focus on developing scalable fabrication methods and gaining a deeper understanding of defect-related physics, which are essential steps toward the commercial realization of AgBiX₂-based energy devices.

9.Conclusion

Silver bismuth chalcogenides, namely AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂, have gained considerable attention as lead-free materials for sustainable energy applications. Their suitable band gap energies, strong optical absorption, defect-tolerant behavior, and good thermal and environmental stability make them highly promising for use in photovoltaic and photocatalytic systems. Moreover, these materials can be synthesized using low-cost and scalable solution-based methods, enabling their application in large-area devices. With further advancements in controlled synthesis, doping techniques, and interface engineering, the performance of AgBiS₂ and AgBiSe₂ is expected to improve further, strengthening their potential as environmentally friendly alternatives for next-generation solar energy technologies.

References

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20. Kim, J., et al., “Photophysical properties of AgBiS₂ nanocrystals,”ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2020, 12, 14553–14561.
21.  Kumar, M., et al., “Structural, optical and electrical properties of AgBiS₂ films,”Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 2017, 68, 115–121.
22.  Zhou, Y., et al., “Optical constants and dielectric function of AgBiX₂ compounds,”Optical Materials, 2021, 111, 110605.
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Nishigandha Piran Borase

Sau. Rajanitai Nanasaheb Deshmukh

Arts, Commerce & Science College, Bhadgaon Dist. Jalgaon

gmail – nishigandhaborase@gmail.com

Abstract :-

Contemporary research increasingly requires cooperation among different academic disciplines to address multifaceted social, technological, and economic challenges. In this context, quantitative methods provide a reliable and systematic foundation for integrating diverse perspectives. This paper analyses the significance of numerical and analytical techniques in interdisciplinary research and examines their contribution to knowledge development, policy formulation, and innovation. The study highlights the importance of strengthening quantitative competence to enhance the quality and effectiveness of research in the 21^st century.

Keywords :-

Interdisciplinary Studies, Quantitative Techniques, Statistical Analysis, Mathematical Models, Data Analytics, Higher Education, Management.

Introduction :-

Modern society is characterized by rapid scientific progress, digital transformation, and increasing global interdependence. Contemporary problems such as environmental sustainability, economic development, public health, and educational reforms are complex and interconnected in nature. These challenges cannot be effectively addressed within the boundaries of a single discipline.

Interdisciplinary research offers an integrated approach by combining theories, methods, and tools from multiple fields. Within this framework, quantitative approaches play a crucial role by ensuring accuracy, consistency and objectivity in research outcomes. This paper discusses how quantitative techniques strengthen interdisciplinary research and support evidence-based decision-making.

Nature and Scope of Interdisciplinary Research :-

Interdisciplinary research refers to the systematic integration of knowledge from different academic domains in order to solve complex problems. It encourages collaboration among researchers and promotes intellectual exchange across disciplinary boundaries.

Unlike traditional disciplinary studies, interdisciplinary research emphasizes synthesis and mutual interaction. It aims to generate comprehensive perspectives and innovative solutions. In recent years, universities, funding agencies, and policy institutions have increasingly promoted such collaborative research practices.

Significance of Quantitative Methods :-

Quantitative methods provide a common analytical framework that facilitates communication among diverse disciplines. Their major contributions include the following,

1. Objectivity :-

Numerical data and standardized procedures reduce personal bias and enhance the credibility of research findings.

• Analytical Precision :-

Quantitative tools enable accurate measurement and detailed examination of relationships among variables.

• Validity and Generalization :-

Statistical techniques support the verification of results and allow conclusions to be extended to broader populations.

• Prediction and Evaluation :-

Mathematical and computational models assist researchers in forecasting trends and assessing alternative strategies.

Quantitative Tools and Analytical Techniques :-

1. Statistical Analysis :-

Statistical methods form the backbone of quantitative research. They include measures of central tendency, dispersion, correlation, regression, and hypothesis testing. These techniques help in summarizing data and drawing meaningful inferences.

• Mathematical Modeling :-

Mathematical models represent real-world systems using symbolic expressions and equations. They are widely used in economics, social sciences, environmental studies, and engineering to analyze dynamic processes.

• Data Analytics and Computational Methods :-

The availability of large-scale digital data has increased the importance of data analytics. Techniques such as machine learning, artificial intelligence, and visualization tools assist in extracting useful patterns from complex datasets.

• Optimization and Decision Models :-

Operations research techniques, including linear programming, network analysis, and game theory, support efficient resource allocation and strategic planning in interdisciplinary projects.

Interdisciplinary Applications of Quantitative Approaches :-

1. Scientific Research and Technology :-

In scientific investigations, quantitative techniques support experimental design, simulation, and validation of results. They enhance precision and reproducibility in research processes.

• Educational Studies :-

In education, numerical analysis is used to evaluate learning outcomes, teaching effectiveness, and institutional performance. These methods contribute to evidence-based educational planning.

• Business and Management :-

Quantitative approaches assist in financial forecasting, market analysis, risk assessment, and operational management. They improve strategic decision-making in commercial organizations.

• Social Sciences and Humanities :-

Social researchers increasingly apply statistical and computational tools for survey analysis, demographic studies, and behavioural research. Digital humanities also employ quantitative methods for textual and cultural analysis.

Framework for Quantitative Interdisciplinary Research :-

Interdisciplinary quantitative research generally follows a structured sequence of activities,

1. Identification and formulation of research problems.
2. Collection of data from multiple disciplinary sources.
3. Application of appropriate analytical techniques.
4. Interpretation and integration of results.
5. Development of practical recommendations and innovations.
6. This systematic framework ensures methodological rigor and transparency.

Challenges and Limitations :-

Despite its advantages, interdisciplinary quantitative research faces several difficulties,

1. Differences in conceptual frameworks and terminology.
2. Inadequate training in advanced quantitative methods.
3. Problems related to data availability and compatibility.
4. Ethical issues concerning privacy and confidentiality.
5. Limited institutional support for collaborative projects.

Addressing these limitations requires capacity-building programs, interdisciplinary curricula, and supportive research policies.

Emerging Trends and Future Prospects :-

The future of interdisciplinary research is closely associated with developments in artificial intelligence, big data, and digital research infrastructure. Increasing emphasis on open data platforms and international collaboration is expected to enhance global research networks.

Higher education institutions should promote integrated learning models that combine domain knowledge with quantitative skills. Such initiatives will prepare researchers to address emerging global challenges more effectively.

Conclusion :-

Quantitative approaches serve as a fundamental pillar of interdisciplinary research in the modern era. By providing systematic, objective, and reliable analytical tools, they facilitate the integration of knowledge across science, humanities, commerce, and education. Strengthening quantitative literacy and fostering collaborative environments are essential for improving research quality and societal impact in the 21^st century.

References :-

1. Klein, J. T. (2010) – A Taxonomy of Interdisciplinary, Oxford University Press, Page No. 45-78.
2. Creswell, J. W. (2014) – Research Design : Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. Sage Publications, Page No. 201-245.
3. OECD (2017) – Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation, OECD Publishing, Page No. 112-146.
4. Shmueli, G., et al. (2020) – Data Mining for Business Analytics, Wiley, Page No. 89-134.
5. Government of India (2020) – National Education Policy. Ministry of Education, New Delhi, Page No. 34-58.                                     

Bhushan B. Chaudhari^1,3, Navnath M. Yajgar¹, Bharat G. Thakare¹, Niranjan S. Samudre¹, Rajendra R. Ahire¹,Amol R Naikda^1,2, Dhananjay S Patil⁴_,Nanasaheb P. Huse³, Sudam D. Chavhan^1*

¹Department of Physics, Vidya Vikas Mandal’s Sitaram Govind Patil ASC College, Sakri, Dhule, Maharashtra, India

²Department of Physics S.S.V.P. S’s L.K.Dr. P.R.Ghogrey Science College Dhule, Maharashtra, India

³Department of Physics, Nandurbar Taluka Vidhayak Samiti’s G. T. Patil Arts, Commerce and Science College, Nandurbar, Maharashtra, India

⁴Department of Zoology, Nandurbar Taluka Vidhayak Samiti’s G. T. Patil Arts, Commerce and Science College, Nandurbar, Maharashtra, India

*Corresponding Author: sudam1578@gmail.com

Abstract

Antimony sulfide (Sb2S3) has emerged as a promising earth-abundant and environmentally benign semiconductor for next-generation thin-film photovoltaic and optoelectronic applications [1].The material exhibits a suitable bandgap, high optical absorption coefficient, and excellent chemical stability, making it a strong candidate for low-cost solar energy conversion technologies [2].Unlike conventional chalcogenide absorbers such as CdTe and CIGS, Sb2S3 does not rely on toxic or scarce elements, which significantly improves its sustainability profile [3].Sb2S3 crystallizes in an orthorhombic structure composed of quasi-one-dimensional (Sb2S3) ribbon chains, resulting in highly anisotropic electrical and optical properties [4].These anisotropic characteristics strongly influence charge transport, defect formation, and device performance in thin-film solar cells [5].In recent years, extensive research efforts have been dedicated to controlling the morphology, crystallinity, and orientation of Sb2S3 thin films to overcome efficiency limitations [6].Various deposition techniques, including chemical bath deposition, spin coating, atomic layer deposition, spray pyrolysis, and thermal evaporation, have been systematically explored to optimize film quality [7].Furthermore, interface engineering, defect passivation, elemental doping, and post-treatment strategies have enabled significant improvements in power conversion efficiency [8].This review critically summarizes the fundamental structural and optoelectronic properties of Sb2S3 and correlates them with thin-film growth mechanisms and device performance [9].Special emphasis is placed on recent advances in Sb2S3-based solar cell architectures and performance optimization strategies [10].Finally, the remaining challenges and future research directions required for the commercialization of Sb2S3 thin-film technologies are discussed [11].

Keywords:Sb2S3 thin films; chalcogenide semiconductors; photovoltaic materials; solar cells.

1. Introduction

The continuous growth of global energy demand, coupled with the environmental impact of fossil fuel consumption, has intensified the search for sustainable and renewable energy technologies [12].Among various renewable energy sources, solar energy is considered the most abundant and universally accessible, with the potential to meet global energy requirements if efficiently harvested [13].Photovoltaic (PV) technologies play a central role in converting solar radiation directly into electrical energy, driving extensive research on advanced semiconductor materials [14].Conventional thin-film solar cell technologies, such as cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), have demonstrated high power conversion efficiencies exceeding 22% [15].However, the large-scale deployment of these technologies is constrained by toxicity concerns, elemental scarcity, and high fabrication costs [16].As a result, earth-abundant and environmentally friendly absorber materials have attracted significant scientific and technological interest [17].Antimony sulfide (Sb2S3) is a binary chalcogenide semiconductor belonging to the A₂B₃ family (A = Sb, Bi; B = S, Se) and has emerged as a promising alternative absorber material [18].Sb2S3 exhibits a direct bandgap in the range of 1.6–1.8 eV, which is well suited for efficient absorption of visible solar radiation [19].The material also possesses a high absorption coefficient on the order of 10⁴–10⁵ cm⁻¹, enabling effective light harvesting with ultrathin absorber layers [20].

In addition to its favorable optical properties, Sb2S3 demonstrates good chemical stability under ambient conditions and resistance to moisture-induced degradation [21].These features make Sb2S3 particularly attractive for low-cost and scalable photovoltaic applications [22].Structurally, Sb2S3 crystallizes in an orthorhombic phase composed of one-dimensional ribbon-like (Sb2S3)ₙ chains extending along the crystallographic c-axis [23].The strong covalent bonding within these ribbons and weak van der Waals interactions between adjacent chains lead to pronounced anisotropy in charge transport properties [24].Such anisotropic behavior significantly influences carrier mobility, recombination dynamics, and defect formation in Sb2S3 thin films [25].Consequently, the orientation and morphology of Sb2S3 crystals play a crucial role in determining device performance [26].Understanding the relationship between crystal structure, thin-film growth, and photovoltaic behavior is therefore essential for the rational design of high-efficiency Sb2S3 solar cells [27].Sb2S3-based solar cells typically adopt device architectures similar to semiconductor-sensitized or planar heterojunction solar cells [28].These architectures commonly consist of a transparent conducting oxide, an electron transport layer, the Sb2S3 absorber, a hole transport material, and a metallic back contact [29].Despite a theoretically predicted efficiency exceeding 25%, experimentally reported efficiencies of Sb2S3 solar cells remain below 8% [30].The discrepancy between theoretical and experimental performance is primarily attributed to defect-induced recombination, poor carrier extraction, and sub-optimal interfaces [31].

Recent research has therefore focused on improving film quality, reducing trap density, and optimizing interfacial energetics [32].This review provides a comprehensive and critical analysis of Sb2S3 thin-film materials, emphasizing structure–property–performance relationships [33].The discussion begins with fundamental structural and optoelectronic properties of Sb2S3, followed by an overview of major thin-film deposition techniques [34].

Recent progress in device engineering, defect passivation, and performance enhancement strategies is systematically examined [35].By consolidating current knowledge and identifying key challenges, this review aims to guide future research toward highly efficient and commercially viable Sb2S3-based photovoltaic technologies [36].

(Schematic illustration of the quasi-one-dimensional crystal structure of Sb2S3 showing (a) the side view and top perspective of the orthorhombic lattice, and (b) the arrangement of [Sb₄S₆] ribbon units extending along the crystallographic c-axis, highlighting strong intra-ribbon bonding and weak inter-ribbon interactions that govern anisotropic physical properties [8, 23, 244].)

2. Crystal Structure and Fundamental Properties of Sb2S3

2.1 Crystal Structure of Antimony Sulfide (Sb2S3)

Antimony sulfide (Sb2S3) crystallizes in a thermodynamically stable orthorhombic phase with the space group Pnma under ambient conditions [37].The crystal lattice is characterized by lattice parameters a ≈ 11.3 Å, b ≈ 3.8 Å, and c ≈ 11.2 Å, indicating a highly anisotropic unit cell geometry [38].The fundamental structural motif of Sb2S3 consists of quasi-one-dimensional (Sb₄S₆)ₙ ribbon-like chains that extend parallel to the crystallographic c-axis [39].Within each ribbon, antimony atoms are coordinated with sulfur atoms through strong covalent bonds, forming a robust backbone for charge transport [40].Adjacent ribbons are held together by weak van der Waals interactions, resulting in easy cleavage along planes perpendicular to the b-axis [41].

The anisotropic bonding nature leads to directional dependence of mechanical, electrical, and optical properties in Sb2S3 crystals [42].Charge carriers preferentially transport along the ribbon direction due to reduced effective mass and stronger orbital overlap [43].In contrast, carrier transport perpendicular to the ribbon direction is hindered by weak inter-chain interactions, leading to reduced conductivity [44].This intrinsic anisotropy plays a decisive role in determining thin-film orientation and device efficiency [45].Experimental studies have demonstrated that Sb2S3 thin films with preferential orientation along the (hk0) planes exhibit improved photovoltaic performance [46].Such orientation facilitates efficient charge transport from the absorber to the charge-selective contacts [47].Therefore, controlling thecrystallographic orientation during film growth is a critical requirement for high-efficiency Sb2S3-based devices [48].

Orthorhombic crystal structure of Sb2S3 illustrating one-dimensional (Sb₄S₆)ₙ ribbon chains along the c-axis and weak inter-chain interactions. [8, 23, 244]

2.2 Electronic Band Structure and Anisotropy

Sb2S3 is a semiconductor with a bandgap that lies in the optimal range for single-junction solar cell applications [49].At room temperature, crystalline Sb2S3 exhibits a direct bandgap with reported values ranging from 1.6 to 1.8 eV depending on film quality and crystallinity [50].Amorphous Sb2S3 films, in contrast, often exhibit an indirect bandgap due to structural disorder and localized defect states [51].The conduction band minimum is primarily composed of Sb 5p orbitals, while the valence band maximum arises mainly from hybridized Sb 5s and S 3p orbitals [52].Density functional theory calculations reveal strong dispersion of electronic bands along the ribbon direction and relatively flat bands perpendicular to it [53].This anisotropic band dispersion results in direction-dependent effective masses for electrons and holes [54].Lower effective mass along the ribbon axis enables higher carrier mobility, which is beneficial for charge extraction in thin-film devices [55].However, misaligned crystal orientation in polycrystalline films can severely limit carrier transport and increase recombination losses [56].The electronic anisotropy of Sb2S3 also affects defect formation energies and trap-state distributions [57].Sulfur vacancies and antimony antisite defects introduce deep-level trap states within the bandgap [58].These trap states act as recombination centers, reducing carrier lifetime and open-circuit voltage in photovoltaic devices [59].Consequently, defect control and passivation strategies are essential for achieving high-performance Sb2S3 solar cells [60].

Conceptual energy band diagram of Sb2S3 illustrating direction-dependent electronic dispersion, with enhanced band curvature along the quasi-one-dimensional ribbon (c-axis) direction and comparatively reduced dispersion perpendicular to the ribbon chains, reflecting anisotropic charge transport behavior [23, 245, 246].

2.3 Optical Properties

Sb2S3 exhibits a high optical absorption coefficient exceeding 10⁵ cm⁻¹ in the visible region, enabling strong light absorption within thicknesses below 500 nm [61].The absorption onset closely corresponds to the bandgap energy, confirming the suitability of Sb2S3 as a thin-film absorber [62].Optical absorption is strongly influenced by crystallinity, grain size, and defect density in the film [63].Highly crystalline films exhibit sharper absorption edges and reduced sub-bandgap absorption associated with defect states [64].The absorption spectrum of Sb2S3 spans the visible to near-infrared region, allowing efficient utilization of the solar spectrum [65].Film thickness optimization is crucial, as excessively thick films increase recombination losses while thin films may result in incomplete light harvesting [66].Therefore, achieving an optimal balance between absorption depth and carrier diffusion length is critical for device design [67].

Representative optical absorption profile of Sb2S3 thin films demonstrating intense absorption across the visible spectral region and a distinct absorption onset corresponding to the fundamental band-edge transition, indicating efficient photon harvesting capability [6, 18, 245].

2.4 Electrical and Charge Transport Properties

Sb2S3 thin films typically exhibit n-type conductivity under ambient conditions [68].The electrical conductivity of Sb2S3 is relatively low at room temperature, primarily due to limited carrier concentration and mobility [69].Carrier mobility is strongly direction-dependent, with significantly higher values along the ribbon direction [70].Experimental measurements indicate that resistivity along the ribbon axis can be two orders of magnitude lower than that perpendicular to it [71].Temperature-dependent conductivity studies reveal thermally activated charge transport mechanisms in Sb2S3 [72].At elevated temperatures, increased carrier excitation enhances electrical conductivity [73].Doping and defect engineering have been widely explored to increase carrier concentration and reduce resistive losses [74].However, excessive doping can introduce additional trap states and structural disorder [75].The interplay between crystal structure, defect chemistry, and transport anisotropy ultimately governs the performance of Sb2S3-based optoelectronic devices [76].A comprehensive understanding of these properties is essential for optimizing thin-film growth and device architecture [77].

Current density–voltage (J–V) characteristics of Sb2S3 solar cell devices fabricated using varying concentrations of SbCl₃ precursor, illustrating the influence of precursor concentration on photovoltaic parameters such as open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current density, fill factor, and overall power conversion efficiency [18, 124, 203].

3. Thin-Film Deposition Techniques for Sb2S3

3.1 Importance of Deposition Technique Selection

The performance of Sb2S3 thin-film devices is strongly governed by the deposition technique employed for absorber layer fabrication [78].Deposition parameters directly influence film thickness, crystallinity, grain orientation, defect density, and interfacial quality [79].Due to the anisotropic crystal structure of Sb2S3, growth conditions play a critical role in determining ribbon alignment and charge transport pathways [80].Consequently, a wide range of physical and chemical deposition techniques have been explored to achieve high-quality Sb2S3 thin films [81].Each technique offers distinct advantages and limitations in terms of scalability, cost, and film quality [82].

3.2 Chemical Bath Deposition (CBD)

Chemical bath deposition is one of the most widely used low-temperature techniques for the synthesis of Sb2S3 thin films [83].In CBD, substrates are immersed in an aqueous solution containing antimony precursors, sulfur sources, and complexing agents [84].Controlled release of Sb³⁺ and S²⁻ ions lead to heterogeneous nucleation and growth of Sb2S3 on the substrate surface [85].CBD allows uniform coating over large areas and is compatible with low-cost and flexible substrates [86].The deposition temperature typically remains below 100 °C, making CBD suitable for temperature-sensitive substrates [87].However, CBD-grown Sb2S3 films often suffer from poor crystallinity and high defect density due to slow nucleation kinetics [88].Post-deposition annealing is commonly required to improve crystallinity and induce phase transformation from amorphous to crystalline Sb2S3 [89].Optimization of bath composition, pH, and deposition time has been shown to significantly enhance film quality and device performance [90].

3.3 Spin Coating Technique

Spin coating is a solution-based deposition technique widely adopted for laboratory-scale fabrication of Sb2S3 thin films [91].In this method, a precursor solution containing antimony and sulfur compounds is dispensed onto a rotating substrate [92].Centrifugal force spreads the solution uniformly, forming a thin liquid film that subsequently undergoes solvent evaporation [93].Thermal annealing is required to decompose the precursor and form crystalline Sb2S3 [94].Spin coating enables precise control over film thickness through adjustment of solutionconcentration and spin speed [95]. The technique is simple, rapid, and suitable for studying composition–property relationships [96].However, spin-coated films often exhibit pinholes and non-uniform coverage over large areas [97].Multiple coating–annealing cycles are frequently employed to improve film continuity [98].

3.4 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)

Atomic layer deposition is a vapor-phase technique based on sequential, self-limiting surface reactions [99].ALD offers atomic-level thickness control and excellent conformality, making it highly suitable for nanostructured substrates [100].Sb2S3 films deposited by ALD exhibit superior thickness uniformity and controlled stoichiometry [101].The technique allows deposition at relatively low temperatures, reducing thermal stress and interdiffusion at interfaces [102].ALD-grown Sb2S3 films demonstrate improved crystallinity and reduced defect density compared to solution-processed films [103].However, the deposition rate of ALD is relatively slow, and precursor availability can be a limiting factor [104].Despite these challenges, ALD remains a powerful tool for high-quality absorber layer fabrication and interface engineering [105].

3.5 Spray Pyrolysis Technique

Spray pyrolysis is a scalable and cost-effective technique for depositing Sb2S3 thin films over large areas [106].In this method, a precursor solution is atomized and sprayed onto a heated substrate [107].Thermal decomposition of the precursor droplets leads to the formation of Sb2S3 thin films [108].Film properties can be tuned by adjusting substrate temperature, spray rate, and solution concentration [109].Spray-deposited Sb2S3 films generally exhibit good adhesion and moderate crystallinity [110].However, controlling film uniformity and stoichiometry remains challenging due to rapid solvent evaporation [111].Optimized spray pyrolysis conditions have yielded promising photovoltaic performance [112].

3.6 Thermal Evaporation

Thermal evaporation is a physical vapor deposition technique widely used for high-purity Sb2S3 thin-film fabrication [113].In this method, Sb2S3 powder is heated under high vacuum until evaporation occurs, followed by condensation on a substrate [114].Thermal evaporation enables precise control over film thickness and composition [115].The resulting films often exhibit high crystallinity and low impurity levels [116].Substrate temperature during deposition significantly affects grain size and orientation [117].Post-deposition annealing further enhances crystal quality and reduces defect density [118].Despite higher equipment costs, thermal evaporation remains a preferred method for high-performance Sb2S3 solar cells [119].

3.7 Comparative Assessment of Deposition Techniques

Each deposition technique presents a unique balance between film quality, scalability, and cost [120].Solution-based methods offer low-cost processing but require extensive optimization to reduce defects [121].Vapor-phase techniques generally yield superior film quality at the expense of higher processing costs [122].Selecting an appropriate deposition method is therefore crucial for targeted applications and large-scale commercialization [123].

4. Sb2S3-Based Solar Cell Architectures and Device Physics

4.1 Overview of Sb2S3 Photovoltaic Device Architectures

Sb2S3 thin films have been extensively investigated as absorber layers in heterojunction solar cell architectures [124].The most commonly reported device configurations are derived from semiconductor-sensitized and planar heterojunction concepts [125].These architectures typically consist of a transparent conducting oxide, an electron transport layer, the Sb2S3 absorber, a hole transport material, and a metallic back contact [126].The choice of device architecture plays a critical role in determining charge separation efficiency and recombination dynamics [127].Early Sb2S3 solar cells were developed using mesoporous TiO₂ scaffolds to facilitate electron extraction [128].Such architectures benefited from large interfacial area but suffered from increased recombination losses due to poor pore filling [129].Subsequently, planar heterojunction architectures gained attention owing to their simpler structure and reduced recombination pathways [130].Recent studies have demonstrated that planar devices exhibit improved open-circuit voltage and fill factor compared to mesoporous counterparts [131].

Schematic representation of a conventional Sb2S3-based solar cell illustrating the layered device configuration comprising a glass substrate, fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) transparent electrode, electron transport layer, Sb2S3 absorber film, hole transport material, and metallic back contact, highlighting the charge-selective junctions within the device [124, 126, 130].

4.2 Electron Transport Layers and Interface Engineering

Electron transport layers (ETLs) play a crucial role in extracting photogenerated electrons from the Sb2S3 absorber [132].Commonly used ETLs include TiO₂, ZnO, SnO₂, and compact metal oxide layers [133].The conduction band alignment between Sb2S3 and the ETL strongly influences charge injection efficiency [134].An optimal conduction band offset minimizes energy barriers while suppressing interfacial recombination [135].Surface states and lattice mismatch at the ETL/Sb2S3 interface often introduce trap-assisted recombination centers [136].

Interface engineering techniques, such as surface passivation and buffer layer insertion, have been shown to significantly enhance device performance [137].Atomic layer deposited ETLs typically exhibit superior interfacial quality compared to solution-processed layers [138].Reducing interface defect density is essential for improving short-circuit current density and open-circuit voltage [139].

4.3 Hole Transport Materials and Back Contacts

Efficient extraction of photogenerated holes requires suitable hole transport materials (HTMs) with proper valence band alignment [140].Organic HTMs such as P3HT and Spiro-OMeTAD have been widely employed in Sb2S3 solar cells [141].Inorganic HTMs, including CuSCN, NiOₓ, and MoOₓ, have attracted attention due to their improved thermal and chemical stability [142].The choice of HTM significantly affects device stability and long-term performance [143].Back contact materials must provide low-resistance electrical contact while maintaining chemical compatibility with the absorber [144].Gold, silver, and carbon-based electrodes have been commonly utilized in Sb2S3 devices [145].Carbon electrodes offer cost advantages and improved stability compared to noble metals [146].

4.4 Charge Generation, Transport, and Recombination Mechanisms

Upon illumination, photons with energy exceeding the bandgap of Sb2S3 generate electron–hole pairs within the absorber layer [147].Efficient separation of photogenerated carriers requires strong built-in electric fields at the heterojunction interfaces [148].Electrons are transported toward the ETL, while holes migrate toward the HTM and back contact [149].Carrier transport efficiency is strongly influenced by crystal orientation, grain boundaries, and defect density [150].Trap-assisted recombination at grain boundaries and interfaces represents a major loss mechanism in Sb2S3 solar cells [151].Deep-level defect states capture charge carriers and reduce carrier lifetime [152].Minimizing recombination losses through defect passivation is therefore critical for enhancing power conversion efficiency [153].

4.5 Energy Band Alignment and Built-In Potential

Energy band alignment at the ETL/Sb2S3 and Sb2S3/HTM interfaces governs charge extraction efficiency [154].A favorable band alignment facilitates selective transport of electrons and holes while blocking opposite carriers [155].Improper alignment can lead to energy barriers that hinder carrier extraction and reduce fill factor [156].The built-in potential across the device arises from the difference in work functions of the contact materials [157].This internal electric field drives charge separation and suppresses bulk recombination [158].Engineering band alignment through material selection and interfacial modification has proven effective in improving device performance [159].

4.6 Photovoltaic Performance Metrics

Key performance parameters of Sb2S3 solar cells include open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current density, fill factor, and power conversion efficiency [160].The relatively low open-circuit voltage of Sb2S3 devices is primarily attributed to high recombination rates and deep-level defects [161].Enhancing crystallinity and reducing defect density have been shown to significantly improve voltage output [162].Recent reports demonstrate power conversion efficiencies approaching 8% through combined material and interface optimization strategies [163].

5. Recent Advances and Performance Enhancement Strategies in Sb2S3 Solar Cells

5.1 Defect Engineering and Passivation Strategies

Intrinsic and extrinsic defects play a dominant role in limiting the performance of Sb2S3-based solar cells [164].Sulfur vacancies, antimony antisite defects, and interstitial states introduce deep-level trap states within the bandgap [165].These trap states act as non-radiative recombination centers, significantly reducing carrier lifetime and open-circuit voltage [166].Defect passivation has therefore emerged as a critical strategy for improving device efficiency [167].Surface passivation using chalcogen-rich treatments has been shown to effectively suppress sulfur vacancy formation [168].Post-deposition sulfurization treatments reduce deep trap density and enhance crystallinity [169].Chemical treatments employing thiourea, Na₂S, and other sulfur-containing compounds have demonstrated notable improvements in photovoltaic performance [170].Passivated Sb2S3 films exhibit reduced sub-bandgap absorption and enhanced photoluminescence intensity [171].

5.2 Doping and Alloying Approaches

Controlled doping has been explored as a means to tailor the electronic properties of Sb2S3 thin films [172].Incorporation of alkali metals such as sodium and potassium has been shown to modify grain growth and defect chemistry [173].Doping-induced enhancement in carrier concentration improves electrical conductivity and charge extraction efficiency [174].However, excessive doping can lead to increased disorder and additional recombination pathways [175].Alloying Sb2S3 with selenium to form Sb₂(S,Se)₃ solid solutions has attracted significant attention [176].Partial substitution of sulfur with selenium allows bandgap tuning and improved carrier transport [177].Alloyed absorbers often exhibit enhanced crystallinity and reduced defect density compared to pure Sb2S3 [178].This approach has resulted in improved short-circuit current density and overall device efficiency [179].

5.3 Interface Engineering and Buffer Layer Optimization

Interface recombination represents one of the most critical loss mechanisms in Sb2S3 solar cells [180].Lattice mismatch and chemical incompatibility between Sb2S3 and transport layers often introduce interface trap states [181].Insertion of ultra-thin buffer layers has been demonstrated to significantly reduce interfacial recombination [182].Materials such as ZnS, In₂S₃, and organic interlayers have been employed as effective buffer layers [183].Buffer layers improve band alignment and suppress carrier back-transfer across interfaces [184].Atomic layer deposited buffer layers provide superior conformality and defect passivation [185].Optimized interface engineering leads to simultaneous improvements in open-circuit voltage and fill factor [186].

.5.4 Morphology Control and Grain Orientation Engineering

Film morphology and grain orientation critically influence charge transport and recombination behavior in Sb2S3 thin films [187].Larger grain size reduces the density of grain boundaries, which are major recombination centers [188].Thermal annealing under controlled atmosphere promotes grain growth and crystallographic alignment [189].Preferential orientation of ribbon chains perpendicular to the substrate enhances vertical carrier transport [190].Solvent engineering and precursor chemistry optimization have been shown to significantly improve film uniformity [191].Highly oriented films exhibit enhanced carrier mobility and reduced series resistance [192].Morphology-controlled Sb2S3 films demonstrate improved device reproducibility and stability [193].

5.5 Device Stability and Environmental Robustness

Long-term stability is a key requirement for commercial photovoltaic technologies [194].Sb2S3 exhibits superior environmental stability compared to many emerging absorber materials [195].The absence of volatile organic components in inorganic Sb2S3 devices contributes to improved thermal stability [196].Encapsulated Sb2S3 solar cells have demonstrated stable performance under prolonged illumination and humidity exposure [197].Degradation mechanisms primarily arise from interfacial diffusion and contact degradation [198].Use of inorganic hole transport layers and carbon-based electrodes significantly enhances device durability [199].Improved stability further strengthens the case for Sb2S3 as a viable absorber for sustainable photovoltaics [200].

5.6 Performance Trends and Efficiency Progress

Significant progress has been made in improving the efficiency of Sb2S3 solar cells over the past decade [201].Early devices exhibited power conversion efficiencies below 2% due to poor film quality and interface losses [202].Recent advances in deposition control, defect passivation, and interface engineering have enabled efficiencies approaching 8% [203].Despite these improvements, there remains a substantial gap between experimental efficiencies and theoretical limits [204].

6. Challenges, Limitations, and Future Research Directions

6.1 Fundamental Challenges in Sb2S3 Thin-Film Solar Cells

Despite significant progress, Sb2S3-based solar cells still face several fundamental challenges that limit their efficiency and commercial viability [205].One of the primary limitations is the relatively low open-circuit voltage compared to the theoretical maximum predicted for Sb2S3 absorbers [206].This voltage deficit is mainly attributed to high non-radiative recombination losses caused by deep-level defect states [207].Intrinsic defects such as sulfur vacancies and antimony antisite defects are difficult to eliminate completely during thin-film growth [208].Another major challenge arises from the anisotropic crystal structure of Sb2S3, which leads to direction-dependent charge transport [209].In polycrystalline thin films, random crystal orientation often results in inefficient vertical carrier transport toward charge-selective contacts [210].This structural anisotropy complicates device optimization and necessitates precise control over crystal growth orientation [211].Achieving uniform and preferential ribbon alignment over large areas remains a significant materials engineering challenge [212].

6.2 Interface-Related Losses and Contact Instability

Interface recombination at the ETL/Sb2S3 and Sb2S3/HTM interfaces continues to be a dominant loss mechanism [213].Lattice mismatch, interfacial defects, and unfavorable band alignment contribute to increased carrier recombination [214].Chemical instability at the back contact interface can also lead to long-term device degradation [215].Diffusion of metal atoms into the Sb2S3 absorber under operational conditions has been reported to deteriorate device performance [216].The selection of stable and chemically compatible contact materials remains a critical challenge [217].Organic hole transport materials often suffer from poor thermal and environmental stability [218].Replacing organic components with robust inorganic alternatives is therefore a key research priority [219].

6.3 Scalability and Manufacturing Constraints

While high-quality Sb2S3 films have been demonstrated at the laboratory scale, translating these results to large-area devices presents additional challenges [220].Solution-based deposition techniques often exhibit poor thickness uniformity and reproducibility over large substrates [221].Vapor-phase techniques, although capable of producing high-quality films, involve higher capital and operational costs [222].Balancing film quality with scalable, cost-effective manufacturing processes remains unresolved [223].Process integration with existing photovoltaic manufacturing infrastructure also poses challenges [224].Compatibility with roll-to-roll processing and flexible substrates requires further optimization of deposition conditions [225].Developing scalable deposition methods without compromising film quality is essential for commercialization [226].

6.4 Future Research Directions

Future research on Sb2S3 solar cells should prioritize comprehensive defect control strategies at both bulk and interface levels [227].Advanced characterization techniques, such as deep-level transient spectroscopy and time-resolved photoluminescence, are needed to identify dominant recombination pathways [228].Combining experimental studies with first-principles modeling can provide deeper insights into defect formation and passivation mechanisms [229].Orientation-controlled growth of Sb2S3 thin films represents a promising pathway to enhance charge transport [230].Techniques that promote vertical alignment of ribbon chains are expected to significantly improve carrier extraction efficiency [231].Interface engineering using ultra-thin passivation layers and graded band structures should be further explored [232].Alloying and compositional engineering offer additional opportunities to optimize bandgap and electronic properties [233].Controlled incorporation of selenium or other chalcogen elements may enable improved carrier transport and reduced recombination [234].Exploration of tandem device architectures incorporating Sb2S3 as a wide-bandgap absorber could unlock higher overall efficiencies [235].

6.5 Commercialization Prospects

Sb2S3 possesses several intrinsic advantages that make it attractive for commercial photovoltaic applications [236].The material is composed of earth-abundant and non-toxic elements, ensuring long-term sustainability [237].Its high absorption coefficient allows for ultrathin absorber layers, reducing material consumption [238].Furthermore, Sb2S3 exhibits superior environmental stability compared to many emerging absorber materials [239].However, closing the efficiency gap with established thin-film technologies remains essential for market competitiveness [240].Continued improvements in efficiency, stability, and scalability will determine the future commercial success of Sb2S3 solar cells [241].With sustained research efforts and technological innovation, Sb2S3 holds strong potential as a next-generation photovoltaic absorber [242].

7. Conclusion

Antimony sulfide (Sb2S3) has emerged as a highly promising absorber material for next-generation thin-film photovoltaic applications due to its earth-abundant composition, low toxicity, and favorable optoelectronic properties [243].The orthorhombic crystal structure composed of quasi-one-dimensional (Sb₄S₆)ₙ ribbon chains impart strong anisotropy to charge transport, which fundamentally governs device performance [244].Its suitable bandgap in the visible range and exceptionally high optical absorption coefficient enables efficient light harvesting using ultrathin absorber layers [245].This review has comprehensively analyzed the structure–property–performance relationships of Sb2S3 thin films, emphasizing the critical role of deposition techniques, crystal orientation, and defect chemistry [246].Both solution-based and vapor-phase deposition methods have demonstrated the capability to produce functional Sb2S3 absorber layers, though trade-offs between scalability, cost, and film quality remain [247].Advances in deposition control, post-treatment processes, and annealing strategies have significantly improved crystallinity and reduced defect densities [248].Considerable progress has been achieved in Sb2S3-based solar cell architectures through interface engineering, buffer layer optimization, and selective contact design [249].Defect passivation strategies, including sulfur-rich treatments and compositional engineering, have proven effective in suppressing non-radiative recombination losses [250].Doping and alloying approaches, particularly the formation of Sb₂(S,Se)₃ solid solutions, offer promising pathways for bandgap tuning and enhanced carrier transport [251].Despite these advancements, Sb2S3 solar cells continue to exhibit a notable efficiency gap compared to their theoretical limits [252].This gap is primarily attributed to residual bulk and interfacial defects, sub-optimal band alignment, and anisotropy-induced transport limitations [253].Addressing these challenges requires precise control over crystal growth orientation, advanced defect characterization, and rational interface design [254].Looking forward, future research should focus on orientation-controlled thin-film growth, atomic-scale interface passivation, and integration of robust inorganic charge transport layers [255].The exploration of tandem and hybrid photovoltaic architectures incorporating Sb2S3 as a wide-bandgap absorber represents a particularly promising direction [256].With continued interdisciplinary efforts combining materials science, device physics, and scalablemanufacturing, Sb2S3 holds strong potential to evolve into a commercially viable photovoltaic technology [257].

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Akash Kharat¹,Dr. Shoeb Ahmad²

¹Professor  Ramkrishna More Art’s, Commerce and Science CollegeAkurdi, Pune 411044.

²AKI’s Poona College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Camp, Pune – 411001.

Abstract:-

Assessing ecosystem health and biodiversity requires an understanding of termite diversity and distribution. Using transect sampling across several seasons, this study examines the richness of termite species and their spatial-temporal distribution in Chikhli, which is in theBuldhana district of Maharashtra. Using standardized ecological indices (alpha, beta, and gamma diversity), the goal was to measure and examine termite diversity while evaluating the impact of seasonal variation on community composition. Using transects (100 m × 2 m), fieldwork was carried out in a few chosen semi-urban and forested environments in 2023 during the pre-monsoon, monsoon,and post-monsoon seasons. By manually inspecting termite mounds, decaying wood, soil, and leaf litter, termites were collected. Morphological keys and expert validation were used to preserve and identify each collected sample down to the species level. In all, 14 termite species belonging to the Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae families were recorded. Due to increased moisture and organic matter availability, alpha diversity peaked during the monsoon season, whereas beta diversity showed a moderate turnover of species across various habitats and seasons. An indicator of overall richness, gamma diversity demonstrated the research area’s ecological importance in maintaining termite biodiversity. Simpson’s diversity index and Shannon-Wiener’s diversity index provided more evidence for seasonal variations in species richness and evenness. Notably, Odontotermesobesus and Microtermesobesi showed ecological resilience by emerging as dominant species in every season. Statistical techniques, such as cluster analysis and Bray-Curtis dissimilarity, showed distinct patterns of seasonal gradient change in community structure. According to the study, temperature and moisture in particular have a significant impact on termite diversity in Chikhli, influencing both nest dispersal and foraging behavior. These results emphasize the necessity of localized biodiversity conservation measures and the significance of seasonal monitoring for comprehending termite ecology. In the semi-arid ecosystems of central India, this study provides important baseline data for future ecological assessments, sustainable land management techniques, and the potential creation of bio-indicators.

Keywords:-

Termite diversity, Transect sampling, Seasonal variation, Alpha diversity, Beta diversity, Gamma diversity, Chikhali, Buldhana District, Species distribution, Biodiversity assessment, Forest ecosystem, Species richness.

Aim:-To assess the termite species diversity and distribution in Chikhali, Buldhana District, Maharashtra, using transect sampling, and to evaluate seasonal variations through measures of alpha, beta, and gamma diversity.

Objectives:-

1. To document and identify termite species present in different habitats of Chikhali, Buldhana District, Maharashtra.
2. To analyze seasonal variations in termite diversity and distribution using transect sampling.
3. To evaluate alpha, beta, and gamma diversity indices to understand species richness and community turnover.

Introduction:-

Termites are one of the most ecologically important soil-dwelling insects in tropical and subtropical areas. They are necessary for the cycling of nutrients, the fermentation of organic materials, and the evolution of soil.They are bio-indicators of habitat quality and environmental stability due to their abundance and presence. In many regions of India, termite diversity is still poorly understood, especially at the regional level, despite their ecological significance. Chikhli is located in Maharashtra’s Buldhana district, which has a transitional climate that provides a variety of microhabitats that are conducive to termite species. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of information on species composition, seasonal dynamics, and diversity metrics in this area[1].

Combining alpha, beta, and gamma diversity metrics with transect sampling. This study seeks to close that gap by examining termite diversity and distribution over the seasons. For conservation planning, land use management, and sustainable farming practices in central India, an examination of the ways in which seasonal change affects termite assemblages can yield deeper ecological insights.

Ecological Significance of Termites in the Environment:

Termites are dominantly sentient in terms of habitat elucidation and soil motility, earning them the title of “ecosystem engineers.” They have a major impact on the breakdown of plant material that is high in cellulose, which speeds up the recycling of organic matter in ecosystems. Termites improve soil fertility and water retention by adding nutrients to the soil through the breakdown of decaying wood, leaf litter, and plant residues. Their tunneling action enhances microbial growth and soil aeration, both of which boost plant output[2].Moreover, termite mounds provide favorable conditions for a variety of plants and animals by influencing microclimates and landscape heterogeneity. Additionally, termites play a crucial role in the food chain as food for mammals, birds, reptiles, and other arthropods. They are sometimes considered pests because of the damage they cause to crops and wooden structures, but their ecological benefits greatly exceed their negative economic effects. It is essential to comprehend their function to preserve ecological stability and biodiversity, particularly in tropical and semi-arid regions.

Biodiversity Assessment and the Role of Diversity Indices

Termite diversity research offers important insights into habitat quality, climate change resilience, and ecosystem functioning. Three important metrics are frequently used to assess ecological diversity:

1. Alpha Diversity: Species richness within a particular habitat or sample site is represented by alpha diversity[3].
2. Beta Diversity: The turnover of species across various habitats or periods is measured by beta diversity.
3. Gamma Diversity: The overall diversity of a whole landscape or region is reflected in gamma diversity.

These metrics work together to help quantify environmental variability, species composition, and community organization. Accurate biodiversity evaluation requires an understanding of seasonal variations in these diversity indices.

Transect Sampling: A Systematic Approach:

A common ecological survey technique for studying biodiversity is transect sampling. Finding forage groups, mounds, and nesting locations in termite ecology entails examining designated belt transects[4].The technique guarantees quantitative, repeatable data collection across many habitat types and seasons, enabling researchers to identify trends in termite number and distribution.

Study Area:

The study was carried out in Chikhli, which is located in the Buldhana district of Maharashtra. The climate of this area is semi-arid to sub-humid, with distinct seasonal variations such as hot and dry pre-monsoon, wet and humid monsoon, and cooler and semi-dry post-monsoon phases. Numerous termite species find favorable niches created by the varied soil types, vegetation cover, and moisture regimes[5].Nevertheless, there is still little ecological documentation of the termite fauna in this area.

Fig1:- Structure of Termite Fauna in Chikhali

Fig2:-Structure of Termite Fauna inChikhali

Research Gap and Significance:

Although research on termite biodiversity has been conducted throughout India, central Maharashtra lacks seasonal and localized studies. The majority of earlier research offers broad-scale or generalized data without taking ecological dynamics in space and time into consideration. This study closes that gap by employing a standardized analytical approach to provide a thorough, season-by-season investigation of termite communities[6].

Methods:-

1. Study Area Description:

The study was conducted in and around the Indian metropolis of Chikhli, which is situated in the Buldhana district of Maharashtra.With distinct pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, this area has a semi-arid to sub-humid climate. Scrublands, semi-urban areas, agricultural fields, and degraded woods make up the landscape, which provides a variety of microhabitats that are appropriate for different termite species. This area is perfect for researching termite diversity and distribution patterns because of the seasonal variations in temperature, humidity, and soil moisture.

• Sampling Method: Transect-Based Survey:

The variety and distribution of termites were examined using belt transect sampling. In ecological field research, this method is commonly used and standardized, and it is especially helpful for identifying ground-dwelling and cryptic species like termites.

1. Transect Dimensions: The dimensions of eachtransect were 100 meters in length and 2 meters in width (100 m × 2 m), resulting in a total area of 200 m², 100 meters transect divide into 20 section, each section was (5×2 meter).
2. Sampling Sites: Two copies of each of the six transects were placed in three different habitat types: open scrublands, woodland patches, and agricultural land[7].
3. Sampling Seasons: To record temporal variance, surveys were carried out during three distinct seasons:
4. Pre-monsoon (April).
5. Monsoon (August).
6. Post-monsoon (November).

Every transect was carefully examined for termite activity, including termite-colonized decaying wood, nests, mounds, and indications of foraging.

• Termite Collection and Preservation:

Termites were manually gathered by inspecting:

1. Layers of soil
2. Dead logs
3. Bark from trees
4. Litter from leaves
5. Mounds in nature

Soft forceps were used to carefully collect termite samples, which were then preserved in 70% ethanol. Every colony or group that was encountered was regarded as a separate sample. Every piece of field data, including substrate, moisture level, microhabitat type, and GPS location, was captured on the spot[8].

• Species Identification:

Using common morphological keys and classification aids, specimens were identified down to the genus and species level. These included:

Chhotani and Roonwal (1989).

Krishna et al. (2013).

Diagnostic features such as mandibles, wing venation, soldier caste traits, and head capsule form were used to identify the species. Where required, expert verification was acquired.

• Diversity Indices and Data Analysis

Three essential ecological indices were used to examine termite biodiversity:

1. Alpha Diversity: Species richness and evenness within each habitat and season are calculated by using Shannon-Wiener and Simpson’s diversity indices.
2. Beta Diversity: Whittaker’s index and Bray-Curtis dissimilarity are used to analyze species turnover between habitats and seasons.
3. Gamma Diversity: The overall variation of the topography across the entire study area.

The data was handled and analyzed using PAST (Paleontological Statistics) software and Microsoft Excel.Seasonal and regional comparisons of diversity patterns were made using graphical representations and cluster analysis.

• Ethical and Environmental Considerations:

The natural environment was not significantly disturbed during any of the termite sampling operations. Non-target organisms and vacant structures remained undisturbed. The study complied with ecological and institutional standards for ethical biodiversity research[9].

Overview of Species Richness and Abundance:-

                     The study recorded atotal of 14 termite species across three major seasons: pre-monsoon, monsoon,and post-monsoon.

Table 1: Taxonomic Classification of Identified Termite Species:

Family	Species Identified
Termitidae	Odontotermesobesus, Microtermesobesi, Odontotermesbrunneus,Odontotermesfeae, Odontotermesguptai
Rhinotermitidae	Coptotermesheimi, Coptotermesceylonicus

Table 2: Seasonal Abundance Table:

Species	Pre-Monsoon	Monsoon	Post-Monsoon	Total
Odontotermesobesus	30	42	34	106
Microtermesobesi	22	35	27	84
Odontotermesbrunneus	10	15	12	37
Odontotermesfeae	6	13	8	27
Odontotermesguptai	5	10	6	21
Total Individuals	89	144	106	339

Fig3:- Seasonal Abundance of Termite Species in Chikhali

Calculations:-

1. Diversity Indices:
2. Shannon-Wiener Index (H’):

H’ =

Where,

=

H’ = – [(0.2917 . ln 0.2917) + (0.2431 . ln 0.2431)+….]

H’ = 2.051

• Simpson’s Diversity Index (1 – D):

D =

Simpson’s Index =  1 – D

Using the same proportions[10]:

D =  +  + ….

D = 0.825

Table 3: Summary of Diversity Indices:

Season	H’ (Shannon)	Simpson (1 – D)	Species Richness
Pre-Monsoon	1.978	0.800	11
Monsoon	2.051	0.825	14
Post-Monsoon	1.981	0.805	12

• Beta Diversity (Species Turnover):

Whittaker’s Index:

 = ) – 1

Where,

 – 14 (Total species recorded)

α = 12.33

α =

=

α = 12.33

 = ) – 1

 = 0.135

• Gamma Diversity ():

 = Total species observed across all habitats/seasons = 14

• Bray-Curtis Dissimilarity Index:

B = 1 –

Where,

= Sum of shared minimum abundances.

 = Total individuals in habitats i and j.

B = 1 –

1 – 0.78

B = 0.22

Results and Discussions:-

Table 4: Seasonal Comparison Table of Biodiversity Parameters:

Parameters	Pre-Monsoon	Monsoon	Post-Monsoon	Interpretation
Alpha Diversity (H’)	1.978	2.051	1.981	The monsoon season has the highest Shannon Index within-season diversity.
Simpson Index (1-D)	0.800	0.825	0.805	Evenness and dominance distribution are more uniform during the monsoon.
Species Richness	11	14	12	The total unique species per season is highest in the monsoon.
Beta Diversity ()	0.273	0.135	0.182	Some species change between seasons, but not a lot.
Gamma Diversity ()	14 species	14 species	14 species	The total number of unique species observed across all seasons remains constant.
Dominant Species	O.obesus, M. obesi	O.obesus, M. obesi	O.obesus, M. obesi	Dominant species across all seasons are key contributors to ecosystem functioning.
Bray-Curtis Index	0.251	0.22	0.304	Moderate dissimilarity in species composition across seasons.

Fig 4:- Seasonal Trends in Termite Diversity and Richness

The pre-monsoon season has a Simpson Index of 0.800, indicating a good distribution of individuals among species, while the alpha diversity is 1.978, indicating substantial species diversity. Beta diversity is 0.273, and species richness is somewhat lower at 11, indicating a moderate turnover of species from prior seasons. The species composition varies moderately, as shown by the Bray-Curtis Index value of 0.251. O. obesus and M. obesi are the dominating species, and the gamma diversity is steady at 14 species[11].

More species diversity and even distribution are reflected in the monsoon season, when alpha diversity peaks at 2.051, the greatest of all seasons. Furthermore, the Simpson Index reaches its maximum value of 0.825, indicating a community with little balance and dominance.The monsoon season has the greatest number of species, with a species richness of 14. The lowest beta diversity is 0.135,suggesting that the species composition has not changed much. Higher resemblance with other seasons is indicated by the Bray-Curtis Index, which is likewise the lowest at 0.220.Gamma diversity continues at 14 species, while dominant species (O. obesus, M. obesi) do not change.

The Simpson Index is 0.805, and alpha diversity slightly declines to 1.981in the post-monsoon season, indicating both strong evenness and diversity[12].With a species richness of 12, the monsoon has somewhat decreased. Higher species compositional dissimilarity is suggested by the Bray-Curtis Index of 0.304and beta diversity of 0.182, both of which are higher than during the monsoon. Gamma diversity stays at 14 species, while the dominating species (O. obesus and M. obesi) continue to exist.

Fig 5:- Seasonal Variations in Termite Community Structure

Conclusions:-

The current study used belt transect sampling in the semi-arid area of Chikhli, Buldhana district, Maharashtra, to provide a thorough investigation of termite variety and distribution over three seasonal phases: pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon. Using ecological index-based evaluation and thorough field surveys, the results demonstrate how seasonal variations impact termite community composition, species richness, and spatial dynamics. A thorough evaluation of termite biodiversity’s intra- and inter-seasonal trends was made possible by the use of alpha, beta, and gamma diversity indices. According to the Shannon-Wiener and Simpson indices, alpha diversity peaked during the monsoon season, indicating favorable environmental factors such as more soil moisture and organic matter that promote a more varied and uniformly dispersed termite colony. Indicating that the monsoon season provides ideal habitat conditions for termite proliferation, species richness peaked at this time of year, with 14 species seen. Whittaker’s index and Bray-Curtis dissimilarity, which measure beta diversity, showed a moderate turnover of species throughout the seasons. This suggests that although core species such as Odontotermesobesus and Microtermesobesi are year-round, some species show seasonal variation in their occurrence and distribution. As a stable habitat for a variety of termite taxa, the region’s ecological value was highlighted by the fact that the gamma diversity, or overall termite diversity across all seasons, stayed consistent at 14 species.

Consistent observation of dominant species in every season showed their ecological adaptability and potential as bio-indicators of habitat and soil quality. Dissimilarity indices and cluster analysis were used to further show how climate factors like humidity and temperature affected the slow changes in community structure. The study concludes by highlighting the significance of regular biodiversity monitoring in addition to the seasonal patterns of termite diversity in a transitional setting. In the semi-arid regions of central India, these observations provide important baseline data for ecological conservation, sustainable land-use planning, and upcoming research on termite-driven ecosystem processes.

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M. A. Patil¹ G.H. Sonawane¹

Kisan Arts, Commerce and Science College, Parola Dist Jalgaon (M.S.), India.

mayur.patil349@gmail.com

Abstract:-The intriguing features of MXene, a novel family of two-dimensional materials, include strong surface area, negative zeta potential, metallic conductivity, and electric conductivity.The majority of Mxene are currently only successfully prepared by exfoliating MAX with high concentration hydrofluoric acids. In this study, the 2D Ti₃C₂ with large interplanar spacing was successfully achieved by alkali mixture of NaF and HCl, in single process. The morphology and structure of prepared sample characterized by XRD and SEM. This work presents a safely effective route to synthesize the 2D Ti₃C₂. Fabrication of ZnO/MXene composites by a facile chemical method. Under UV irradiation, Rhodamine B was degraded by composites within 15 min and retained photo-catalytical efficiency after 5 cycles. Therefore ZnO/MXene composites can be regarded as aeffective candidate for waste water treatment and environmental protection.

Keyword:- MAX phases, MXene, ZnO, Rhodamine B

1.Introduction:-Due to the discovery graphene in 2004[1-3], The 2D materials have attracted researcher interest. Owing to the reduction of the dimension and size, two-dimension materials have exhibited many intriguing properties that are not found in their bulk counters, holding tremendous promise for a host of applications ranging from electronics[4-6] and optoelectronic device[7, 8], photocatalysis[9, 10]to electrochemical catalysis[11, 12]. In recent years, with great advances in the synthetic techniques, more 2D materials beyond graphene have been successfully produced such as silicene[12], silica glass[13], molybdenum disulfide[14, 15], germanene[16, 17], stantene[18], phosphorene[19]. Among the, a newly discovered large family of 2D large family of transitional metal carbide/ nitride or carbonitride called ‘’MXene’[20], is rapidly rising starThese novel materials are produced from MAX phaseswith selective remove A layered using etchants without destroying M-X bond because the M-X bonds are much stronger than the M-A bonds[21]. MAX phasesare layered ternary compound with general formula of M_n+1AX_n(n=1,2,3), where M represents early transition d block transition elements, A is predominately IIIA or IV A group element, and X is either C or N,MAX phases possess hexagonal layered structure in which M_n+1X_n units and A layers are alternatively stacked.After the exfoliation resulting surface of MXene are terminated with other groups, such as -F, -OH and -O[22]. So, the MXene represents as M_n+1X_nT_x, Where T is the surface terminal groups depends upon etchants solution and condition. Experimentally, the proportions of different functional groups on the MXene surface are uncertain.In case of hydrothermal or electrochemical etching methods absence of terminal functional groups and represented as M_n+1X_n such as Ti₃C₂[23]. Most of MXeneshows metallic behavior exhibiting electronic conductivity higher than all other solution possessed 2D materials. These materials have shown significant promise in variety of applications including electrochemical energy storage[24], electromagnetic interference shielding[25], gas sensing[26], and many other. In particular, the good flexibility of MXene make easy to form composite with other materials, which provide an opportunity of integrating the outstanding properties of different materials in a complementary way. MXene also has exceptional capacity to transport photogenerated electron from closely coupled semiconductor photocatalyst and suppress the recombination of electron hole pairs[27]. However, MXene based photocatalyst system with more efficient for removal of water pollutants is still needed to develop.

ZnO is widely applied semiconductor photocatalyst in pollutants removal including heavy metal ions[28] and organic contaminants[29], and it has a strong oxidation capacity and a wide band gap (~3.3 ev)[30] because its valence band is sufficiently to generate hydroxy radicals[31]. On the other hand, ZnO shows fast recombination of electron hole pairs[32] and shows poorest photocatalytic degradation of dyes[33]. Based on above consideration, we constructed an efficient heterojunction photocatalyst for degradation of hazardous water pollutants which consisted of MXene sheets and ZnO. These heterojunctionsfacilitate minimize the photogenerated electron transfer distance. Moreover, the heterojunction structure between the stable ZnO and high conductive layered structure of Ti₃C₂T_x, MXene can further facilitate the separation and transfer capacities of photogenerated charge carriers. Therefore ZnO/Ti₃C₂T_x exhibited excellent photocatalyst. This work provides new insight into for development of traditional semiconductor photocatalyst for traditional semiconductor photocatalyst for highly efficient degradation of Rhodamine B as waste water pollutants.

Fig 1.) Schematical representation of Crystal Structure of Ti₃AlC₂and monolayer of Ti₃C₂

2.Experimental Section

Etching Methods. Etching using NaF + HCl Solutions The etchant was prepared by adding 0.8 gm of NaF to 10 mL of 9M HCl and continuously stirring the resulting mixture for 10 min then 0.5 g ofTi₃AlC₂ powder gradually over the course of 5 min added into above etchants avoids excessive bubble formation of H₂ gas, and resultant mixture were left under continuous stirring for 18 h at room temperature. Each reactant was centrifugation with DI water until pH~6.

Synthesis of ZnO/MXene composite 110 mg Zn(CH₃COO)₂.2H₂O were dissolved into 50 ml of ethanol under vigorous stirring for 30 min at room temperature. Then 32 mg NaOH were dissolved into 50 mL of ethanol under vigorous stirring for 30 min, the two solutionswere mixed followed by addition of the 410 mL of ethanol. 0.25 gm of MXene was added in the solution under magnetic stirring at 60⁰C for 40 min. The resulting precipitate was cooled down and sediment was collected by centrifugation. Finally, the precipitate was dried at 60⁰C in autoclave for 18 h obtained as ZnO seeds/MXene

37.10 g Zn(NO₃)₂.6H₂O andobtained ZnO/MXene were dissolved into 500 mL of DI Water in round bottom Flask,heated in oil bath at 105⁰C for 30 min. Then, 17.50g hexamethylenetetramine was added heated and stirred for 23h. Finally, after the reaction, process, the product was collected by centrifugation and dried in hot air oven at 60⁰C for10 h

XRD of 2-D MXene:- The result revealed that the characteristics 002 peak located at 2θ=8.83A⁰In bare MXene, the 002 peak was found to be at 19A⁰ presenting as increase interlayer spacingthis peak not appear into bulk counter part of MAX phases

Fig 2) XRD image of Ti₃C₂ 2-D Sheets

3. Photocatalytical Application of ZnO/MXene composite

The Photocatalytical performance were evaluated through removal of Rhodamine B as typical pollutants 200 mg ZnO/MXene composites were dispersed into 40 ml of 50 ppm solution of Rhodamine B, uniformed stirring with help of magnetic stirring. The solution kept in dark for 30 min and then irradiated withUV light for 18 min the reaction sample were collected at regular of 3 min for UV-visible analysis. The same set of experiment carried using 100 mg of ZnO particle were used to evaluated photocatalytical performance and the rhodamine b solution were collected at regular interval of 20 min for UV-Visible analysis

     The degradation efficiency was evaluated by comparing percentage of degradation using following formula

η = (1-C_t/C₀) where η is photodegradation in % and C and C₀ are concentration of RhB solution after and before UV radiation, respectively. C/C₀ calculated by A/A₀, because the concentration of solution is directly proportion to absorbance of solution

Fig 3a) Photo catalytical degradation of Rhodamine B under UV light3b) Photodegradation efficiency of ZnO/MXene upto 5^th cycle runs

Fig 4) comparison of photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B using ZnO andZnO/MXene

4. Conclusion: –In summary, ZnO/MXene compositehave fabricated by two step facile chemical methods. The ZnO microrod/MXene composite within 15 min and more photocatalytical efficiency after 7cycles. ZnO/MXene composite is superior photocatalyst as compared to ZnO microrods. Therefore, the study opens new avenue for waste water pollutants and environmental protection.

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J. V. Fulpagare and *S. S. Patole

   Research Scholler, Zoology Research Laboratory VVMS’s. S. G. Patil Arts, Commerce and Science    

                                     College – Sakri, District – Dhule

   *Dept of Zoology, Principal, Sudam Barku Wagh Arts and Science College, Khandbara.

Corresponding Author: jyotifulpagare@gmail.com

Abstract

The main purpose of current study was to analyses biochemical composition (protein, lipid and moisture) appropriate amount of entire body wet weight tissue of 19 fish species which were previously recorded from four different stations i.e. Sakri, Kasare, Dahivel and Pimpalner during May, 2024 to April, 2025. The mined outcome was showed difference in diverse fish species with their biochemical composition. Protein was found in between (21.40 ± 01.25) to (11.05 ± 01.65), lipid ranges in (09.30 ± 01.80) to (01.10 ± 00.85) whereas moisture content ranges in (82.60 ± 01.15) to (70.50 ± 02.15). In all nineteen species of fishes had been recorded higher caloric value. Mystus bleekeri, Channa punctata and Mastacembellus armatus are more nutritionally beneficial fishes as compare to other 16 species.

Key words: Kasare, Caloric value, Mystus bleekeri, Dahivel.

Introduction:

Fish food is a highly proteinoids in nature. A large percentage of people consume it due to its low cholesterol, tender meat, and great taste. It is the cheapest source of animal protein and other vital nutrients that are important in the human diet, predominantly in low- and middle-income groups and it has been widely accepted as a good source of protein and other elements for maintaining a healthy body (Andrew, 2001).

The importance of fish as a source of high-quality, balanced and easily digestible protein, vitamins and polyunsaturated fatty acids and other organic products is well understood3. It is the most important source of animal protein. (Kumar et. al., 2020). The chemical composition of proteins and lipids has traditionally been used as an indicator of the nutritional value of fish as well as their physiological condition and habitat (Prakash and Verma, 2018)

The nature and quality of nutrients in maximum animals depend mostly on their food type. Besides, the feeding habit of an individual fish species significantly affects the nutritional composition of its flesh. Almost 85-90% fish protein is digestible and all the dietetic vital amino acids is found in the fish meet. The amount of roughly proximate composition together with protein and fats content is often essential to ensure the food monitoring necessities.

Material and Methods:

Present study was conducted at four selected stations from Sakri and Sakri Tahsil i.e. Sakri, Kasare, Dahivel and Pimpalner during June, 2023 to May, 2025. The geographical location of the study area has Sakri- (20⁰59’25” N and 74⁰18’52” E), Kasare- (20⁰56’57” N and 74⁰15’33” E), Dahivel- (20⁰59’25” N and 74⁰18’52” E), Pimpalner- (17⁰50’55” N and 74⁰52’30” E) (Google Earth,2015).

During the study, healthy, appropriately sized fresh fish specimens brought from fishermen. The entire sample was covered with inverted box for keeping freshness, brought them to laboratory. The fish were de-scaled wherever essential, their abdomens were cut open and they were washed two to three times with distilled water. Photographs were taken for identification and taxonomic studies. Fish were identified using various literature viz., Day (1994); Jayaram (2002); Talwar and Jhingran (1991). Proper amount of whole-body wet weight tissue of the fish was taken for biochemical analysis. The tissues were homogenized and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes for estimation of protein, lipid and moisture. Subjecting the body tissues to a solvent mixture of ethyl ether and ethanol (3:1) Bloor mixture. Six observations were made on each chemical analysis. The mean and standard deviation were calculated over the two-year study period. The estimated parameters content was determined by Protein by- Lowry O.H. (1951) method, lipid by – Jayaraman J. (1981) method Whereas total moisture by oven dried method – Anonymous, (1996) method.

Result and Discussion:

The existing study was carried out in total 19 previously recorded fish species from four different stations of Sakri Tahsil. Total 19 species were collected, which belonging to 6 orders followed by 10 families, 18 genera and species. Order Cypriniforms were dominated with 11 species and Family Cyprinidae with 10 species.

From Sakri (Tor khudree, Mystus bleekeri, Opsarius bendelisis, Devario aequipinnatus, Paracanthocobitis botia), from Kasare (Salmostoma bacaila, Labeo boggut, Mastacembelus armatus, Systomus sarana, Channa punctata, Puntius sophore, Oreochromis niloticus, Garra mullya), from Dahivel (Notopterus synurus, Mystus bleekeri, Cirrhinus reba) however from Pimpalner (Ompok bimaculatus, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Corica soborna) were identified. Analyzed nutritive values of Protein, Lipid and Moisture were estimated immediately on same day of collection. Six observations were taken of each parameter in two years study from June, 2023 to May, 2025. Mean and standard deviation were calculated and the values are shown in (Table no.-1) however graphical representation mentioned in fig. 1 to 4 with different stations.

Total Protein (%): As compare to others, protein is most leading biochemical parameter. Consumers gain from fishes near about 16% of animal protein. Protein is the second major component in muscle tissues of fish and is generally present in the range ranged in between 15 to 20 g/100g tissue. In some species lower or higher than this percentage of protein was found. Protein content of fish is considered low if it is below 15%. The extent of variations in protein level is comparatively low. Feeding habits, spawning cycle etc. affect the level of protein in the tissues. These results demonstrate that in good quality of protein is present in all fish species to fulfil the need of healthy diet. Higher content of protein evaluated in Mastacembelus armatus (21.40 ± 01.25)Least count of protein content estimated in Garra mullya (11.05 ± 01.65). Remaining 16 fish species shown protein range in between (11.10 ± 01.20) to (20.15 ± 01.05). Our findings are corroborated with Acharya et al. (2018).

Total Lipid (%): Lipids include a wide heterogeneous group of compounds. Lipids are defined as the fraction of any biological material extractable by solvents of low polarity. Variations in the lipid content are much wider than that in protein. Fish with fat content as low as 0.5% and as high as 16 18% are of common occurrence. In many species, there is a build-up of lipids during the feeding season and decrease during spawning (Bheem Rao and Sanjeevaiah, 2023). Percentage of Lipid shown variation in 19 fish species, stated in Lipids are most vital constituent of fish egg as reserve energy source, (Pal et al., 2011).  The maximum percentage of lipid shown in Corica soborna (08.85 ± 00.70), followed by Mastacembelus armatus (07.90 ± 00.85). Least count of protein content estimated in Mystus bleekeri (01.15 ± 00.85), Remaining 16 fish species protein ranges in between (01.35 ± 00.15) to (05.90 ± 01.40). Our study was corelated with some researchers, (Arunachalam et al., 2017)

Total Moisture (%): Water is essential for all living systems. Body fluids act as medium of transport of nutrients, metabolites etc. and water is the major component in these fluids. It is required for the normal functioning of many biological molecules.According to (Daniel, 2015) this type of relationship between moisture and fat is accurate for various body tissues as well as for whole body tissues. If moisture content increases, then fat content decreases, Praveen et al. (2018). Estimated percentage of the moisture ranges from (80.75± 01.60) to (45.45 ± 02.10) found in Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and Mastacembelus armatus respectively. Remaining 16 species are followed by (81.00 ± 02.80) to(60.00 ± 01.25).  

The biochemical composition of the fish muscle generally indicates the fish quality. Therefore, proximate biochemical composition of a species helps to assess its nutritional and edible values. Although several studies dealing with the proximate composition of biochemical components of many commercially important food fishes have been reported. Khalili and Sabine(2018) investigate lipids, protein, vitamins and minerals percentage in some fish species. Singh et al. (2016) stated that the amount of protein showed higher in liver due to greater concentration of enzymes. Kumar et al. (2020) analyses the effect of dietary vitamin-C on biochemical and morphometric parameters of Labeo rohita. Ali et al. (2020) estimated biochemical composition of some marine edible fish species from Kasimedu fish lading centre of Chennai. Patil and Patole (2025) estimated biochemical profile (Glycogen Protein, Lipid ad Moisture) of fresh water fishes from Nakana lake.

Conclusion

Generally, fish quality depends upon biochemical composition of the whole body which is revealing decline of energy reserves and storage of energy. Hence assessment of their edible and nutritional values related to energy element judge with other species. These values are noticeably varied within species. Based on the results of this research, it was observed that the diversity of fish fauna is more in Kasare village as compare to remaining three stations i.e. Sakri, Dahivel and Pimpalner. All nutritious fishes found in Kasare Village. It is recommended that further the reservoir can be consider being in good condition for fish production.

References

1. Acharya, K.V., Shandage, A., Dadhaniya, P. (2018): Medicinal, Nutritional and Biochemical Values of Fishes, J. of Emerg. Techno. and Inno. Res., 5(7): 343-347.
2. Ali, SSR, Abdhakir, E.S., Muthukkaruppan, R., Sheriff, M.A., Ambasankar, K. (2020): Nutrient Composition of Some Marine Edible Fish Species from Kasimedu Fish Landing Centre, Chennai (TN), India., Int. J. of Biol. Inno., 2(2):165-173. https://doi.org/10.46505/IJBI.2020.2213.
3. Andrew A.E (2001). Fish processing Technology. University of Horin press. Nigeria, 7-8.
4. Anonymous, (1996): Loss on drying, in Indian pharmacopeia, New Delhi: Controller of publication.
5. Arunachalam, A., Nanthini, N., Malathi, S. and Ragapriya, A. (2017): Biochemical Analysis of Fresh Water Fish Species of Veeranam Lake, Cuddalore Dist., Tamil Nadu, India, Int. J. of Zool. and Appl. Biosci., 2(4):202-206. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1311976.
6. Bheem Rao T. and Sanjeevaiah, A. (2023): Biochemical Composition in Different Tissues of Heteropneustes Fossilis (Bloch), IJCRT, 11(10): 237-245.
7. Danial Imoubong, E., (2015): Proximate composition of three commercial fishes commonly consumed in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, Int. J. of Multi. Acad. Res. S.,3 (1), ISSN 2309-3218.
8. Dey, F. (1994):  The fishes of India, Burma Ceylon, fourth Indian reprint, Vol. I and II Jagmandar book agency, New Delhi.
9. Jayaram, K.C. (2002): The freshwater fishes of the Indian region. Narendra Publication House, Delhi, pp., 551.
10. Jayaraman, J., (1981): In: Laboratory Manual in Biochemistry. Wiley eastern ltd., New Delhi, 96.
11. Khalili, T. S. and Sabine, S. (2018): Nutritional Value of Fish: Lipids, Proteins, Vitamins, and Minerals. Reviews in Fisheries Sci. & Aqua., 26(2):243-253.
12. Kumar A, Bajpayee A.K., Yadav C.B. (2020): Effects of Dietary vitamin-C on Biochemical and Morphometric parameters of Labeo rohita., Int. J. of Biol. Inno., 2(2):174-177. https://doi.org/10.46505/IJBI.2020.2214.
13. Lowry, O. H., Rosen Brough, N. J., Farr, A. L., Randall, R. J., (1951): Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chem., 193:265-75.
14. Pal, M., Mukhopadhyay, T. and Ghosh, S., (2011): Proximate, fatty acid, and amino acid composition of fish muscle and egg tissue of Hilsa (Tenualosa ilisha). J. Aqua. Food Prod. Technol., 20: 160-171.
15. Patil Manisha and Patole, S. S. (2025): Biochemical profile of freshwater fishes from Nakana lake, Dist.- Dhule (MS) India, B. Aadhar, Int. Peer Reviewed Indexed Journal. DXXI- 521, 147-150.
16. Prakash, S., Verma, A.K. (2018): Effect of synthetic detergent on biochemical constitutions of freshwater major carp, Labeo rohita, Int. J. on Agri. Sci., 9(1): 56-59.
17. Praveen, D. R., Rushinadha, R. K., Krishna, P., Durga Prasad, D. Sreeramulu, K. (2018): A study on proximate composition of selected three fresh water fishes (Labeo Rohita, Channa Striata and Mastacembelus Armatus) of Tammileru reservoir, West Godavari district, Int. J. of Basic and Rec., 8(7): 650-666.
18. Singh, S., Dixit, P. K. and Patra, A.K. (2016): Biochemical Analysis of Lipids and Proteins in three Freshwater Teleosts (Clarias batrachus, Channa punctatus, Anabas testudineus) Res. J. of Rec. Sci., 5(6): 24-33.
19. Talwar, P.K. and Jhingran, A.G. (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH Publishers, New Delhi.

Table-1, Biochemical Assessment (Protein, Lipid and Moisture) of freshwater fishes from four different stations of Sakri Tahsil. Dist.- Dhule, during June, 2023 to May, 2025.
Sr. No.	Station	Name of the Fish Species	Protein %	Lipid %	Moisture %
1	Sakri	Tor khudree	13.10 ± 01.10	01.35 ± 00.65	80.30 ± 03.20
2		Mystus bleekeri	12.95 ± 01.35	01.50 ± 00.40	70.50 ± 02.15
3		Opsarius bendelisis	13.10 ± 01.75	01.45 ± 00.90	82.60 ± 01.15
4		Devario aequipinnatus	12.13 ± 01.40	01.15 ± 01.05	70.30 ± 02.15
5		Paracanthocobitis botia	15.10 ± 01.65	02.30 ± 01.55	70.90 ± 03.40
6	Kasare	Salmostoma bacaila	16.20 ± 00.90	02.80 ± 00.75	75.05 ± 02.10
7		Labeo boggut	17.20 ± 00.90	02.20 ± 00.60	70.30 ± 02.10
8		Mastacembellus armatus	21.40 ± 01.25	07.90 ± 00.85	45.45 ± 02.10
9		Systomus sarana	11.35 ± 00.95	00.85 ± 00.15	60.00 ± 01.25
10		Channa punctata	20.15 ± 01.05	05.90 ± 01.40	65.00 ± 03.55
11		Puntius sophore	14.95 ± 01.30	01.90 ± 00.45	70.30 ± 00.30
12		Oreochromis niloticus	13.60 ± 00.70	01.30 ± 00.40	75.00 ± 02.80
13		Garra mullya	11.05 ± 01.65	01.95 ± 02.15	71.20 ± 03.20
14	Dahivel	Mystus bleekeri	11.10 ± 01.20	01.15 ± 00.85	72.35 ± 01.90
15		Notopterus synurus	15.90 ± 01.50	02.45 ± 00.25	80.10 ± 02.80
16		Cirrhinus reba	17.30 ± 00.90	02.60 ± 01.80	76.00 ± 03.80
17	Pimpalner	Ompok bimaculatus	14.60 ± 01.30	01.10 ± 00.85	81.00 ± 02.80
18		Hypophthalmichthys molitrix	12.55 ± 01.30	01.90 ± 00.70	80.20 ± 02.20
19		Corica soborna	17.90 ± 01.20	02.10 ± 00.10	70.30 ± 04.50

Note- all values expressed in mg/ 100g wet weight tissues and mean S.D. of six observations during two years- June, 2023 to May, 2025.

Fig.-1, Graphical representation of biochemical Assessment (Protein, Lipid and Moisture) of freshwater fishes from Sakri.

Fig.-2, Graphical representation of biochemical Assessment (Protein, Lipid and Moisture) of freshwater fishes from Kasare.

Fig.-3, Graphical representation of biochemical Assessment (Protein, Lipid and Moisture) of freshwater fishes from Dahivel.

Fig.-4, Graphical representation of biochemical Assessment (Protein, Lipid and Moisture) of freshwater fishes from Pimpalner.

¹Mr. Harshad S. Deshpande, ¹Dr. V.B. Jadhav,  ²Dr. Mahendra Sahebrao Borse and ³Dr. Ravindra S. Dhivare

¹JET’s Z.B. Patil College,Dhule (Maharashtra) -424002.   

¹JET’s Z.B. Patil College,Dhule (Maharashtra) -424002.

²Department of chemistry, Uttamrao Patil College Dahivel Taluka-Sakri, District-Dhule Maharashtra

³BSSPs Arts, Commerce, and Science college songir Dhule

Email: mahendraborse@yahoo.com and Ravii_1978@rediffmail.com

Abstract: For the preparation of omeprazole suspension granules are available in the market. In this research suspension is prepared by using combination of vehicle, preservative and pH regulator. After preparation of chemical stability is evaluated by using stability indicating parameters. Chemical stability of suspension is significantly increased after pH maintain in strongly basic side.  Storage temperature plays significant role in chemical stability. Storage container has no significant impact on chemical stability. Due to use of polysorbet 80, shelf life is increased to significant extent due to its properties such as preservative agent, wetting agent, suspending agent. Research highlights novel suspension medium preparation, its impact on chemical stability. Temperature and storage container impact on stability.

Keywords: Omeprazole suspension, Chemical stability, polysorbet 80, Temperature effect on stability, Noval suspension medium.

Introduction: Proton pump inhibitors commonly known as PPI. PPI is used in the treatment of GRED (Gastroesophageal reflux disease), gastric and duodenal ulcers, erosive esophagitis (1). Omeprazole is wildly used PPI. Omeprazole dosage forms available in market having is lyophilised injection, capsules and dry powder for suspension. Oral route of administration is most common for all medicinal product. However any liquid dosage is always considered as most efficient dosage form, due to having advantages as flexible dose proportionality, suitable for all patient such as elderly or children, high efficiency and quick action. But “Omeprazole” is highly unstable in liquid dosage form due to acid catalyzed and hydrolytic degradation in aqueous medium. Presence of water accelerates protonation resulted to loss in potency. To slow down the reaction speed high pH is maintained by using sodium bicarbonate (2). Refrigerated storage condition further increases stability due to reduction in kinetic energy. In spite of these stabilization process, chemical stability of omeprazole suspension is very less, typically less than 14 days, reflecting the fundamental chemical limitations of maintaining sulfoxide stability in aqueous systems (3).

Hence Noval suspension medium is prepared by using combination of water, polysorbet 80 and NaOH for pH regulation. Polysorbet 80 is surfactant which will be added to increase stability and  suspendability due to its wetting, preservation and other properties such as hydrophobic nature, chelating nature, viscosity enhancer etc. but not limited to. (4, 5, 6, 7).

Chemical stability is evaluated mainly as change in appearance, decrease in therapeutic efficacy and increase in impurity. The degradation is influence by light, temperature, reaction with container and closer, oxidation, moisture etc.

Materials and Methods: For the study omeprazole granules are procured from chemist which is manufactured by Dr. Reddy’s laboratories Ltd having brand name Omez Insta. The sachet is having label claim of 20 mg omeprazole. As per instruction provided on the sachet, complete sachet to be dissolved in water. Dubble distilled water is prepared in lab and used. Sodium hydroxide is procured from Merck and Polysorbet 80 (Vicapol 80) is procured from Viaswaat Chemicals.

For performance of test Morter Pestel, glass beaker, measuring cylinder is used to prepare suspension. For storage stability chamber of make Thermolab having storage temperature 2-8°C, 25°C & 60 % RH, 30°C & 75 % RH and 40°C & 75 % RH. For testing,pH meter, Oswal viscometer, Balance and Shimadzu HPLC is used (8).

For the determination of chemical stability of suspension, decided to perform test as Appearance, pH, Viscosity, Specific gravity, Assay, impurities and microbial limit test (8).

After preparation  suspension is stored in the glass bottle (Impermeable) and PET bottle (semipermeable) are used (9).

Figer 1 Molecular structure of Omeprazole.

Result Discussion:

Appearance:Evaluatedand foundcolour change indicates progressive degradation, which is more rapid at higher temperatures.

In the cold storage (2-8°C) it starts with off-white, and gradually changes to pale yellow, and eventually yellowish orange. Similar change in colour occurs in all storage temperature. But it will change quickly at elevated temperature such as 30°C & 40°C. 

pH: Evaluatedand foundpH decreases with higher temperature and longer storage, consistent with chemical breakdown.At refrigerated condition (2–8°C)pH remains 10.24 compared to initial 11.022, relatively stable.In room temperature (25°C) Slight decline over time to 10.04. At  30°C Noticeable drop 10.1in 45 days.40°C Clear downward trend from 11.02 to 10.31 in just 3 days.

Viscosity: Evaluatedand foundphysical consistency is largely stable, not significantly affected by storage. Across all conditions, viscosity remains in the range 2.4–2.7 mPa·s, showing minor fluctuations.

Density: Evaluatedand founddensity changes are modest, but higher temperatures show more variability. At refrigerated condition (2–8°C) it is ranging from 1.18 to 1.36 g/ml, in room temperature (25°C)slightly higher variation ranging from 1.11–1.42 g/ml. At higher temperature (30°C & 40°C) Variation is less which is 1.18 to 1.39 g/ml, But fluctuation are more.

Chart 1: Assay drift at various temperature over the period of storage.

Assay: Evaluatedand found Omeprazole suspension is stable at refrigerated conditions but loses potency faster at elevated temperatures.At refrigerated condition (2–8°C) Gradual decline but remains within 90–100% limit up to 60 days. In room temperature (25°C) assay drops faster and by 30 days it will be about 93 %. In the elevated temperature (30°C) assay falls below 90 % in 30 days. At accelerated temperature degradation reaction will be very fast due to kinetic energy. Very rapid decline observed and at 3 days assay is about 91 %

Impurities: Evaluatedand founddegradation products accumulate significantly at higher temperatures.Impurity D & E are generally below limit (NMT 0.15%), but at higher temperature 30–40°C levels it will approach/exceed thresholds (e.g., Impurity E up to 0.26%). Total impurities remain <0.5% at 2–8°C, but exceed limit at higher temperatures (30°C: 0.53%, 40°C: >0.5%). In the short period of time that is 30 days and 3 days.

Chart 2: Stability profile of suspension         Chart 3 : Impurity profile of suspension
Microbial Limit test: Microbial stability is maintained across all storage conditions. There is no impact of storage microbial susceptibility.

Chart 4: Storage container impact on assay                 Chart 5: Storage container impact on Impurity

Impact of storage containers are also evaluated and found that, there is no significant change in properties such as appearance, pH, viscosity and specific gravity due to storage container. Hear concluded that Glass bottles consistently show slightly better assay retention across all temperatures. However, there is significant impact on assay find below table for more clarity.

Temperature	Time Point	Glass Bottle	PET Bottle	Observation
2–8°C	90 Days	89.4%	86.7%	Both within spec; PET slightly lower
25°C	45 Days	87.6%	85.2%	Glass bottle shows better retention
30°C	30 Days	89.9%	88.5%	Solution in glass container is  more stable
40°C	3 Days	93.1%	91.7%	Glass maintains potency better

Table 1: Comparison of impact due to storage containeron assay.

When impurities are compared glass container is found less reactive. It might be due to inert and impermeable nature of glass.  However there is no significant difference in the impurity results. The limit of impurities are NMT 0.15 % for impurity D & Impurity E and NMT 0.5 % for Total impurity. Hence concluded that at elevated temperatures (≥25°C), PET bottles show higher impurity accumulation, especially total impurity. Glass bottles perform better in controlling degradation products.

Temperature	Time Point	Container	Impurity D	Impurity E	Total Impurity	Observation
2–8°C	90 Days	Glass	0.04	0.06	0.2	All within limits
		PET	0.06	0.12	0.41	Slightly higher but comparable to glass.
25°C	45 Days	Glass	0.14	0.16	0.46	Near limit
		PET	0.15	0.19	0.56	Exceeds impurity E and total impurity limit
30°C	30 Days	Glass	0.13	0.18	0.46	Exceeds limit of impurity E
		PET	0.19	0.16	0.53	All impurities within specification except total impurity.
40°C	3 Days	Glass	0.16	0.21	0.49	Exceeds limit except total impurity.
		PET	0.18	0.26	0.62	All impurities exceeds limit

Table 2:Comparison of impact due to storage containeron impurity.

Microbial Load: There is no significant increase in the load during the storage. Can be better understood by following table and graph. After evaluation it is concluded that PET bottles show slightly lower microbial counts across all temperatures.

Temperature	Time Point	Glass Bottle	PET Bottle	Observation
2–8°C	90 Days	34 CFU / Ml	41 CFU / Ml	Both acceptable
25°C	45 Days	22 CFU / Ml	35 CFU / Ml	PET slightly better
30°C	30 Days	19 CFU / Ml	14 CFU / Ml	PET better
40°C	3 Days	21 CFU / Ml	16 CFU / Ml	PET better

Table 2:Comparison of impact due to storage containeron impurity

Chart 6: storage container impact on microbial load

. Conclusion: Duering studyit is confirmed that the suspension stability is highest in refrigerated (2-8°C) condition, which maintains assay, low impurity and acceptable appearance up to 90 days. The stability found moderate at room temperature which is up to 30 days. At the elevated temperature potency drops below acceptable threshold, and impurities crosses limit threshold in short period and stability is very poor which is only 3 days at 40°C. But the microbial load are well within limit. In the suspension suspendability is maintained throughout the storage period in refrigerated condition (2-8°C) also. When compared containers it is concluded that for cold chain storage (2-8°C) both the containers are suitable. For ambient and elevated temperature glass bottles are preferred due to better impurity control. Though PET bottles offer better microbial resistance but may compromise impurity thresholds and assay retention under stress. The designed solvent for suspension is effective in increasing the physical and chemical stability of suspension.

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9. Sandra B.M. Jaime, Rosa M. V. Ales, Paula F. J. Bocoli (2022) Moisture and oxygen barrier properties of Glass, PET and HDPE bottles for pharmaceutical products. Journal of drug delivery science and technology 71 (2022) 103330.
10. European Pharmacopeia monograph (Ph. Eur. monograph 1032)

Hitesh N. Wankhede^a, Harshal S. Gawale^b, Rajendra R. Ahire^a, Anup J. More^a,*

^aDepartment of Physics, VVM’s S.G.PatilArts,Science and Commerce College Sakri 424304 Dist. Dhule, KBC NMU Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India

^bDepartment of Physics, JET’s Z.B.Patil college, Dhule 424002, KBC NMU Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India

Abstract

The growing global demand for energy has intensified the need for advanced and efficient energy storage technologies. Supercapacitors and batteries have gained considerable interest due to their essential role in modern energy storage systems. The effectiveness of these devices largely depends on the characteristics of the electrode materials, such as high specific capacitance, superior electrical conductivity, large surface area, abundant availability, and favorable electrochemical properties. While cobalt-based nanomaterials offer high conductivity, abundant resources, and strong capacitance performance for supercapacitor electrodes, limitations such as structural degradation and insufficient power density remain unresolved. This paper reviews on advances in cobalt Sulfide based nanomaterials electrode materials for supercapacitors, with a focus on their preparation methods, electrochemical performance and properties. It focuses on methods to enhance the electrochemical performance of these materials. It shows that synergistic effect can improve the morphology of nanomaterials can significantly boost their performance, with mesoporous structures. Key findings from the literature on batteries and supercapacitors are summarized, highlighting Cobalt sulfide-based materials integrated with carbon nanotubes, graphene, reduced graphene oxide, MAX phase (Class of 2D inorganic compounds comprising atomically thin layers of transition metal carbides, nitrides, or carbonitrides) shortly known as MXene, Metal Organic Framework(MOF), nickel foam and metal elements such as nickel, manganese, etc.

Keywords:Supercapacitor, cobalt composites, specific capacitance, energy density,nanomaterials, hydrothermal

1. Introduction

After the industrial revolution demand of energy completely rely on energy extracted from fossil fuel (oil, gas and coal) but it causes a severe effect on human health like cardiovascular disease, respiratory syndrome, cancer, reproductive effects, etc. and it can happen due to the evolution of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, CFC, and other toxic gases which may leads to greenhouse effect. To get ride from this problem we need to adopt renewable energy resources like hydroelectric energy, solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy, and biomass energy.^[1] There is a challenge in effectively storing energy extracted from these resources. To address this issue electrochemical energy storage system (EES), namely supercapacitors and batteries have become crucial technologies.^[2] Energy density of batteries is higher than the supercapacitor but power density of batteries is lower than the supercapacitor so for rapid charging and discharging applications supercapacitor are more convenient. Continuous research progression in this area is due to wide range of applications such as industries, medical field, military, automobile sector, etc.

In recent days automobile sector mostly relies on lithium-ion batteries due to higher energy density and safe during handling.  Lithium is a key part of batteries that runs electric vehicles but due to limited availability of lithium it really hard to keep up with demand and supply. Researchers are continuously working on replacement of lithium to alkali metals like sodium cause abundant in nature and low cost but sodium ion batteries having poor cyclic performance.^[3] In comparison to batteries supercapacitor having some positive features like fast charging- discharging cycles. Supercapacitor require 1-10 s and batteries require 0.5-5 hr. charging -discharging time. Power density defines how quickly energy can be delivered or receive per unit mass (W/kg): supercapacitor having higher power density 500-10000 W/kg and batteries having power density less than 1000 W/kg. Supercapacitor have longer lifetime more than 500,000 hrs. and batteries 500-1000 hrs. Energy density defines amount of energy stored per unit mass: energy of batteries 10-100 Wh/kg more than supercapacitors 1-10 Wh/kg.^[4] The Ragone plot shown in graph 1. provide the information about behavior of electrochemical energy storage devices power density and energy density.^[5]

Graph 1. Ragone plot of different electrochemical energy conversion systems.^[5]

Conventional capacitor having lowest energy density and higher power density in comparison to other electrochemical energy storage devices. Supercapacitor having lower energy density and higher power density also batteries having higher energy density and lower power density compared to other electrochemical devices.^[6] To overcome the limitations of conventional batteries, supercapacitors have emerged as a promising electrochemical energy storage device. Unlike batteries, supercapacitors require electrode materials that exhibit high electrical conductivity, a large electrochemically active surface area, and well-tuned porosity to facilitate rapid ion transport. In addition, excellent thermal and chemical stability of the electrode material is essential to ensure long-term performance and safety. The development and fabrication of such advanced electrode materials play a crucial role in enhancing the energy density and overall efficiency of supercapacitor systems.

2. Synthesis Method

Cobalt sulfide (CoS) can be synthesized through several methods, depending on the desired properties and the form of the material. In this review article most of the materials are synthesize by hydrothermal method, solvothermal method, microwave induced synthesis, chemical bath deposition (CBD) etc.

2.1 Hydrothermal Method

This is a popular method for synthesizing CoS nanostructures, such as nanoparticles, nanowires, nanotubes etc. It involves a chemical reaction in an aqueous solution at elevated temperature and pressure. It involves crystalizing materials from aqueous solutions at high temperatures and pressures within a sealed and compact vessel. This method has some advantages facilitates the growth of nanostructured materials with controlled morphologies.

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of hydrothermal synthesis method^[7]

 It provides precise control over particle size and morphology, form crystalline structures at relatively low temperatures and allows to enhance material properties. This method also has limitations, requires specialized equipment to withstand high pressures. Extended reaction times may be necessary to achieve desired crystallinity.^[7]

2.2 Solvothermal Method

In this method chemical reaction carried out in an autoclave which sealed vessel using a different solvent at high temperature and controlled pressure. Due to this conditions nucleation and growth of materials of materials occurred in a controlled manner. This method having some advantages, it allows precise control over particle size, crystallinity, shape and growth of pure materials. It suitable for synthesis of wide range of nanostructure of metal sulfides, oxide and hydroxide.^[8]This method has some limitations like the process is time consuming and it run with help of high pressure; scalability is also a problem.

2.3 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis Method

Microwave-assisted synthesis involves rapid heating of reactants using microwave radiation, enabling uniform nucleation and growth of nanomaterials. Heating occurs due to the interaction of 2.54 GHz microwave energy with polar molecules and ions via dipole polarization and ionic conduction mechanisms. This technique offers reduced reaction time, uniform heating, and high energy efficiency. However, limitations include restricted precursor selection and challenges in large-scale production.^[9]The method has been effectively applied to synthesize metal sulfide nanoparticles, metal oxide nanoparticles etc. for high-performance supercapacitor electrodes.

2.4 Chemical Bath deposition (CBD) Method

The chemical bath deposition (CBD) technique is a low-cost and simple method used to deposit thin films of materials from a solution. In this method, the substrate is immersed in a chemical bath containing metal ions and a suitable complexing agent. Controlled chemical reactions in the solution lead to the slow and uniform deposition of the material onto the substrate surface. The deposition occurs due to the controlled release of ions and subsequent nucleation on the substrate. Parameters such as bath temperature, pH, concentration of reactants, and deposition time play an important role in determining the thickness, morphology, and quality of the deposited film. CBD has several advantages. It is simple, cost-effective, and does not require vacuum or high-temperature conditions. It allows large-area and uniform film deposition and is suitable for coating complex-shaped substrates.^[10] However, the technique has some limitations, such as poor adhesion, lower crystallinity, and limited control over film thickness compared to advanced deposition methods.

3. Electrochemical performance analysis

In recent years metal sulfide and oxides-based electrodes materials are more prominent for supercapacitor applications due to their excellent redox reversibility, high electrical conductivity, excellent morphology, and high specific capacitance. This review article focuses on cobalt sulfide-based electrode materials for supercapacitor application.^[11,12] Different techniques are used to tune the morphology of various materials including hydrothermal, solvothermal, supercritical fluid synthesis, CBD, microwave assisted synthesis technique. Morphology of materials can be responsible for effective energy storage and improve the electrochemical performance of electrode materials. In this article a few cobalt sulfide-based electrode materials, some remarkable morphologies like nanowires, nano-tubes, nano-sheets,flakes, and nano-flower-like structures have been reported. A silver fungus-like cobalt sulfide (CoS) nanostructure was successfully synthesized via solvothermal method and use as an electrode material for high-performance supercapacitors. The unique fungus-like morphology provides a large active surface area and abundant electroactive sites, which enhance electrolyte penetration and facilitate fast charge transport. As a result, the silver fungus-like CoS (SFC) electrode exhibits a high specific capacitance of 350.4 F g⁻¹ at a current density of 1 A g⁻¹. The device SFC//AC delivers an energy density of 45.2 Wh kg⁻¹ at a power density of 1500 W kg⁻¹, provides excellent energy storage capability.^[13] A cobalt sulfide nanoparticles synthesize by hydrothermal route and calcinated at 200 ⁰C for 1 hr. form a hexagonal phase of CoS. As a result, the CoS electrode delivers a high specific capacitance of 285.8 F g⁻¹ at a current density of 2 A g⁻¹. Furthermore, the electrode demonstrates excellent cycling stability, retaining 96% of its initial capacitance even after 5000 galvanostatic charge–discharge cycles, indicating strong structural integrity and reversibility. The device made up of CoS/CC//AC achieves an energy density of 25.8 Wh kg⁻¹ andhigh-power density of 14,800 W kg⁻¹, highlighting its capability to store substantial energy while delivering it rapidly.^[14]Nickel cobalt sulfide is high promising material electrode for supercapacitor application good cycling stability. NCS-180 synthesize at 180^oC display urchin like crystalline structure provide more electroactive sites and good electrochemical performance.Owing to these structural advantages, the NCS-180 electrode delivers a high specific charge capacity of 664.30 C g⁻¹ at a current density of 1 A g⁻¹, indicating better Faradaic charge-storage capability. The electrode demonstrates good long-term cycling stability, retaining 93.30% of its initial capacity after 6000 galvanostatic charge–discharge cycles, provides structural stability during repeated cycles. NCS-180//AC system achieves an energy density of 50.35 Wh kg⁻¹ with a corresponding power density of 750 W kg⁻¹.^[15]Dumb-bell shaped 10-20 nm sized cobalt sulfide (CoS) particle prepared by solvothermal route exhibit specific capacitance of 310 F/g at current density of 5 A/g and 95% of capacitance retention after 5000 charge–discharge cycles. Device made up of Cos//AC provide specific capacitance of 5.3 Wh kg⁻¹ and a high-power density of 1800 W kg⁻¹ with an excellent electrochemical stability.^[16] High-performance nickel–cobalt sulfide–terephthalic acid (NCS–BDC) composite electrode synthesized via a simple solvothermal route for energy storage devices like supercapacitor. Highly mesoporous structure creates more active site for reaction and provides more surface area for transmission of ions. NCS-BDS has good electrochemical properties. It has specific capacitance 1267.25 F g⁻¹ at a low current density of 0.5 A g⁻¹. Electrode shows good cycling stability, maintain 92% of its initial capacitance after 5000 charge–discharge cycles. NCS-BDC based device achieved high energy density 52.29 Wh kg⁻¹.^[17] Hydrothermal route utilizes to synthesize cobalt sulfide/reduced graphene oxide (Co₃S₄/rGO) nanocomposite. As a result, the CoS/rGO nanocomposite provide an ultrahigh specific capacitance of 1560 F g⁻¹ at a current density of 1 A g⁻¹ and also the electrode exhibits good cycling stability, retaining 89% of its initial capacitance after 5000 charge–discharge cycles. Device achieves an energy density of 40.2 Wh kg⁻¹ and a power density of 804 W kg⁻¹.^[18]

CoS nanosheet fabricated on metal organic framework on nickel foam (NF) by hydrothermal route. CoS/NF electrode display a high specific capacity 1359 C g⁻¹ at the current density of 2 A g⁻¹, and excellent cycling stability of 89.4% after 4000 cycles. A device fabricated by CoS/NF positive electrode and AC as a negative electrode shows high energy density of 57.4 W h kg⁻¹ at a power density of 405.2 W kg⁻¹.^[19]CoS/MXene was synthesize by supercritical fluid synthesis method. Electrochemical performance of CoS/MXene,CoS/MXene/PANI and CoS/MXene/PEDOT was studied. CoS/MXene/PANI electrode delivered specific capacitance of 407 F g⁻¹ at current density of 2 A/g with cycling stability of 97% after 10000 cycles. Also, CoS/MXene/PANI electrode delivered specific capacitance of 630 F g⁻¹ at current density of 2 A/g with cycling stability of 96% after 10000 cycles useful for supercapacitor application.^[20]Ni-based flower-like nitrogen-rich carbon (NCNi) synthesized on a carbon felt (CF) substrate through a hydrothermal route. EC-NiCoS@NCNi@CF electrode shows specific capacitance of 190.78 F g⁻¹ at current density of 0.5 A/g having cycling stability of 92.2% after 4000 cycles. Device delivered energy density of 64.77 W h kg⁻¹ and power density of 420.13 Wkg⁻¹.^[21]Co-Ni-S composite electrode prepared through a two-step process involving electrodeposition followed by hydrothermal sulfurization which brings more cobalt active sites for redox reaction.The Co-Ni-S composite electrode delivers high specific capacitance of 3586 F g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ and 97% capacity retention over 5000 cycles.^[22]The rGO/NCS/PANI electrode provide a high specific capacitance of 628 F g⁻¹at a current density of 10 A g⁻¹ and retentivity of 84 % after 5000 charge-discharge cycles showing excellent cycling stability.^[23] Two-stage hydrothermal method used to synthesize nickel–cobalt sulfide nanostructures to enhance the electrochemical properties of materials. Electrode achieve specific capacitance of 8.1 F cm^-2 at current density 5mA cm^-2. Nickel–cobalt sulfide electrodes as the positive electrode and activated carbon as the negative electrode delivered high energy density of 51.2 Wh kg⁻¹ at a power density of 262.5 W kg⁻¹.^[24] By utilizing different reaction conditions Nickel cobalt sulfide (NCS) microspheres are successfully synthesized by an easy one-step hydrothermal method . NCSW-200 electrode delivered a specific capacitance of 369 F g⁻¹ at current density of 0.5 A g⁻¹ having capacitive retention of 67% after 2000 cycles.^[25] Two step facial hydrothermal method used to synthesize nickel cobalt sulfide nanoparticles (NCS) deposited on nitrogen and sulfur doped graphene which provides a synergistic effect and improve electrochemical parameters. Electrode delivered a specific capacitance of 630.6 F g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ current density with retention of 110 % after 10000 cycles. Also, energy density of 19.35 Wh kg⁻¹ at a power density of 235.0 W kg⁻¹ showing exceptional capacity for supercapacitor application.^[26]

Ni-Co-S/Co(OH)₂ electrode synthesize by two step facial method with synergistic effect provides excellent electrochemical performance shows a specific capacitance of 1560.8 F g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ current density with retention of 88% after 10000 cycles. A device shows high energy density of 48.8 W h kg⁻¹ at a power density of 800 W kg⁻¹ with excellent cycle stability.^[27] Hydrothermal route employed for successfully synthesis of NiCo₂S₄ polyhedral structures for application to supercapacitor and lithium-ion battery. Electrode exhibit a specific capacitance of 1298 F g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹. Capacity retention of 90.44% after 8000 cycles.^[28] Etching/ ion exchange method used to synthesize Ni-Co-S nanosheets on activated carbon cloth for fabrication of supercapacitor application.The Ni-Co-S/ACC electrode can deliver a specific capacitance of 2392 F g⁻¹ at the current density of 1 A g⁻¹ and also have retentivity of 82 % after 10000 cycles. Device Ni-Co-S/ACC as positive electrode and activated carbon as negative electrode display high energy density of 30.1 Wh kg⁻¹ at power density of 800.2 W kg⁻¹.^[29] Hierarchical NiCo₂S₄@Co(OH)₂ nanotube structure on Nickel foam have been synthesized through a facial method. Synergistic effect of NiCo₂S₄ nanotubes and Co(OH)₂ nanosheets delivered a superior electrochemical performance having specific capacity of 9.6 F cm^-2 at current density of 2 mA cm^-2 with capacitive retention of 70.01% after 5000 cycles.^[30]One-step hydrothermal method utilize for the synthesis of the flaky attached hollow-sphere structure NiCo₂S₄ electrode materials.The NCS-10 electrode atPh 10 shows an excellent specific capacitance of 1366 F g⁻¹ at the current density of 1 A g⁻¹ at high retention of 89.8% after 2000 cycles.^[31]The poor performance and cyclic stability of the materials have limit practical applications so need to improved quality of electrode by improving morphology. Carbon flakes with an ultrahigh surface area prepared from eggplant utilize as a substrates to enhance the electrical conductivity of NiCo₂S₄ nanosheets. Exhibit a specific capacitance of 1394.5 F g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ and cyclic stability of 124% after 10000 cycles. Delivered a high energy density of 46.5 Wh kg⁻¹ at a power density of 801 W kg⁻¹.^[32]For high performance supercapacitor require high specific surface areas, high redox active sites, efficient electrons-ions migration channels. Facial two step hydrothermal route used to fabricate highly porous Co₃S₄@Ni₃S₄ heterostructure nanowire arrays prepared onto Ni foam.Delivered specific capacitance of 3.6 F cm^-2 at energy density of 0.8 mA cm^-2get 80% capacitive retention after 5000 charge-discharge cycles.^[33]Hydrothermal method and potentiostatic deposition utilize to grow hierarchical polyaniline-coated NiCo₂S₄ nanowires on carbon fiber “NiCo₂S₄@PANI/CF”. NiCo₂S₄@PANI/CF material electrode have multiple electroactive sites so it enhances electrochemical performance of electrode as well as device. Electrode display high specific capacitance value 1823 F g⁻¹ at 2 mA cm^-2 and excellent cycling stability of 86.2% after 5000 cycles. Device NiCo₂S₄@PANI/CF delivers a high energy density of 64.92 Wh kg⁻¹ at a power density of 276.23 W kg⁻¹.^[34]NiCo₂S₄, a spinel-structured has a high specific capacity, it has promising characteristic of electrode material for supercapacitors but due to poor electrical conductivity need to tune its morphology. In this work NiCo₂S₄ deposited on the surface of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) to enhance the electrical conductivity. CNTs@NiCo₂S₄ delivered specific capacitance of 216.4 mAh g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹with cyclic retention of 75 % after 2000 cycles.^[35]Microwave assisted technique is used to synthesize NCS/CNTs-H electrode followed by post annealing to anchor NCS nanoparticles on multiwall CNTs. This structure enhances electrochemical performance of electrode; it delivered high specific capacitance of 1261 F g-1 at 1 A g-1 with retention capability of 84.4%. Device NCS/CNTs-H//AC deliver a high energy density 58.4 Wh kg-1 at the power density of 400 W kg-1. NCS/CNTs-H offer good electrochemical performance so it stands high for supercapacitor electrode.^[36]Microwave assisted technique utilizes to synthesis of honeycomb-like NCS/graphene composites which use as ultrahigh supercapacitor electrode. NCS/G-H exhibit high specific capacitance of 1186 F g^-1 at 1 A g^-1 and cyclic retention of 89.8% and delivered energy density of 46.4 Wh kg^-1.^[37]Sonochemical method used for synthesis of cobalt sulfide nanomaterial and cobalt phosphate nanoflakes and composite of both form a CoS/Co₃(Po₄)₂ electrode. Composite consisting 75% of CoS and 25% of Co₃(Po₄)₂ composition, shows a specific capacitance of 728.2 F g^-1 at current density of 0.6 Ag^-1 with capacitive retention of 95.10% after 5000 cycles. Device provides remarkable specific energy of 63.93 Wh kg-1 along with specific power of 850 W kg^-1at 1 Ag^-1.^[38]MnCo2S4@CoNi LDH core shell heterostructure synthesis on nickel foam using hydrothermal reaction and electrodeposition technique. MnCo2S4 nanotubes provide excellent electrical conductivity whereas CoNi LDH nanosheets provide more electrochemical active sites for better supercapacitive performance. The electrode provides a specific capacitance of 1206 C g⁻¹ at 1 A g^-1 and excellent cycling performance with 92% retention after 10 000 cycles.^[39]Cobalt sulfide nanostructure synthesizes by one step hydrothermal method for different temperature ranging from 160^oC to 220^oC. Sample get high crystallinity and hexagonal structure at 220^oC.  A high specific capacitance deliver of 1583 F g^-1 at a current density of 1 A g^-1 with good cyclic performance for supercapacitor application.^[40]

Sheet-like nickel cobalt sulfide nanoparticles synthesize by a two-step hydrothermaltechnique provide rich sulfur vacancies.NiCo₂S₄ nanosheets provide good specific capacitance of 971 Fg^-1 at 2 A g^-1 and an excellent cyclic stability of 88.7% after 3500 cycles.^[41] By facial solvothermal method mixed nickel-cobalt sulfide (NCSs) prepared for supercapacitor application. The mixed NCS prepared at a nickel: cobalt molar ratio of 3:1 exhibited a specificcapacitance of1345 Fg^-1 at a current density of 2 A g^-1 with 95% of its initial capacitance after 3000 charge-discharge cycles.^[42] Cobalt sulfide composes with different metals such as copper Cu and manganese Mn fabricated by hydrothermal method on nickel foam provide a unique morphology of nanoflakes of different texture. Mn-CoS-3/NF boost the specific capacitance of 2379 F g^-1 at 1 A g^-1 with capacitance retention about 65% after 5500 cycles comparing to 48% of CoS-3/NF and 55% Cu-CoS-3/NF. Mn-CoS-3/NF deliver high surface area, low internal resistance, flaky nanostructure. Mn-CoS-3/NF//AC/NF device deliver energy density of 17.94 Wh kg^-1 and power density of 6405 W kg^-1.^[43] Twostep hydrothermal method used to synthesis of cobalt sulfide layered flower-like morphology binder-free Co₉S₈ electrodes deposited onto nickel foam with an enhanced specific capacity of 1611.87 F g^-1at 1 mA cm^–2.^[44]CoS/G nanocomposite successfully synthesize by one pot hydrothermal method. CoS nanosphere offers specific capacitance of 390 F g^-1 and CoS on graphene shows excellent specific capacitance 739.83 F g^-1 with capacitance retention of 91.2 % after 3000 cycles.^[45] Dandelion likeNiCo₂S₄@PPy/NF microsphere synthesize by hydrothermal method. Electrode shows remarkable specific capacitance of 2554.9 F g⁻¹ at 2.54 A g⁻¹ with capacitive retention of 92% after 10000 cycles. Device delivered an energy density of 35.17 Wh kg−1 at a power density of 1472 W kg−1.^[46]Electrochemical performance of MXene tune by CoS synthesize on Mxene by one step solvent thermal method. Delivered a specific capacitance of 1320 F g⁻¹ at a current density of 1 A g⁻¹ and it shows cyclic performance with 78.4% after 3000 cycles device delivered an energy density 28.8 Wh kg^-1 and 800 W kg^-1.^[47] A simple two step hydrothermal process utilize to prepared a binder-free graphene-nanosheets wrapped Co3S4 hybrid electrode is prepared on conductive Ni-foam. structure of the Co3S4-rGO shows a specific capacitance of 2314 F g⁻¹ with 92.6% cyclic stability after 1000 cycles. Device delivered energy density of 54.32 Wh kg^-1and power density of 6250 W kg^-1.^[48]A two-step hydrothermal method uses to synthesize nickel and cobalt sulfide with different ratios of nickel and cobalt. NC24 sample with the Ni/Co ratio of 1:2 hollow nanotube arrays composed of NiCo2S4 provides nanorod array structure which gives excellent specific capacitance of 1527 C g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ with capacitive retention of 93.81% after 2000 cycles. Symmetrical supercapacitor from this electrode delivers high energy density of 67.5 Wh kg^-1.^[49]

A simple chemical bath synthesis methodutilizesto synthesize flaky nickel cobalt sulfides (NiCo_xS_y) materials display specific capacitance of 1196.1 F g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ with cyclic retention of 97.5% after 4000 cycles.^[50] A novel urchin-like hollow nickel cobalt sulfide (NiCo₂S₄) fabricated by a facile template-free methodthis structure improves electrochemical performance of electrode as well as device. Electrode display a specific capacitance of 1398F g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ with excellent cyclic stability of 74.1% after 5000 cycles.^[51]Flower like NiCo₂S₄ prepared by rapid chemical precipitation assisted annealing method deliver a specific capacitance of 2198.9 F g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹. A device NiCo₂S₄//AC deliver a high energy density of 38.2 Wh kg⁻¹ at power density of 400 W kg⁻¹.^[52] One step hydrothermal method used to fabricate reduced graphene oxide/nickel-cobalt sulfide (rGO/NiCo₂S₄). Needle like structure of NiCo₂S₄ have many nanoparticles very well adhered to reduce graphene oxide. Prepared electrode has porosity and it leads to excellent conductivity possess a specific capacitance of capacitance of 813 F g⁻¹ at 1.5 A g⁻¹ with good cyclic stability of 84.3% after 2000 cycles. Device shows a high energy density of 40.3 Wh kg⁻¹ and power density of 375 W kg⁻¹.^[53] Hydrothermal method used to fabricate NiCo₂S₄ nanorodon nickel foam (NF). It shows excellent specific capacitance of 3093 F g⁻¹ at 5 A g⁻¹ with cyclic stability of 41.7% after 2000 cycles. Device shows a high energy density of 39.3 Wh kg⁻¹ and power density of 800 W kg⁻¹.^[54] A facial two step chemical bath deposition technique used to synthesize a NiCo₂S₄ nanowire arrays grown on 3D graphene foams (3DGF) for supercapacitor application. It offers a high specific capacitance of 1454.6 F g⁻¹ at 1.3 A g⁻¹ with cycling stability of 96% after 3000 cycles.^[55] Hydrothermally synthesize Cobalt sulfide Co₃S₄ nanosheet decorated with nitrogen doped carbon dots featuring rich sulfur vacancies and copper doping (V-Cu-Co₃S₄/NCDs). It delivered a specific capacitance of 619.2 C g⁻¹ at 1 A g⁻¹ with capacitive retention of 86.9% after 10000 cycles.^[56] An electrodeposition hydrothermal techniqueuses to deposit NiCo2S4 nanoarrays on carbon nanofibers with different morphologies, carbon nanofibers have high surface-area-to-volume ratios, excellent mechanical strengths, and remarkable flexibilities so it provides anexcellent electrochemical property. NCS@C shows a specific capacitance of 334.7 mAh g⁻¹ at current density of 2 A g⁻¹ and the device exhibited high energy and power densities of 12.91 Wh kg⁻¹ and 358 W kg⁻¹.^[57] Hydrothermal synthesis of cobalt sulfide nanoparticle on carbon cloth with varying precursor ratios, hydrothermal temperature and time. Structural analysis confirms the formation of hexagonal phase of CoS.Co:S ratio of 1:2 at 160⁰C for 15 h exhibited the highest specific capacitance of 424 F g^-1 at 1 A g^-1 with excellent cyclic stability of 90% after 1000 cycles.^[58] Hydrothermal method uses to prepared NiCo₂S₄ flower-shaped crystal nickel–cobalt sulfide on nickel foam. It shows a specific capacitance of 3867.8 F g^-1 at 1 A g^-1 with cyclic retention of 90.57% after 2000 cycles.^[59]

^{Table.1. Highlight electrochemical parameters of Cobalt sulfide-based electrodes.}

Hydrothermal treatment utilizes to fabricate cobalt sulfide (Co₃S₄) from cobalt oxide as a precursor for 20 hr. duration and it’s a more suitable for super capacitor application as a cathode. It exhibits a specific capacitance of 480.40 F g^-1 at 1 A g^-1.^[60]

Cobalt sulfide–based materials and their composites exhibit high specific capacitance values, making them promising candidates for super capacitor electrode applications. Graph 2. below illustrates the energy density achieved by various cobalt sulfide–based electrodes, the energy density indicates how much energy a super capacitor can stored per unit mass. Energy density of these materials can be effectively tuned by selecting suitable substrates and combining cobalt sulfide with other functional materials. Graph 3. Below illustrates the power density of cobalt sulfide-based electrodes, power density indicates how quickly stored energy can be delivered.

^{Graph 2. Represent energy density of Cobalt based electrodes.}

^{Graph 3. Represent power density of Cobalt based electrodes.}

4. Conclusion

   Cobalt sulfide- based nanomaterials are promising supercapacitor electrodes owing to their high redox activity, good conductivity, tunable nanostructures. Morphology control and synergistic engineering through composites and heterostructures significantly enhance electrochemical performance, while future efforts should focus on scalable synthesis and long-term device stability.

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A Comparison Between Personality & Sport Competitive Anxiety Among Basketball Players at Different Levels Achievement

Dr..Priyanka P.Sulakhe

J.K.Shah Adarsh Mahavidyalay

Nijmpur- Jaitane, Tal- Sakri, Dist- Dhule

Email-sulakhepriyanka@gmail.com

Introduction

                  Sport psychology is an interdisciplinary science that drawn on knowledge from  many  related fields including biomechanics, Physiology, Kinesiology, and Psychology. It involve that the study of how psychological factors affect performance and how participation in sport and exercise affect psychological and physical factors. In addition to instruction and training of psychology skills for performance improve, applied sport psychology may include work with athletes, coaches and parent regarding injury, rehabilitation, communication, team building and career transitions. Sport Psychology is a proficiency that uses psychological knowledge and skills to address optimal performance and well being of athletes, development and social aspects of sports participation, and systemic issue associated with sports setting and organizations.

Objectives

The objective of the study was to compare the personality and sport competitive Anxiety between the National and State Basketball players.

Methodology

For this study male Basketball players were selected. The subject ranging 18-25 years only. For this study National and State Basketball players were selected. For the collection of Data researcher employing a standardized questionnaire. Personality were measure by employing Eysenck personality Inventory and sport competitive Anxiety were measure by employing Martin’s sports competitive Anxiety test.

Result

Extrovert Personality trait

Variables	Mean	S.D.	Mean Differences	S.Error	‘T’ value
National Players	12.2	1.19	0.93	0.46	2.022
State Players	13.13	2.22

Neuroticism Personality trait

Variables	Mean	S.D.	Mean Differences	S.Error	‘T’ value
National Players	14	1.94	1.00	0.49	2.04
State Players	13	1.87

Sport Competitive Anxiety

Variables	Mean	S.D.	Mean Differences	S.Error	‘T’ value
National Players	18.13	2.16	0.97	0.44	2.20
State Players	17.16	1.17

Conclusion

 While comparing the Personality and Sport competitive Anxiety it was observed that the National Basketball players had shown significantly better in Personality and Sport Competitive Anxiety as compare to State Basketball Players.

References

Betty Toman,”Dance-Physical Educationist Art form.” Cited by Chartes A,Bucher, Dimensions of Physical education 2^nd ed., (Saint Louis : The C.V. Mosby Co.,1974)p.p. 30

Horold M.Barrow, Man and Movement(Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger,1977) p.p.44

Biocontrol mechanism of fungal pathogen through P. fluorescens ATCC 9028

Dr. Vishal Narayan Shinde*

Department of Botany, Late Annasaheb R D Deore Arts and Science college, Mhasadi,

Tal. Sakri, Dist:Dhule- 424304 (MS) India.

                       * Author for Correspondence: vishalshinde1001@gmail.com       

Abstract:

Biological control of plant pathogen by microorganism has been considered more natural and environmentally acceptable alternative to the existing chemical methods^[1]. Biological control has been developed as an alternative to synthetic fungicide treatment and considerable success had been achieved upon utilizing antagonistic microorganism to control both pre harvested and post harvested diseases^[2]. A variety of microbial antagonistic has ability to control several pathogens of various fruit and vegetables^[3].

            Antifungal assay using bacterial isolates such as P. fluorescens ATCC 9028 was tested against ten fungal pathogens of leafy vegetables. P. fluorescens ATCC 9028 was most effective with 58.19% fungitoxic activity against all tested fungal pathogens. Among the tested pathogen, F. moniliforme was highly susceptible with 65.78% inhibition and P. pullulans was highly resistant with 44.02% inhibition against all three antagonistic bacteria.

Keywords: Biological control, antagonistic bacteria., P. fluorescens etc.

Introduction:

On an average each crop plant can be affected by hundred or more than hundred diseases. The development of new physiological race pathogens to many of the systemic fungicides is gradually becoming ineffective. The biological control agents have enormous antimicrobial potential. They are effective in treatment of infectious diseases, simultaneously mitigating many of the side effects which are associated with pesticides. Therefore, there is growing realization in the people that biological control can be successfully exploited as an agricultural method for soil borne pathogens^[4].

            Beside this, Biological control of numerous crops by application of antagonistic bacterial isolates from suppressive soils has been accomplished during last two decades all over the world^[5]. The bacterium has been reported to be effective in controlling Phytopthora and Pythium amongseveral soil borne plant pathogens^[6]. Several studies have been demonstrated reduced incidence of disease in different crops after supplementing the soil with bacterial antagonists^[7]. Rhizosphere bacteria are excellent agents to control soil borne plant pathogens. Bacterial species like Bacillus, Pseudomanas, Serratia and Anthrobacter have been proved in controlling the fungal diseases^[14,15]. More recently an increasing number of reports have been focused on the potential of Bacillus subtilis as a biocontrol agent^[8]. A successful biocontrol agent efficiently suppresses the pathogen and reduces disease incidence. Biocontrol agent acts against pathogens by antagonism- competition, antibiosis and parasitism therefore in recent years a new biocontrol agent, Pseudomans flouresence have drawn attention due to the ability to produce secondary metabolites such as siderophore, antibiotic, volatile metabolites, HCN, enzyme and phytochrome which were highly antagonistc component to various phytopathogens^[9]. Pseudomonas flourescence is effective candidate for biological control of soil borne plant pathogens owing to their versatile nature, rhizophere competition and multiple mode of action^[10,11,12].

Material and method:

            Biological control of numerous crop diseases by application of antagonistic bacterial isolates from the soil has been accomplished during last two decades all over the world^[13,14,15]. Hence for the assessment of antifungal activity, the three bacterial isolates which has high antagonistic activity were procured from the Department of Microbiology, Government Institute of Science, Aurangabad as fallows,

            1)         Pseudomonas fluorescens ATCC 9028

            There after this bacterial cultures were transferred to fresh Nutrient agar slants in triplicates and were kept at 4⁰C in refrigerator for further studies.

Antifungal activity by antagonistic bacteria:

            The antifungal activity of three bacterial isolates was tested against ten pathogenic fungi of leafy vegetable by dual culture method^[16]. The antagonistic bacteria and targeted fungal pathogen were inoculated dually on PDA medium in sterile Petri dish 2-2.5 cm apart from each other. Whereas Petri plate without bacterial inoculation served as control and incubated at 37 ± 1 ^oC for 7 days. The inhibition of growing fungi by tested bacteria was quantified as distance of radial towards and away from bacteria in relation to control. The percent inhibition of mycelial growth of the fungi was calculated using formula,

                                             100 (R₁-R₂)

                               I  =

     R₁  

                                    Where              I           =          Inhibition of mycelial growth.

                                                            R₁        =          Mycelial growth in control

                                                            R₂        =          Mycelial growth in treated.

Result:

            The antagonistic effect of bacterial isolates was screened by dual culture method^[16]. The bacterial cultures, Pseudomonas fluorescens ATCC 9028 was tested against ten fungal pathogens of leafy vegetables. After a week of incubation, the growth of targeted fungal pathogens towards and away from the bacterial antagonistic isolate was recorded. The percent inhibition of mycelial growth over control was tabulated.

The bacterial antagonistic, P. fluorescens ATCC 9028 had significantly inhibited the radial growth of all tested fungal pathogen of leafy vegetables. Among tested pathogens, F.moniliforme and F. oxysporum were most sensitive and revealed 68.42% and 66.66% inhibition of mycelial over control (Table 1). On contrary, A. carthami and P. pullulans were most resistant and showed 50.90% and 49.18% inhibition respectively. While remaining pathogens namely C. lindemuthianum, F. roseum, A. brassicae, A. humicola, S. verruculosum and H. sativum showed 62.31%, 60%, 59.45%, 57.81%, 54.23% and 53.01% respectively inhibition (Table 1; fig. 1).

On average, F. moniliforme was found to be most sensitive with 65.78%  and P. pullulans as most resistant with 44.02% against all three bacterial antagonistic when compared to other tested fungal pathogens (Table 1).

Among the three tested antagonistic bacterial cultures, P. fluorescens ATCC 9028 was most effective and showed 58.19% fungitoxic activity (Fig 1).

Table No. 1: Antagonistic effect of P. fluorescens ATCC 9028 against ten fungal  pathogens of leafy vegetables.             

Pathogen	Mycelial growth in control (mm)	Mycelial growth of pathogen in presence P. fluorescens (mm)	% inhibition of  mycelial growth over control
A. brassicae	74	30	59.45 + 1.88
A. carthami	55	27	50.90 + 1.33
A. humicola	64	27	57.81 + 1.24
C. lindemuthianum	69	26	62.31 + 0.47
F. moniliforme	76	24	68.42 + 1.41
F. oxysporum	84	28	66.66 + 0.94
F. roseum	70	28	60.00 + 1.41
H. sativum	83	39	53.01 + 0.81
P. pullulans	61	31	49.18 + 1.63
S. verruculosum	59	27	54.23 + 1.88
C.V.			7.96%

Values expressed in mean + S.E.M. of triplicates.

Fig 1. Antagonistic effect of bacteria against ten fungal pathogens of leafy vegetables.

Discussion :

Antifungal activity of three bacterial isolates namely Pseudomonas fluorescens ATCC 9028 was tested against ten fungal pathogens of leafy vegetables by dual culture method. Similar work previously carried out by many workers and reported that bacterial isolates like Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Serratia sp. and Anthrobacter sp. have been proved their efficacy against many fungal diseases^[17,18]. In the present study among three tested antagonistic bacterial isolates, P.  fluorescens ATCC 9028 was most effective one and revealed 58.19% inhibition of mycelial growth all ten targeted fungal pathogens. Similar finding were reported by Moataza and Saad^[19] and mentioned that five isolates P.  fluorescens were effective and showed 56% inhibition of Phythopthora capsici and 58.08% inhibition of Rhizoctonia solani.  

Among the tested pathogens, F. moniliforme was most susceptible with 65.78% inhibition on contrary P. pullulans was most resistant with 44.02% inhibition against all three bacterial isolates. Antagonistic activity may be due to the production of secondary metabolites such as siderophore, antibiotic, volatile compounds, HCN, enzymes or may be due to phytochromes which were inhibitors of various phytopathogens^[18].

References:

1. Baker, R. and T. C. Paulitz. 1996. Theoretical basis for microbial interaction leading to biological control of soil borne plant pathogen In : Hall R., (ed). Principles and practice of managing soil borne plant pathogen. Am. Phytopathol. Soc. St. Paul. MN. pp. 50-79.
2. Janisiewicz, W. J. and L. Korsten. 2002. Biological control of post harvested diseases of fruits. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 40 : 411-441.
3. Mari, M. and M. Guizzardi. 1998. The post harvested phase: emerging technology for fungal disease. Phytoparacitica. 23 : 97-127.
4. Papavizas, G. C. and R. D. Lumsden. 1980. Biological control of soil borne fungal propogules. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 18 : 389-413.
5. Park, C. S., T. C. Paulitz and R. Baker. 1988. Biocontrol of fusarium wilt of cucumber resulting from interaction between Pseudomonas putida and non pathogenic isolates, Fusarium oxysporum. Phytopathol. 78 : 190-194
6. Shen, S. S., J. M. Kim and C. S. Park. 2002. Serratia plymuthica strain A21-4 : A potential biocontrol agent against phytopthora blight of pepper. Kor. J. Plant Pathol. 18 : 138-141.
7. Mukhopadhyay, A. N. 1987. Biological control of soil borne plant pathogen by Trichoderma spp. and Bacterium isolates. Indian J. Mycol. Plant Pathol. 17 : 1-9.
8. Weller, D. M., B. X. Zhang and R. J. Cook. 1985. Bacterial species and biopesticides in controlling fungal diseases. Plant Diseases. 69 : 710-713.
9. Ferreira, J. H.S., F. N. Mathee and A. C. Thomas. 1991. Biological control of Eutypa lata on grapevine by antagonistic strain of Bacillus subtilis. Phytopathol. 81 : 283-287.
10. Okigbo, R. N. and M. I. Osuinde. 2003. Fungal leaf spot disease of Mango (Mangifera indica L.) in Southeastern Nigeria and biological control with Bacillus subtilis. J. Plant Peotect. Sci. 39(2): 70-77.
11. Gupta, C. D., R. C. Dubey, S. C. Kang and D. K. Maheshwari. 2001. Antibiotic mediated necrophic effect on Pseudomonas GRC2 against two fungal plants pathogens. Current Sci.  81 : 91-94.
12. Kloepper, J. and M. Schroth. 1981. Relationship of in vitro antibiosis of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and the displacement of root microflora. Phytopathol. 71 : 1020.
13. Waller, D., W. Howie and R. Cook. 1988. Relationship between in vitro inhibition of Gaenmannomyces graminis var. tritici and suppression of take all of wheat by Fluorescent psudomonads. Phytopathol. 78 : 1100.
14. Diby, P., K. Saju, Y. Jisha, A. Kumar, Y. Sharma and M. Anandaraj. 2005. Mycolytic enzyme produced by Pseudomonans fluorescens and Trichoderma spp. against Phytopthora capsici, (Pepper nigrum L.). Ind. Phytopathol. 58 : 10.
15. Park, C. S., T. C. Paulitz and R. Baker. 1988. Biocontrol of fusarium wilt of cucumber resulting from interaction between Pseudomonas putida and non pathogenic isolates, Fusarium oxysporum. Phytopathol. 78 : 190-194.
16. Leeman, M., F. M. De Quden, T. A. Van Pelt, C. Cornelissen, G. Matamala, P. A. H. M.  Bakker and B. Schippers. 1995. Suppersion of Fusarium wilt of raddish by co inoculation of Fluorescent pseudomonas spp. and root colonizing fungi. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 102 : 21-31.
17. Larkin, R. P., D. L. Hopkins and F. N. Martin . 1996. Suppression of Fusarium wilt of watermelon by non pathogenic F. oxysporum and other microorganism recovered from a disease suppressive soil. Phytopathol. 86 : 812-286.
18. Skidmore, A. M. and C. H. Dickinson. 1976. Colony interaction of hypal interference between Septoria nodorum and Phylloplanefungi. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 66 : 57-64.
19. Moataza and M. Saad. 2006. Destruction of Rhizoctonia solani and Phytopthora capsici causing tomato root rot by Pseudomonas fluorescens lytic enzyme. Res. J. Agri. Bio. Sci. 2(6) : 274-281.

**********

Analysis of the Cropping Pattern In Dhule District (M.S.).

Dr. Suresh Chintaman Ahire

Uttamrao PatilArts and Science College, Dahivel, Dist.-Dhule (M.S.),ahiresuresh9@gmail.com

Abstract:

New cropping patterns have been accepted by the farmers of the study region, due to climate change and uneven rainfall. Geographical and economical factors have boosted the cultivation and production of cereals crop. The Dhule district is drought prone district, soit is select for present study. Agriculture is the main occupation in the district, geographical phenomena is uneven. Annual rainfall is unsatisfied for agriculture. Therefore, the study of spatial distribution and temporal variability were vital in characterizing the geographic factor and nature of cereals crop cultivation.Therefore it is important to study the cropping pattern in this district. The aim of present paper is to examine the temporal changes and relation between rainfall and cropping pattern. Present study is based on secondary source of data year 2005 and 2015. Simple statistical technique is used to analyze the changing trend of cropping pattern. For calculating transformation the data 2005 and 2015 are compared. The data is representing with graph and map using GIS software and MS Excel is applies to analyze. In Dhule district area under cereals crops are changes in various tehasils. Cerealscrops cultivationhas occupied area 247051 Ha. (60.26% of NSA) in the year 2005 and occupied area decrease upto 145056 Ha.  (37.16 % of NSA) in the year 2009 due to the flexibility of the rainfall. Keyword: Crop, Cropping pattern, Drought prone, Plantation,Agriculture

Introduction:

India has a great diverse agricultural systems as well as it posses’ rich agricultural resources, different geographical, factors had resulted into agricultural typologies. Therefore, important agricultural facility is usefulprogramme to improved productivity and thereby achieving rural development. They may beachieved by technological intervention and by adopting strategic cropping pattern. This would reduce the water requirement of agricultural without comprising agricultural output.Maharashtra is leading state in area and production of cereals crops in the country. According to some expert and farmers there is a shift from cereals crops to other because of water requirement, low input and high profitability over these crops.  Drought is a major problem in Dhule district. They are natural hazards and are related with rainfall. Drought may be best benefited as persistent and abnormal moisture deficiency that has an adverse impact on agricultureAgriculture in this district is mostly of intensive subsistence type. There are two main crop growing seasons, its Kharif and Rabbi. Jawar crop is grown in both seasons.

Study area: The shape of the study area is triangular. It is located in the northern part of the Maharashtra State. It has occupied over an area of 8063.11 sq.km. It is extended from 20⁰38 N to 21⁰39 N latitudes and from 73⁰50 E to 75⁰13^l E longitudes (Fig. No.1). Dhule district contributes 2.62 percent total geographical area of the Maharashtra State. As per the 2011 Census, the population of Dhule district is 2,048, 781. The density of population is 285 persons per sq. km.

Objectives:

            To study the temporal changing cropping pattern of Dhule district.

            To study the relation between rainfall and cropping pattern of Dhule district.

Hypothesis:

Cereals cropping pattern depend on rainy days and annual rainfall

Database and Methodology:

            In this study secondary data have been collected from various socio-economic reports of Dhule districts. Analysis the 2005 and 2015 is cropping pattern. Simple statistical techniques are used to analyze the changing trend in cropping pattern, for calculating transformation the data 2005 and 2009 are compared. The data have been summarized processed and representedwith graph and map using GIS software, MS Excel was applied to process and analysis the data.In the present paper out of all crops only cereal cropping pattern has been studded. Cereal crops like Bajara, Rice, Wheat, Maize, Jower, Nachani and Pulses are studded.

Results and Discussion:

Dhule district comes under drought prone area. Cereal crop is a major crop in this district. Tahsilwice rainfall is varied; hence cereals crop cultivation is also uneven. Annual rain fall is highest in Shirpur tahsil (above 700mm). Shirpur tahsil does not come under drought area. Therefore amount of cereal crop is 43% of NSA in 2005 and 15% of NSA in 2015. Shindkhed Dhule and eastern part of Sakri tahsilcome under drought prone area. Hence near about 70% of NSA fall under cultivation area of cereal crops. In 2015 due to rainfall is increase cereal crop cultivation area has been declined from 60% of NSA (2005) to 37% of NSA (2015). Sakri tahsil stood first in cereal crop cultivation in Dhule district (70% of NSA 2005 and 51% of NSA in 2015)Bajara crop cultivated all over the district, area under Bajara crop in 2005 was 60.26% of NSA and in 2015 it was 37.16v. In 2015 due to increase in rainfall (Annual average rainfall 673mm) instead of cereal cropping pattern other cash crop cultivated area has been increased.

The net sown area in the Dhue district was 409900ha. and 390458ha. year 2005 and 2015 respectively.  This year cereals have occupied 247051ha. (60.26% of NSA) and 145096ha. (37.16% of NSA) area in 2005 and 2015 respectively. The main cereals crops have been Bajara, Jawar and Wheat are the important food grain crop in the district. Maize is mostly grown in the irrigated areas. High proportion of cereals indicated that the tahasils has very low level of commercialization of agriculture. The field observation revealed that the tahsils dominated by cereals with slightly more than half the cultivated areas.

Bajara :

Bajara is the important food crop cultivated in the district. It is generally taken in kharif season and hence it must have replaced hybrid that was grown in the same season. It is usually grown on the light to medium soil. It requires dry climate and less rainfall bajara is grown everywhere in the district. The use of high yielding verities of seeds is increased in the district. The farmer mostly areas this crop when the amount of rainfall is less. Through bajara is the important kharif crop it is also grown in rabbi season Dhule and Shindkheda tahasils. Rabbi bajara is grown in the summer season in the villages having the irrigation facilities.Climate of the district is suitable for Bajara crop. This crop can be taken low amount of rainfall. Sakri tahsil stood first in the cultivation area of bajara 33.51 % of NSA, it is follow by Dhule (30.59% of NSA), Shindkheda (24.46% of NSA) and lowest area under cultivation is Shirpur tahsil which is 15.22% of NSA in 2005. In 2015, due to increase in rainfall, inspite of bajara, maize and other cash crops have been cultivated.

Jowar:

Jawar is also important food grain crop in the district. It is cultivated in kharif and rabbi crop season. The jowar cultivation is basically related to firstly low rainfall and secondly soil in the district. It is traditionally cultivated as a rain feed crop in the both seasons.Jowar is cultivated all over the district. Highest area under cultivation of jower is in dhule tahsil (19.68% of NSA), which is followed by Shindkheda (15.12% of NSA), Shirpur (10.55% of NSA)and lowest area under jower cultivation is in Sakri tahsil(1.26% of NSA)in 2005. But in 2015, due to increase in average rainfall, area under this crop has been declined.

Rice:

Rice crop is cultivated only in western part of Sakri tahsil and Shirpur tahsil in Dhule district. The average annual rainfall in this area is 650 to 750mm, which is higher and suitable for rice crop. The area under cultivation is increased Sakri tahsil 3.72% of NSA in 2005 to 10.54% of NSA in 2015.  Dhule tahsil this crop is rarely cultivation and in Shindkheda tahsil rice crop is not cultivated.

Table no. : Tahsil wise Cereals Crop Cultivation Area in Dhule district (2005 and 2015)
Tehsil	Sr.    No.	Crops	2005			2015
			Area in     Ha.	% of     NSA	% of      Cereals	Area in    Ha.	% of      NSA	% of     Cereals
Shirpur	1	Bajara	9242	15.22	21.598	3404	5.35	16.52
	2	Jawar	6408	10.55	14.975	2181	3.43	10.59
	3	Rice	20	0.03	0.047	0	0	0
	4	Wheat	653	1.08	1.526	1456	2.29	7.07
	5	Maize	0	0.00	0.000	118	0.19	0.57
	6	Nachni	0	0.00	0.000	0	0.00	0.00
	8	Pulses	10165	16.74	23.755	6286	9.89	30.51
	Total		26488	43.61	61.901	13445	21.15	65.25
Shindkheda	1	Bajara	26038	24.46	25.63	19283	20.07	28.82
	2	Jawar	16094	15.12	15.84	6058	6.30	9.06
	3	Rice	0	0.00	0.00	0	0.00	0
	4	Wheat	810	0.76	0.80	1370	1.43	2.05
	5	Maize	277	0.26	0.27	523	0.54	0.78
	6	Nachni	0	0.00	0.00	0	0.00	0.00
	8	Pulses	15145	14.23	14.91	13431	13.98	20.08
	Total		58364	54.83	57.45	40665	42.32	60.79
Sakri	1	Bajara	48662	35.51	27.28	1942	1.65	1.09
	2	Jawar	1731	1.26	0.97	4	0.00	0.00
	3	Rice	5103	3.72	2.86	12422	10.54	11.65
	4	Wheat	3425	2.50	1.92	6164	5.23	3.46
	5	Maize	13463	9.82	7.55	22369	18.99	12.54
	6	Nachni	4399	3.21	2.47	921	0.78	0.52
	8	Pulses	19007	13.87	10.66	17049	14.47	9.56
	Total		95790	69.89	53.71	60871	51.67	38.82
Dhule	1	Bajara	32318	30.59	25.99	3112	2.76	5.07
	2	Jawar	20796	19.68	16.72	12926	11.44	21.06
	3	Rice	2	0.00	0.00	14	0.01	0.02
	4	Wheat	2052	1.94	1.65	2332	2.06	3.80
	5	Maize	2770	2.62	2.23	3201	2.83	5.21
	6	Nachni	0	0.00	0.00	0	0.00	0.00
	8	Pulses	8471	8.02	6.81	8530	7.55	13.90
	Total		66409	62.85	53.41	30115	26.66	49.06
Total			247051	60.26		145096	37.16
Source: Dhule district Socio-Economic Report, 2005 &2015

Table no: Tehsil wise Annual rainfall, Raini days and Drought prone Villages in Dhule district. (2005 and 2009)
Sr. No.	Tehsils	Annual Rainfall in mm				Total Villages	Droughtprone Villages	NSA in Ha.
		2005	Raini days	2015	Raini days			2005	2009
1	Shirpur	603	47	687	23	152	0	60732	63569
2	Shindkheda	388	41	584	26	143	143	106446	96100
3	Sakri	687	44	774	32	212	110	137056	117804
4	Dhule	318	40	623	28	166	166	105666	112985
Average/Total		499	172	667	109	673	419	409900	390458
Rainfall in %		92		110
Source: Agriculture Commissioner Office, Pune

Wheat:

Wheat is the third important food grain in the district. This crop is grown in the medium and black soil. It is cultivated in dry and cool month of rabbi season. The farmer has grown the crop on a very small scale in the district. The crop is taken as an irrigated crop. The agricultural land is prepared after the harvested season of bajara. Sowing is done in the month of Oct. / Nov. The crop date takes 110 to 140 days to mature from the date of sowing. Now, improved verities of seed are sown in the district. Wheat cultivation area increased the mainly because of increase in area under irrigation by Panzar, Kan and Kabryakhadak medium projects.This crop is cultivated very less (1 to 3.8% of NSA) Dhule district in 2015. Climate of the District is not suitable for this crop. Therefore, the average production of this crop is very less.

Maize:

Maize is important crop which is mostly usa as a fodder in the Sakri, Dhule and Shindakheda tahsils. The area under maize has increased for the year 2005 (4.23 of % NSA) to the year 2009 (5.63% of NSA). Maize crop gives a higher production and income of the farmer in Dhule district. The area under cultivation of this crop is increasing day by day. The climate of this District except Shirpur tahsil, is favorable for this crop. In 2005 higest area under cultivation of the crop is Sakri (9.82% of NSA) and it followed by Dhule (2.62% of NSA), Shindkheda (0.26% of NSA). The crop requires water in large amount. It needs irrigation facility.  In Sakri tahsil Panzara, Kan, Kamkheli and Kabryakhadak irrigation medium water tank. Whereas, in 2015, the area under cultivation of the crop is increased double higher due to hybrid seed and irrigation facilities.

Nachni:

Nachni is important kharif crop in only Sakri tahsil in Dhule district. The area under Nachani in year 2005 was 3.21 % of NSA and year 2015 was 0.75% of NSA in Sakri tahsil. The Nachani is grown on the light soil and heavy rainfall area.In high rainfall area, this crop is cultivation. In Dhule district, only in western part of Sakri tahsil Nachani crop is cultivated, which is due to the high rainfall in hilly area of Sayadri. The crop is cultivated in (3.21% of NSA) area as per 2005.

Pulses:

Pulses grown in all tahsils in Dhule district. It is dominant crop in shirpur tahsil. It is account 13.21% of NSA in year 2005 and 11.47% of NSA in year 2015. In the tahsil a variety of pulses area grown like Gram, Tur, Green gram, Mug, Chavali, Wal, Green peas etc. Almost all the pulses except Gram and Tur are cultivated in kharif season. Mostly varieties of pulses are cultivated in all tahsils in dhule district. The pulses are grown on light soil in the district.This crop can be cultivated in both less and high rainfall area. This crop is economically beneficial. The crop is cultivated in all tehsils of the district. In 2015 in Sakri tahsil, the crop is cultivated in 14.17% of NSA.

Generally, cereal crop is cultivated all over the district. If rainfall is increased, other crops like cotton, Sugarcane Vegetable can be cultivated in large amount. Dhule district is drought prone area, hence cereals cropping pattern analysis is essentional. Geographical and technological factors affect on the cereals cropping pattern.

Suggestions:

1. For cereals crop, instead of traditional cropping pattern, new technological cropping needs to be accepted for better results.

2. Newly developed hybrid seeds of cereals crop need to be used.

3. Where there is less rainfall, irrigation system based on new technology is to be used.

4. In less rainfall and less area, higher productivitycropping pattern to be accepted.

5. Fruit crop cultivated in less water area like Pomegranate, Crusted Apple, Ber etc. are to cultivated

6. Cereal crops should betaken for commercial purposes instead of traditional cropping pattern.

References:

• Annonymous (1995): ‘Research report of AICRP on arid zone fruits’, MPKV, Rahuri, presented in research review ‘Committee meeting of Agricultural entomology Pp, 11-18.
• Pawar C. T. and Phule B. R. (2000):  ‘Fruit Farming in Drought Prone Area of Maharashtra A Micro Level Analysis’, Indian Geographical Journal, Chennai, Vol. 74(2), Pp. 147-151
• Phule Suresh (2009): ‘Krushi Bhugol’, Vdhya Bharti Prakashan, Nagpur, Patil V. B. (1991): ‘Kordvahu Phalzade’, Continantal prakashan, Pune, (Marathi)
• Suryavanshi D. S. and Ahire S. C. (2012): ‘The Study Of Pomegranate Plantation Volume In Dhule District (M.S.)’, Interlink Research Journal, Latur
• Suryavanshi D. S. and Ahire S. C. (2012): “Levels of sustainable development in kan basin of Dhule District,” Maharashtra Bhugolshastra Sanshodan Patrika- Pune, Pp 89-99
• Bhagat Vijay (2002): “Agro-Based Model for Sustainable Development in the Purandar tahsilof Pune district,Maharashtra”  University of Pune, Ph.D. Thesis, 2002
• Deostili Vrushali (1997): “Crop Planning for Ahemadnagr and Solapur District, Maharashtra”, The Indian Geographical Journarl, Pune, pp 20-26.
• Shinde S. D. (1988): ‘Changing Landuse Pattern for Amanpur Village of Sangali District” Reding Irrigated Farming,Vishwnil Publication, Pune, pp. 204- 2001

“Hydrogel-Based Growth of Cobalt Tartrate Single Crystals and Their Morphological Study”

Sachin J Nandre,

Dept of Physics, Uttamrao Patil College, Dahiwel (Dhule)

Abstract

Single crystals of cobalt tartrate (CoC₄H₄O₆·xH₂O) were successfully grown using the hydro-silica gel technique, which allows controlled nucleation and slow diffusion of reactants in a three-dimensional porous medium. Cobalt tartrate is a transition metal-organic complex with potential applications in catalysis, magnetic materials, and electrochemical sensors. The growth process was optimized by adjusting gel concentration, reactant molarity, and pH, resulting in well-faceted, transparent to pale pink crystals. The study demonstrates the effectiveness of the hydro-silica gel method for producing high-quality cobalt tartrate crystals and provides insights into their growth mechanism and morphology control.

Keywords: Hydrosilica gel, catalysis, electrochemical sensors.

1. Introduction

Cobalt tartrate, a coordination complex of cobalt and tartaric acid, exhibits unique optical, magnetic, and structural properties due to the d-orbital interactions of cobalt ions and the chelating behavior of tartarate ions. The controlled growth of single crystals of cobalt tartrate is essential for materials characterization and applications in electronics, optics, and catalysis.The hydro-silica gel technique is a soft chemical crystal growth method where reactants slowly diffuse through a gel matrix, enabling controlled nucleation and growth at ambient temperature. This method offers advantages over conventional solution growth, including, low temperature growth, avoiding thermal decomposition, control over crystal size and morphology, reduction of spontaneous precipitation.

This work aims to grow cobalt tartrate crystals using the hydro-silica gel method and study the effect of gel concentration, reactant molarity, and growth time on crystal morphology and size. Growth of crystal ranges from a small inexpensive technique to a complex sophisticated expensive process and crystallization time ranges from minutes, hours, days and to months. The starting points are the historical works of the inventors of several important crystal growth techniques and their original aim. The methods of growing crystals are very wide and mainly dictated by the characteristics of the material and its size.

2. Experimental Technique

2.1 Materials

The materials were purached from Lobachempvt ltd. All the materials were AR grade and they are used without any further purification. Cobalt chloride hexahydrate (CoCl₂·6H₂O), Tartaric acid (C₄H₆O₆), Sodium metasilicate (Na₂SiO₃·5H₂O) for gel preparation, Distilled water,Glacial acetic acid (for pH adjustment).

2.2 Preparation of Hydro-Silica Gel

Sodium metasilicate solution was prepared by dissolving 50 g of Na₂SiO₃·5H₂O in 100 mL of distilled water.The solution was acidified slowly with 1 M acetic acid under constant stirring until gelation occurred (pH ~4–5). The gel was allowed to set in test tubes and aged for 24–48 hours to strengthen the matrix. The following table 1 shows the standard optimized parameters for the crystal growth development.

Sr.No	Optimum Conditions	Cobalt Tartrate
1	Density of Sodium Meta Silicate	1.04gm/cm3
2	Conc. of Tartaric acid	0.5M
3	Volume of Tartaric acid	7ml
4	Volume of Sodium Meta Silicate	18ml
5	Volume of Cobalt Cholride	5ml
6	pH of the gel	4
7	Ageing Period	One week

The crystals were extracted by carefully breaking the gel after two to three weeks depend on the growth parameters.  The extracted crystals were subjected to study their physical properties particularly crystal size, growth morphology, crystal structure, and optical behavior. Growth morphology was studied by using scanning electron microscope. Crystal structure was identified by using X-ray diffraction technique.

3. Results and discussion

Crystal growth occurs via slow diffusion of Co²⁺ and tartrate ions through the hydro-silica gel.Gel acts as a porous medium, restricting rapid precipitation and promoting uniform nucleation.Chelation of cobalt ions by tartarate ions stabilizes the crystal lattice.Hydrogen bonding and van der Waals interactions within the gel network facilitate orderly crystal assembly. In the present experiment, a 0.1 M solution of cobalt chloride was carefully poured on top of the set silica gel and 0.1 M solution of tartaric acid was layered above the gel to allow slow diffusion. The test tubes were sealed to prevent evaporation and left undisturbed at room temperature (~25°C).Crystals started to appear after one week, and growth continued for up to three weeks in order to get full grown crystals with different facets.

It is observed that concentration of cobalt chloride and tartaric acid has significant effect on the growth of the crystals. It is found out that higher cobalt ion concentration increases the nucleation sites resulting smaller crystals and for lower concentration of cobalt ions slowed crystal growth, yielding larger but few crystals. However, the equimolar concentrations of cobalt chloride and tartaric acid resulted in optimal crystal quality.

Fig 1. Photographic image of Cobalt tartrate crystal obtained after three weeks.

Figure 2 shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of Cobalt Tartrate Single Crystals.  The orientations of (111), (200), (220), and (311) planes are observed which reveals well-defined crystal structure of the grown materials.

Figure 2:  XRD of Gel grown Cobalt Tartrate Crystal

Figure 3 shows the microscopic SEM images of cobalt tartrate crystals. These crystals were pale pink to pink in color with transparent, and prismatic properties. The grown crystals shaped changed with respect to pH of the gel concentration. The shape of the crystals changed from spherical granule to crystal size ranged from 1–6 mm, depending on gel concentration and reactant molarity.Lower gel density led to faster diffusion, resulting in smaller but more numerous crystals.Higher gel density slowed ion diffusion, producing fewer but larger, well-faceted crystals.

Figure 3: Scanning electron microscopy images of  Cobalt Tartrate Crystal grown by gel-gel technique.

4. Conclusions

Cobalt tartrate crystals were successfully grown using the hydro-silica gel technique. The study shows that gel density, reactant molarity, and pH are critical parameters in controlling crystal size and morphology. The hydro-silica gel method is effective in producing high-quality, well-faceted cobalt tartrate crystals at ambient temperature. These crystals can be used for further studies in materials characterization, optical properties, and catalytic applications.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Principal Dr Suresh Ahire Sir  for their valuable guidance and support throughout this work. We also thank the Dept. of Physics Uttmrao Patil College, Dahiwel for providing the necessary facilities and resources for the preparation and characterization of strontium malonate crystals. Special thanks are extended to colleagues and staff who assisted in experimental setup, observations, and discussions that contributed to the success of this research.

References

1. R. W. Cahn, P. Haasen, E. J. Kramer, Materials Science and Technology, 1995.
2. S. K. Malik, A. Kumar, Journal of Crystal Growth, 2011, 318, 1012–1018.
3. P. Kalainathan, R. Kumar, Materials Chemistry and Physics, 2009, 117, 498–502.
4. R. N. Dave, Crystal Growth Techniques, Elsevier, 2002.
5. Henisch,H.K.: “ Crystal Growth in Gels”, Pennsylvania Univ.Press,Pennsylvania,1970
6. Henisch, H.K.: “ Crystals In Gels &Liesegang Rings”, Cambridge Univ. Press,Cambridge,1988.
7. Hangloo,V.K.: “ Ph.D Thesis, Jammu Univ., Jammu,,2004.
8. Arend,H.&Huber,W.: J.Cryst.Growth, 12 (1972).
9. Want, B.A: “Ph.D. Thesis, Kashmir Univ. Srinagar,Kashmir,2007

Dr Pritam D. Torawane ^a*

^a Department of Chemistry, Vidya Vikas Mandals, Sitaram Govind Patil Arts, Science and Commerce College, Sakri 424304 (MS), India

*Corresponding author (Pritam Torawane): E-mail: pritamtorawane@gmail.com

Abstract

In the field of supramolecular chemistry, the detection of ions by using fluorescence and absorption techniques have gained significant importance due to their simplicity, high sensitivity and selectivity, low cost, detection limit, rapid response, and applicability to bioimaging. In recent years, Schiff-based receptors have been developed for the detection of various ions. This study mainly focuses on the fluorescent sensors which are based on Schiff base. 

Keywords: Chemosensor, Schiff base, Fluorescence, Molecular recognition. 

Introduction

In chemistry, environment, medicine and biology, cations play a vital role. In biological processes such as maintaining potentials across cell membranes, triggering muscle contraction, metal cations play an important role. On the other hand, some cations, such as lead and mercury, can cause harmful effects to the human body and the environment.In medical diagnostics, catalysis, environmental chemistry and physiology, several neutral and ionic species find extensive applications [1,2]. Excess accumulation of toxic ions may cause somesevere neurodegenerativediseases, such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’sdisease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and Wilson’sdisease in the human body.

From above it is clear that detection of ions is necessary either they are useful or harmful. Fluorescent molecular sensors are used for detecting ions. Since fluorescent sensors are highly selective and easy to operate, they play an important role in many areas and disciplines.  The molecular recognition of cations and anions by using absorption and fluorescence technique are receiving great interest in the field of supramolecular chemistry [3-6]. Cation complexation chemistry has played a significant role in the origin of the field of molecular recognition, since in many areas,cations play an important role. For the detection of cations, anions and biomolecules wide range of highly selective and sensitive chemosensors have been developed [7, 8].

The present review highlights recent progress in Schiff base fluorescent probes used for sensing biologically and environmentally significant ions.

Sensors for Nickel

Liu et al. reported a highly selective colorimetric chemosensor (1) for detection of Ni²⁺ ions in aqueous system DMSO-H₂O (v/v = 1:1, pH= 7.4). The addition of 10 equivalent of Ni²⁺ to the aqueous solution of probe (1) results into a dramatic colour change from yellow to red. Absorbance spectra of probe (1) showed a new peak at about 525 nm. Titration plots in UV-visible spectra revealed 1:1 stoichiometry between (1) and Ni²⁺. Interference study shows that no significant changes in the UV-visible spectra was found with and without the other competing metal ions. The detection limit was found to be 2.2×10^-7M. [9].

Fegadeet al. reported a fluorescent receptor (2) for the determination of Ni²⁺ in semi-aqueous media DMSO-H₂O (1:1, v/v) solvent system. Upon addition of Ni²⁺ ion solution prepared in distilled water to the aqueous solution of receptor (2) gave remarkable fluorescent enhancement. Also, addition of 10 equivalent of Ni²⁺ to the aqueous solution of probe (2) causes color change from colorless to yellow. Interference study showed that interference of other tested metal ion in the detection of Ni²⁺ was insignificant. Job’s plot experiment indicates the formation of 1:1 complex between probe (2) and Ni²⁺[10].

Sensors for Zinc

Khairnar et al. reported a highly selective fluorescent ‘turn on’ chemosensor (3) for the detection of Zn²⁺ in DMSO-H₂O (90:10, v/v) solvent. The weak fluorescence of probe (3) was enhanced with red shift from 360 nm to 385nm (Δλ=25). The probe (3) was successfully applied for detection of Zn²⁺ in live HeLa cells. Interference study shows that probe (3) has high selectivity toward Zn²⁺even in the presence of same concentration of other metal ions. Job’s plot indicates 1:1 binding ratio between Zn²⁺ and probe (3). The detection limit was found to be 0.67 µM [11].

Tayade et al. reported a novel chemosensor (4) based on isonicotiamide for the detection of Zn²⁺. The probe (4) also shows selectivity towards HSO₄^–. Weakly fluorescent probe (4) showed highly selective enhancement in the emission wavelength at 470 nm for Zn²⁺. Interference study showed that no significant variation was observed in the fluorescence of probe (4) with Zn²⁺in the presence and absence of other cations.  LOD of probe (4) as a fluorescent sensor for the analysis of Zn²⁺ was found to be 3.81 nM. The fluorescence properties of probe (4) were effectively clarified by two chemical input (Zn²⁺ and HSO₄^–) OR INHIBIT type logic gates at molecular level [12].

Sensors for Copper

Yeh et al. reported a coumarin-based sensitive and selective fluorescent sensor (5) for the detection of Cu²⁺. In presence of Cu²⁺ probe (5) shows significant fluorescence quenching. Probe (5) upon addition of Cu²⁺ shows visible colour change from yellow to orange. Titration of Cu²⁺ with probe (5) shows that the absorbance at 487 nm decreased and new band at 440 nm was produced. Interference study shows that in presence of other competing metal ions no significant changes were observed in fluorescence spectra of probe (5) with Cu²⁺. Job’s plot revealed that 2:1 binding stoichiometry between Cu²⁺ and probe (5). The probe has limit of detection of 0.27µM. Moreover, probe (5) could be successfully used as a fluorescent probe for detection of Cu²⁺ in living cells [13].

Yang et al. reported a colorimetric and fluorescent sensor (6) for Cu²⁺ detection in methanol-water (3/7, v/v) solvent system. Upon addition of Cu²⁺ to the probe (6) results into enhancement of the absorbance with formation of new peak at 552 nm and the color of the solution changes from colorless to pink. When more than 1.0 equivalent of Cu²⁺ was added the enhancement was saturated indicating that the binding mode was probably of 1:1 stoichiometry. Same conclusion about binding mode was obtained from Job’s plot. The limit of detection for Cu²⁺ was found to be 0.096 µM. The competition experiments showed that no visible color change was observed and no change in the fluorescence spectra of probe (6) with Cu²⁺were observed in the presence of other competing metal ions. The probe (6) was successfully applied for the fluorescence imaging in living cells [14].

Sanmartin-Metalobos et al. Synthesized a fluorescent probe (7) for detection of Cu²⁺ in aqueous samples.  Spectroscopic studies show that probe (7) has higher affinity towards copper than other tested d-block metal ions. The detection limit of probe (7) for Cu²⁺ ion was found to be 8.7 nM [15].

Zhang et al. reported a novel chemosensor (8) for detection of Cu²⁺ ion in DMSO solution. Chemosensor (8) showed visible colour change from yellow to colorless on treatment with Cu²⁺ ion. The detection limit of chemosensor (8) forCu²⁺ ion was found to be 4.87 nM. The binding constant for chemosensor (8) and Cu²⁺ ion was determined as 6.15×10¹⁰ M^-1. Job’s plot revealed that 1:2 binding stoichiometry of the complex between chemosensor (8) and Cu²⁺ ion [16].

Sensors for Magnesium

            Kao et al. synthesized a turn on Schiff base fluorescent sensor (9) for the detection of Mg²⁺. The probe (9) alone shows no significant emission after excitation at 353 nm but upon addition of Mg²⁺, the fluorescence intensity of probe (9) increases significantly at the wavelength of 487 nm. Also, the probe (9) shows weak fluorescence enhancement upon addition of Ca²⁺ and Cd²⁺. On the other hand, probe (9) shows very weak fluorescent band towards other metal ions. The probe (9) was successfully applied to detect Mg²⁺ in different sources of water such as lake, ground and tap water. Job’s plot clearly shows 1:1 binding stoichiometry between probe (9) and Mg²⁺.The detection limit for probe (9) for the analysis of magnesium was found to be 19.1 ppb. The association constant for probe (9) and Mg²⁺ was determined as 1.91×10⁷M^-1 [17].

Wang et al. reported a turn on fluorescent sensor (10) based on Schiff base derivative for the detection of Mg²⁺. Fluorescence spectra show that upon addition of Mg²⁺ ion to the probe (10) displayed significant fluorescence enhancement with emission maximum at 547 nm due to the Photo-Induced Electron Transfer (PET) effect. No other metal ion except Mg²⁺shows change in the absorption and fluorescence spectra of probe (10). Interference study shows that even in presence of other competing metal ions probe (10) shows similar spectral changes that with Mg²⁺ion. Based on Benesi-Hildebrand the association constant for complex (10)-Mg²⁺ were determine as 3.33×10⁴ M^-1. The detection limit was found to be 5.16×10^-7M [18].

References

1.  A. P.de Silva; B. O. F. Mc Caughan; M. Querol, Dalton T. 2003, 1902; Anslyn, E. V. Angew Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2001, 40, 3119; V. Amendola; L. Fabbrizzi; C. Mangano; P. Pallavicini,Acc. Chem. Res. 2001, 34, 488; L. Fabbrizzi.; M. Licchelli; P. Pallavicini, Acc. Chem. Res.,1999, 32, 846; A. W. Czarnik, Acc. Chem. Res.,1994, 27, 302.
2. A. P.de Silva, D. B. Fox, A. J. M.Huxley,T. S. Moody,Coord. Chem. Rev., 2000, 205, 41; A. P.de Silva, H. Q. N.Gunaratne, T. Gunnlaugsson, A. J. M.Huxley, C. P.McCoy, J. T. Rademacher; T. E. Rice, Chem. Rev.,1997, 97, 1515.
3. H. S. Jung, P. S. Kwon, J. W. Kwon, J. I. Kim, C. S. Hong, J. W. Kim, S. Yan, J. Y. Lee, J. H. Lee, T. Joo, J. S. Kim, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,2009, 131, 2008.
4. Z.Q. Guo, W.Q. Chen, X.M. Duan, Org. Lett.,2010, 12, 2202.
5. M. Royzen, A. Durandin, V.G. Young, N.E. Geacintov, J.W. Canary, J.Am. Chem. Soc.,2006, 128, 3854.
6. C. Gou, S.H. Qin, H. Q. Wu, Y. Wang, J. Luo, X. Y. Liu, Inorg. Chem. Commun., 2011, 14, 1622.
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8. C. Lodeiro, F. Pina, Coord. Chem. Rev., 2009, 253, 1353.
9. X. Liu, Q. Lin, T. B. Wei, Y. M. Zhang, New J. Chem., 2014, 38, 1418.
10. U. Fegade, J. Marek, R. Patil, S. Attarde, A. Kuwar, J. Lumin., 2014, 146, 234.
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12. K. Tayade, B. Bondhopadhyay, K. Keshav, S. K. Sahoo, A. Basu, J. Singh, N. Singh, D. T. Nehete, A. Kuwar, Analyst, 2016, 141, 1814.
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15. J. S. Matalobos, A. M. García-Deibe, M. Fondo, M. Z. Jevinani, M. R. Domínguez-Gonzálezc, P. B. Barrerac, Dalton T., 2017, DOI: 10.1039/c7dt02872e
16. Y. M. Zhang, W. Zhu, W. J. Qu, H. L. Zhang, Q. Huang, H. Yao, T. B. Wei, Q. Lin, J. Lumin.,2018, 202, 225.
17. M. H. Kao, T. Y. Chen, Y. R. Cai, C. H. Hu, Y. W. Liu, Y. Jhong, A. T. Wu, Journal of Lumin., 2016, 169, 156.
18. G. Q. Wang, J. C. Quin, L. Fan, C. R. Li, Z. Y. Yang, J, PhotochPhotobio A, 2016, 314, 29.

Dr. Prashant Suresh Patil

B.P.Arts, S.M.A. Sci. and K.K.C. Com. College, Chalisgaon Maharashtra)

Email: ppswamiraj1@gmail.com

——————————————————————————————————————-Abstract

Kamala Das (1934–2009), a pioneering Indian English poet, is widely known for her confessional voice that merges the personal with the political. While criticism has largely emphasized her treatment of female desire, sexuality and identity, this paper argues that her poetry also forges a significant relationship between nature imagery, gendered experience and social protest. Through close readings of “An Introduction,” “The Old Playhouse”, “The Sunshine Cat” and “My Grandmother’s House”, the study examines how Das places the female subject within natural and domestic spaces shaped by patriarchal power. Nature in her poetry functions both as a metaphor for confinement and as a symbolic site of resistance, enables a critique of social expectations and gendered oppression. Using a feminist ecocritical framework and qualitative textual analysis, the paper explores images of birds, light, land, memory and domestic landscapes as expressions of women’s alienation and longing for autonomy. By foregrounding the ecological dimension of Das’s feminist poetics, the study demonstrates how nature intensifies her social protest and expands the scope of Indian English poetry as a medium of gendered resistance, ethical reflection and cultural critique. The paper contributes to existing scholarship by situating Kamala Das within a broader discourse of nature, gender and social justice.

Keywords: Nature, Gender, Kamala Das, Confessional voice, Indian English Poetry, Gender, Nature Imagery, Feminist Protest, Ecocriticism, Ethics, Cultural Critique

Introduction

Indian English poetry in the post-independence period reflects a sustained engagement with questions of identity, social change and cultural negotiation. Within this literary landscape, Kamala Das emerges as one of the most influential and controversial voices. Her poetry is marked by emotional candor, autobiographical intensity and an unapologetic interrogation of patriarchal norms governing women’s lives. While Das has often been discussed primarily as a confessional poet articulating female desire and sexual autonomy, such readings, though valuable, tend to overlook the complex symbolic structures through which her protest operates.

One such structure is nature imagery, which plays a crucial role in articulating emotional states, gendered experiences and social critique in her poetry. Nature in Kamala Das’s work is never a neutral or decorative presence. Instead, it is deeply implicated in the lived realities of women, functioning as a metaphorical extension of confinement, longing, resistance and memory. Through birds, sunlight, land, houses and landscapes, Das constructs a poetic vocabulary that critiques social institutions such as marriage, family and gender hierarchy.

This paper argues that Kamala Das uses nature imagery as a dialectical force -simultaneously reflecting women’s oppression and offering symbolic possibilities for resistance. Her engagement with nature enables her to articulate a form of social protest that is intimate rather than overtly political, grounded in everyday experiences rather than ideological slogans. By examining selected poems, this study seeks to demonstrate how nature, gender and social protest are intricately interwoven in Das’s poetic imagination.

Theoretical Framework and Methodology

This study employs a qualitative textual analysis grounded in feminist ecocriticism, an interdisciplinary approach that examines the intersections of gender, power and ecological representation in literature. Feminist criticism provides tools for understanding how patriarchal structures shape women’s experiences and voices, while ecocriticism foregrounds the symbolic and ethical dimensions of nature in literary texts. Together, these perspectives allow for a nuanced reading of Kamala Das’s poetry that moves beyond purely autobiographical or psychological interpretations.

The methodology involves close reading of selected poems, focusing on imagery, metaphor, tone and narrative voice. Attention is given to how natural elements function symbolically in relation to gendered confinement, emotional alienation and resistance. Secondary critical sources are used to contextualize the analysis within existing scholarship, while the interpretative emphasis remains on original textual engagement.

Nature is treated not merely as environment but as a cultural and emotional construct, shaped by social relations and power dynamics. Gender is approached as both a lived condition and a poetic articulation, while social protest is understood as resistance embedded in language, imagery and emotional truth rather than overt political rhetoric.

Nature and Gendered Identity in “An Introduction”

“An Introduction” is one of Kamala Das’s most anthologized poems and serves as a manifesto of self-assertion. The poem challenges linguistic, cultural and gendered expectations imposed upon women. While its feminist thrust is evident, the poem also relies on natural metaphors to articulate fluid identity and resistance to categorization.

The speaker’s refusal to conform –

“Dress in sarees, be girl / Be wife, they said…”

Here, it is noticed that or it signals a rejection of socially “naturalized” gender roles. The act of wearing her brother’s trousers and cutting her hair becomes symbolic of transformation, echoing natural processes of growth and change. Nature here signifies fluidity, opposing the rigidity of patriarchal norms.

The declaration –

“I am sinner, I am saint, I am the beloved and the betrayed”

This line reflects a multiplicity that mirrors the diversity of the natural world. Just as nature resists singular definition, the female self refuses confinement within fixed moral or social categories. Through this alignment, Das challenges the notion that gender roles are natural or inevitable, revealing them instead as social constructs.

Thus, nature imagery in “An Introduction” becomes a vehicle for social protest, enabling the poet to reclaim identity through metaphors of movement, plurality and transformation.

Marriage, Confinement and Nature in “The Old Playhouse”

In “The Old Playhouse,” Kamala Das offers a powerful critique of marriage as an institution that suppresses female individuality. Nature imagery plays a central role in exposing the emotional violence embedded within domestic life.

The metaphor of the swallow–

“You planned to tame a swallow, to hold her / In the long summer of your love…”

– this line captures the tension between freedom and possession. The bird, traditionally associated with flight and migration, symbolizes the woman’s natural desire for autonomy. The attempt to “tame” it reflects patriarchal control that seeks to domesticate female independence.

Nature here is not romanticized; instead, it underscores the unnaturalness of confinement. The woman’s shrinking sense of self contrasts is sharply with the expansiveness implied by flight and open sky. Das suggests that social institutions that restrict women operate against natural instincts for freedom and growth.

By employing nature imagery, Das critiques marriage not merely as a personal failure but as a social structure that systematically erodes women’s emotional and intellectual agency. The poem thus transforms intimate suffering into a broader social protest.

Domestic Space and Nature in “The Sunshine Cat”

“The Sunshine Cat” presents one of Kamala Das’s most haunting portrayals of marital alienation. The poem depicts a woman confined within a domestic space, deprived of emotional fulfillment and autonomy. Nature appears here in fragments, emphasizing both deprivation and resilience.

The image –

“A streak of sunshine lying near the door like / A yellow cat to keep her company”

– introduces nature into the oppressive domestic interior. The sunlight, compared to a cat, represents warmth, movement and life–elements largely absent from the woman’s existence. This small intrusion of nature highlights the contrast between vitality and stagnation.

Rather than offering escape, nature in this poem serves as a reminder of what is missing. The fleeting presence of sunlight underscores the transience of hope within patriarchal confinement. At the same time, it suggests the persistence of desire and imagination, even in restricted spaces.

Through such imagery, Das critiques gendered power relations without overt accusation. The poem’s protest lies in its exposure of emotional deprivation as a form of social injustice, with nature functioning as a silent witness to female suffering.

Memory, Landscape and Social Change in “My Grandmother’s House”

“My Grandmother’s House” shifts focus from marital relationships to memory and belonging. Nature here is closely associated with the ancestral home, representing emotional security and continuity. The poem reflects on loss – not only personal but cultural.

The house, surrounded by familiar landscapes, symbolizes a nurturing environment that contrasts with the alienation of adult life. Nature becomes a repository of memory, anchoring identity in a past marked by affection and acceptance. The loss of this space parallels the speaker’s emotional displacement in the present.

While the poem does not directly articulate feminist protest, it critiques social change that disrupts emotional and cultural continuity. The erosion of intimate spaces reflects broader transformations that leave individuals – especially women – isolated and rootless.

Nature, in this context, functions as a link between personal history and social evolution. It is reinforcing Das’s broader concern with belonging, lossand identity.

Nature as a Medium of Social Protest

Across Kamala Das’s poetry, nature serves multiple symbolic functions. It represents freedom, confinement, memory, and resistance, depending on context. What unites these representations is their role in articulating social protest.

Unlike overtly political poets, Das embeds resistance within emotional truth. Her protest is not shouted but felt, conveyed through images that resonate with lived experience. Nature provides a language through which private suffering is transformed into collective critique.

Birds signify thwarted or dissatisfied freedom, sunlight embodies fleeting hope, landscapes preserve memory and domestic spaces reveal systemic oppression. Together, these images construct a poetic world where gender injustice is exposed as both personal and social.

Nature, Gender and Sustainability: A Contemporary Reading

From a contemporary perspective, Kamala Das’s poetry can also be read as engaging with questions of sustainability and ethical coexistence. Her portrayal of nature emphasizes relationality rather than domination, aligning with ecofeminist critiques of hierarchical power structures.

By linking women’s oppression with the control of natural spaces, Das anticipates later ecofeminist thought that connects environmental exploitation with patriarchal ideology. Her poetry suggests that liberation – both human and ecological – requires dismantling systems based on possession and control.

Conclusion

Kamala Das’s poetry offers a profound exploration of nature, gender and social protest, revealing how intimate experience can serve as a powerful site of resistance. Through rich and nuanced imagery, she transforms nature into a symbolic medium that critiques patriarchal structures and articulates women’s longing for autonomy, dignity and belonging.

Nature in her poetry is never passive; it is charged with emotional, ethical and political significance. By foregrounding this dimension, the present study expands critical understanding of Kamala Das as a poet whose feminist vision is inseparable from her engagement with nature and society.

Her work affirms that social protest need not be loud to be effective. Through images of birds, sunlight, houses and memory, Das offers a deeply human critique of injustice, making her poetry enduringly relevant in discussions of gender, ecology and social transformation.

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