Amol R. Naikda1,2, Bharat G. Thakare1 , Navnath M. Yajgar1 , Bhushan B. Chaudhari1,3, Niranjan S. Samudre1, Kishor M. More1 , Anup J. More1 , Sachin J. Nandre4 , R. R. Ahire1 , Sudam D. Chavhan1 *
1. Department of Physics, S. G. Patil Art’s, Science and Commerce College, Sakri, Maharashtra, India.
2. Department of Physics, S.S.V.P. S’s L.K.Dr. P.R.Ghogrey Science College Dhule, Maharashtra, India.
3. Department of Physics, Nandurbar Taluka VidhayakSamiti’s G. T. Patil Arts, Commerce and Science College, Nandurbar, Maharashtra, India.
4. Department of Physics, U. P. College, Dahivel, Maharashtra, India.
Cupric oxide (CuO) thin films were deposited using a simple and cost-effective hydrothermal technique and examined for their optoelectronic suitability. The optical properties were studied using UV–Visible spectroscopy, which revealed significant absorption in the visible and near-infrared regions. The optical band gap, evaluated using the Tauc approach, was estimated to be 3.58 eV. The observed widening of the band gap compared to bulk CuO is attributed to nanoscale effects, defect-related localized states, and growth conditions associated with the hydrothermal process. Electrical characterization showed a linear current–voltage response, indicating ohmic conduction and good electrical contact. These findings demonstrate that hydrothermally synthesized CuO thin films possess favorable optical transparency and stable electrical transport, making them promising candidates for optoelectronic device applications.
Copper oxide (CuO) is a widely investigated p-type metal oxide semiconductor owing to its narrow direct bandgap in the range of 1.3–2.1 eV, high optical absorption coefficient, good chemical and thermal stability, and environmentally friendly nature [1–3]. These properties make CuO an attractive material for various optoelectronic applications, including photodetectors, solar cells, gas sensors, memory devices, and photocatalytic systems [4,5]. Compared to conventional semiconductor materials, metal oxide semiconductors such as CuO offer advantages such as low cost, ease of fabrication, non-toxicity, and compatibility with existing semiconductor technologies [6].
The optoelectronic performance of CuO thin films is strongly influenced by their structural, morphological, optical, and electrical properties, which depend largely on the synthesis technique and processing parameters [7]. Several fabrication methods, including sol–gel processing [8], spray pyrolysis [9], magnetron sputtering [10], thermal oxidation [11], and co-precipitation [12], have been reported for the preparation of CuO thin films. However, many of these methods require high processing temperatures, sophisticated equipment, or offer limited control over film uniformity and microstructure.
Among the various synthesis routes, the hydrothermal method has emerged as a simple, low-cost, and scalable technique for the growth of high-quality CuO thin films with controlled morphology and crystallinity [13, 14]. Hydrothermal growth allows precise control over reaction parameters such as temperature, pressure, reaction time, and solution pH, which play a key role in determining nucleation, crystal growth, and defect formation [15]. Moreover, hydrothermal synthesis can be carried out at relatively low temperatures, making it suitable for large-area deposition and substrate-sensitive applications [16].
The optical properties of CuO thin films, particularly light absorption behavior and bandgap energy, are critical factors governing their optoelectronic performance [17]. Similarly, electrical properties such as conductivity, carrier transport, and photo response are significantly affected by intrinsic defects, crystallinity, particle size, and post-deposition treatments [18, 19]. A comprehensive understanding of the relationship between synthesis conditions, optical behavior, and electrical characteristics is therefore essential for optimizing CuO-based optoelectronic devices.
In the present work, CuO thin films were synthesized using a hydrothermal growth method and systematically characterized to investigate their optical and electrical properties. The influence of growth conditions on bandgap energy, light absorption, and electrical behavior was analyzed in detail to evaluate the potential of hydrothermally grown CuO thin films for optoelectronic applications [20, 21].
2. Materials and Methods.
Copper nitrate trihydrate (Cu (NO₃)₂·3H₂O, analytical grade, ≥99%) was used as the copper precursor, and sodium hydroxide (NaOH, ≥98%) was used as the pH-adjusting agent. Deionized (DI) water (18.2 MΩ·cm) was used as the solvent throughout the experiment. Microscope glass substrateswere used as substrates for thin-film deposition.
Prior to deposition, the glass substrates were cleaned to ensure uniform film growth and good adhesion. The substrates were ultrasonically cleaned successively in acetone, ethanol, and deionized water for 10 min each. After cleaning, the substrates were dried using hot air and stored in a dust-free environment.
CuO thin films were synthesized by a hydrothermal method. A 0.1 M aqueous solution of copper nitrate trihydrate was prepared by dissolving the required amount of Cu (NO₃)₂·3H₂O in 100 mL of deionized water under continuous magnetic stirring at room temperature. Separately, a 1.0 M NaOH solution was prepared and added dropwise to the copper precursor solution under constant stirring until the pH reached 10–11, resulting in the formation of a homogeneous blue precipitate.
The resulting reaction mixture was transferred into a Teflon-lined stainless-steel autoclave (100 mL capacity). The cleaned substrates were placed vertically inside the autoclave. The autoclave was sealed and maintained at 150 °C for 5 hour to facilitate the hydrothermal growth of CuO thin films.
After completion of the hydrothermal reaction, the autoclave was allowed to cool naturally to room temperature. The deposited films were removed, rinsed thoroughly with deionized water to remove residual ions, and dried at 60 °C for 1 hour. To convert the intermediate hydroxide phase into crystalline CuO and to enhance the optical and electrical properties, the films were annealed in a hot-air oven at 450 °C for 2 hour under ambient atmospheric conditions.
3. Results and Discussion
The optical absorption properties of the CuO thin films synthesized by the hydrothermal method were investigated using UV–Visible spectroscopy in the wavelength range of 400–1100 nm. The absorbance spectrum of the CuO thin film is shown in Fig. 2. The film exhibits moderate absorption in the visible region, followed by a gradual increase toward the near-infrared region. A minimum absorbance is observed around 500–550 nm, after which the absorbance increases continuously with wavelength.
The observed absorption behavior is attributed to electronic transitions between the valence and conduction bands of CuO. The gradual increase in absorbance at higher wavelengths may be associated with defect-related localized states, such as oxygen vacancies and grain boundary defects, which are commonly introduced during hydrothermal synthesis. These defects contribute to sub-band-gap absorption and influence the optical response of the film. The absorption characteristics confirm that the hydrothermally synthesized CuO thin film exhibits suitable optical properties for optoelectronic applications.
Fig. 2.UV–Visible absorbance spectrum of hydrothermally synthesized CuO
thin film recorded in the wavelength range of 400–1100 nm.
The optical band gap energy of the CuO thin film was estimated using the Tauc relation, assuming a direct allowed transition:(αhν)2=A(hν−Eg). The plot of (αhν) 2versus photon energy (hν) is shown in Fig. 3. A clear linear region is observed in the higher photon energy range (3.6–3.8 eV), indicating the onset of strong interband optical absorption
Fig. 3. The graph of (αhν) 2versus photon energy for hydrothermally
Synthesized CuO thin film showing a direct optical band gap of 3.58 eV.
By extrapolating the linear portion of the curve to the energy axis at (αhν) 2= 0, the optical band gap energy of the CuO thin film is determined to be 3.58 eV. The deviation from linearity at lower photon energies can be attributed to band tailing effects caused by localized defect states and structural disorder in the film. The relatively wide band gap suggests high optical transparency in the visible region and strong absorption in the ultraviolet region. Such characteristics are desirable for applications in UV photodetectors, transparent optoelectronic devices, and window layers in photovoltaic systems.
The electrical transport properties of the hydrothermally synthesized CuO thin film were examined through current–voltage (I–V) measurements at room temperature. The I–V characteristics of the film are presented in Fig. 4, with the applied voltage varied from 0 to 14 V.The I–V curve exhibits a nearly linear relationship between current and applied voltage, indicating ohmic conduction behavior. This linearity suggests good electrical contact between the electrodes and the CuO thin film, as well as uniform film thickness and improved grain connectivity. The absence of current saturation or rectifying behavior implies minimal barrier formation at the electrode–film interface.
Fig. 4. Current–voltage (I–V) characteristics of hydrothermally synthesized
CuO thin film measured at room temperature.
The observed electrical behavior confirms the semiconducting nature of the CuO thin film and demonstrates efficient charge carrier transport. The hydrothermal synthesis method contributes to improved crystallinity and reduced interfacial resistance, resulting in stable electrical performance suitable for device applications.
The optical and electrical studies reveal a strong correlation between the structural quality and functional performance of the CuO thin film. The wide optical band gap of 3.58 eV ensures high transparency in the visible region, while the linear I–V characteristics confirm efficient charge transport across the film. Although defect states introduced during hydrothermal synthesis influence the optical absorption behavior, they do not significantly deteriorate the electrical conductivity, indicating an optimal balance between optical and electrical properties.
The hydrothermal method plays a crucial role in controlling the growth and properties of CuO thin films. The controlled temperature and pressure conditions promote uniform nucleation, enhanced crystallinity, and strong adhesion to the substrate. These factors collectively contribute to the observed optical transparency, well-defined band gap, and ohmic electrical behavior. The results demonstrate that hydrothermal synthesis is an effective and reliable technique for producing high-quality CuO thin films for optoelectronic applications.
4. Conclusion
In the present study, CuO thin films were successfully synthesized using a simple and cost-effective hydrothermal method and systematically investigated for their optical and electrical properties. The hydrothermal growth process enabled the formation of uniform, well-adhered CuO thin films with favorable optoelectronic characteristics.
UV–Visible spectroscopic analysis revealed moderate absorption in the visible region with enhanced absorption toward the near-infrared region. The optical band gap, determined using the Tauc method, was found to be 3.58 eV, which is higher than that of bulk CuO. This widening of the band gap is attributed to nanoscale effects, defect-induced band tailing, and structural disorder introduced during hydrothermal synthesis and post-annealing treatment. The wide band gap indicates high transparency in the visible region, making the films suitable for ultraviolet-based optoelectronic applications.
Electrical characterization demonstrated a nearly linear current–voltage relationship, confirming ohmic conduction behavior and efficient charge transport across the film. The absence of rectifying behavior suggests good electrical contact and uniform film morphology, which are essential for reliable device performance.
Overall, the combined optical and electrical analyses confirm that the hydrothermal synthesis route is an effective and scalable technique for producing high-quality CuO thin films. The wide optical band gap, stable electrical response, and low-cost fabrication process highlight the potential of hydrothermally grown CuO thin films for applications in UV photodetectors, transparent electronics, optoelectronic devices, and photovoltaic window layers.
5.Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Principal of S. G. Patil Arts, Science and Commerce College, Sakri, Dist-Dhule for providing laboratory facilities and experimental support to carry out this research work. The authors also acknowledge the support extended by S.S.V.P. S’s L.K. Dr. P. R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule,for their cooperation and academic encouragement.
The authors sincerely thank the technical staff of the participating institutions for their assistance during thin-film synthesis and electrical and optical characterization. The authors declare that no external funding was received for this work.
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Salim, S. binti . (2026). Pluralism And Public Order in Malaysia: A Jurisprudential Study of the Rukun Negara, the Federal Constitution, and the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/35
Suriyati binti Salim
Department of Civil Law, Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws, International Islamic University Malaysia
This study conducts a critical analysis of the constitutional discourse concerning non-theistic citizens in Malaysia, a state defined by Article 3 of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia and the Rukun Negara, whose first pillar affirms belief in God. Prevailing legal scholarship often treats constitutional supremacy and Islamic identity as a dichotomy, lacking a coherent integrative analysis. This study addresses that analytical gap. It aims to elucidate how national unity (perpaduan) is conceptualised by undertaking a comparative legal-jurisprudential examination of three primary sources: the Federal Constitution (supreme law), the Rukun Negara (national philosophy), and the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah (the Charter of Medina, 622 CE). Employing a tripartite methodology of constitutional-textual, historical-jurisprudential, and comparative discourse analysis, the study maps the normative logic of these primary sources. The analysis reveals that both the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah and the Rukun Negara articulate a political community (Ummah Siyāsah) founded on allegiance to a supreme constitutional covenant, not theological uniformity. The study concludes that the discourse of perpaduan can be coherently interpreted through the Rukun Negara as a modern political covenant: Pillars III (Supremacy of the Constitution) and IV (Rule of Law) establish the terms for pluralistic citizenship, while Pillar I (Belief in God) sustains the substantive identity derived from Article 3 without mandating universal creedal conformity. The study’s novel contribution lies in its demonstration of a covenantal constitutional logic: it shows how the Rukun Negara, interpreted through this tripartite lens, provides a viable framework where a substantive state identity (derived from Article 3) and a pluralistic political community to coexist under a supreme legal order, thereby offering a new perspective on managing religious diversity while maintaining public order.
Keywords:Federal Constitution, Rukun Negara, Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah, Pluralism, National Unity (Perpaduan), Malaysia.
1. INTRODUCTION: THE THEISTIC ‘SOUL’, PLURALISM, AND THE PRESERVATION OF PUBLIC ORDER
The Federal Constitution (the Constitution) operates within a unique constitutional framework, where Article 3(1) declares that “Islam is the religion of the Federation, but other religions may be practised in peace and harmony in any part of the Federation” (Mahmod et al., 2022). Constitutional analysis supports the view that this provision carries substantive weight, with scholars arguing it establishes Islam as a foundational element of the nation’s legal identity. This position is reinforced by related constitutional provisions, such as Article 11(4), which empowers State Legislatures to regulate proselytisation among Muslims or any expansion of the doctrine or religion other than Islam among Muslims (Ishak & Aziz, 2022). Furthermore, this constitutional framework enables the operationalisation of Islamic law through specific legal architecture: state legislatures and the federal parliament are empowered to enact Islamic laws governing personal, family, and religious matters for Muslims, and to establish a separate Syariah court system with jurisdiction exclusively over persons professing Islam (Mohamed & Ahmad, 2021).
This foundational philosophy is enshrined in the Rukun Negara, promulgated in 1970 as the national philosophy following a period of profound social fracture. Its first principle, Belief in God, reflects the moral foundation of the state, while its remaining principles emphasise constitutional supremacy, the Rule of Law, and loyalty as the basis of collective life. A public document articulates this vision: to build a progressive society advancing with science and technology while upholding ‘theistic values’ (nilai-nilai ketuhanan) (Malaysia, 2023). While Article 3(4) ensures this article does not derogate from other provisions, the Rukun Negara simultaneously champions a liberal society where members are free to practise their customs in line with the interests of national unity (kepentingan perpaduan negara) (Malaysia, 2023).
Nevertheless, this constitutional configuration raises persistent jurisprudential challenges, particularly in relation to citizens who fall outside traditional religious categories, including non-theistic individuals. Hence, central to this analysis is the concept of pluralism, understood as the recognition of religious diversity and the condition of harmonious coexistence (Yaacob, 2011). Scholars argue the Rukun Negara was designed to form a ‘Bangsa Malaysia’ that respects this diversity under unified national loyalty (Meerangani et al., 2021). However, a precise legal distinction must be made regarding supremacy. As argued by Mohamed Azam, Mohamed Adil and Nisar Mohammad Ahmad (2014), despite Islam’s special position, the Constitution under Article 4 is the supreme law. Islamic law is subordinate, with jurisdiction limited to the State List. Consequently, while acknowledging this legal hierarchy, the study examines the normative orientation of the state as expressed through its foundational texts. Furthermore, increasing administrative and legal tensions surrounding non-traditional religious identities, as illustrated by cases such as Nora Koh Abdullah, who sought legal recognition as a non-Muslim (Report on The State of Religious Liberty In Malaysia for the Year 2007, 2008).
Therefore, this study examines the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah, alongside the Rukun Negara and the Constitution, to illustrate how these governance frameworks manage pluralism and public order through structured political authority and collective security, while preserving perpaduan (unity) among all citizens, including non-theists.
2. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
In view of its scholarly objectives, this theoretical legal and jurisprudential study examines three primary sources, namely the Constitution, the Rukun Negara, and the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah, to develop a coherent framework for national unity within a constitutional order that acknowledges the special position of Islam. Moreover, the scope of this inquiry is explicitly defined as doctrinal, analytical, and citizenship-centred.
As a doctrinal study, the research focuses on the rigorous examination of constitutional and historical-documentary texts rather than engaging in theological debate. Additionally, as an analytical inquiry, it is concerned with interpreting the existing constitutional logic and the normative architecture it produces instead of prescribing legislative reform. Finally, as a citizenship-centred analysis, it utilises constitutional citizenship as the primary lens through which to examine the challenges of pluralism and public order.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Methodological Justification and Focus
The focus of this study on non-theistic citizens is a deliberate methodological choice because this demographic represents the liminal case that most rigorously tests the boundaries of the constitutional covenant. Furthermore, demonstrating the principled inclusion of citizens who explicitly reject theistic premises serves a dual purpose by validating the capacity of the framework for universal pluralism and shifting the discourse from creedal identity to civic belonging under a supreme constitutional pact.
Moreover, the acknowledged absence of quantitative data on this group is not a methodological limitation but is instead a critical datum that underscores the core theoretical problem, which is the lack of a formal constitutional paradigm for such a category. Consequently, this justifies the employment of a qualitative, text-based, and comparative methodology.
3.2. Methodological Design: A Tripartite Comparative Analysis
The study employs a comparative legal and conceptual methodology, which is executed in three integrated and sequential phases:
Constitutional-Textual Analysis
This phase involves a doctrinal examination of the Constitution, with specific focus on Article 3, Article 4, and the fundamental liberties enshrined in Articles 5 to 13, alongside the Rukun Negara. Therefore, this phase establishes the formal legal structure and the normative architecture of the Malaysian constitutional order.
Historical-Jurisprudential Analysis
This phase provides a critical interpretation of the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah as a historical-constitutional document. Furthermore, it extracts core principles for governing a plural political community, including the concept of the political covenant or Mīthāq and the analytical distinction between the creedal community, or Ummah ʿAqīdiyyah (creedal community), and the political community, or Ummah Siyāsah.
Comparative Synthesis and Interpretive Framework Development
The final phase consists of a systematic comparison of the principles derived from the first two stages of the research. Consequently, this phase develops an interpretive framework that maps the conceptual relationships between the texts and elucidates how pluralism is discursively managed within a system that maintains a substantive theistic and Islamic orientation.
Ultimately, this tripartite methodology theorises the structural conditions for inclusion by analysing the foundational logic of the system and thereby directly addresses the constitutional position of non-theists.
4. Literature Review
4.1. Balancing Public Order and Individual Liberties
The tension between maintaining the state’s religious sanctity and respecting individual liberties is a recurring theme. Ismail Mustapha Adua, Abdul Ghafur Hamid, and Mohammed Iqbal Abdul Wahab (2015) examine this through the Islamic legal principles of darūrah (Necessity) and al-maṣāliḥ al-mursalah (public interest), finding that protecting the maqāṣid al-sharīʿah (objectives of Islamic law), such as religion and life, can legitimise otherwise restricted actions in extreme circumstances. Applying this logic analogously to constitutional governance, this paper submits that the state has a legitimate maṣlaḥah in protecting the Islamic identity embedded in Article 3 to preserve public order. However, this paper contends that this interest is not unbounded. It must be operationalised and balanced through the supreme constitutional framework itself. The ultimate safeguard for the dignity of the non-hostile individual, and the mechanism for this balance, is the universal application of the ‘Rule of Law’, a principle that forms the foundational covenant of both the Rukun Negara and the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah.
4.2. The Administration of Justice: Limits of Jurisdiction
The historical mechanism for managing the balance between religious governance and constitutional supremacy is embedded within the administrative structure of the legal system. Ramizah Wan Muhammad (2009) details the evolution of the Syariah Courts, charting their development as institutions serving the Muslim community while operating under the supreme authority of the Constitution. This relationship introduces inherent complexity, a point underscored by the significant constraints on their institutional reform.
For instance, regarding structural proposals to elevate their national standing, Farid Sufian Shuaib et al. (2017) advocate the professionalisation of the Syariah judiciary but emphasise its constitutional limitations. They note that amending the Constitution to establish a national apex Syariah court “would be contrary to the concept of federalism… and, realistically, it would be very difficult to obtain the required consent of the Conference of Rulers.” This underscores that the Syariah courts function as a distinct subsystem, with jurisdiction deliberately confined and constitutionally circumscribed.
Building on this, the same scholars advocate for the structural reinforcement and professionalisation of these courts within their defined sphere, consistently affirming their separation from the civil hierarchy (Shuaib et al., 2017). The tangible progress in this professionalisation is documented by Najibah Mohd Zin (2012), who catalogues significant advancements in the Syariah judiciary’s infrastructure and judicial training. Ultimately, this doctrinal and administrative separation is analytically cemented by Adil and Ahmad (2014), who clarify the critical constitutional reality: although Islam is the religion of the Federation, the primary enforcement of fundamental liberties and human rights protections resides within the jurisdiction of the civil courts.
The strictly personal nature of Syariah Court jurisdiction is further illustrated in its procedural rules. As examined by Abdul Rani Kamarudin, Arinen Ahadin, and Nuarrual Hilal Md. Dahlan (2009), a foundational question within this subsystem is the compellability of witnesses, specifically whether its rules can extend to non-Muslims. The very existence of this jurisprudential question underscores that these courts are constituted for the Muslim community, their authority derived from and constrained by Islamic personal law.
Together, this body of literature establishes the definitive operational context of Malaysia’s dual legal system. It is a framework where Islamic law functions within a constitutionally defined and limited sphere, thereby creating a distinct domain in which societal pluralism is ultimately governed by a supreme civil legal order.
4.3. The Sunnah of Unity and Religious Freedom
Historical models provide instructive guidance for managing pluralism and public order. For instance, Helimy bin Aris, Amran Abdul Halim, and Nazri Muslim (2021) demonstrate that the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah successfully created a harmonious civil society by embedding principles of unity, justice, and social protection. Within the contemporary Malaysian context, the administration of religious exit remains challenging. Nor Ashikin Md Nasir and Siti Zubaidah Ismail (2016) note that apostasy is treated as a doctrinal offence under Islamic law, with legal provisions varying across states. Complementing this, Siti Zubaidah Ismail and Mohd Zahiri Awang Mat (2016) advocate for clearer, more uniform legal procedures and a rehabilitative approach.
Therefore, based on these findings, this paper posits that the administrative challenge of religious exit highlights the tension between Ummah ʿAqīdiyyah and Ummah Siyāsah. The literature suggests that a covenant-based model, which prioritises public order and civic loyalty as found in the Rukun Negara, could inform more coherent and just administrative processes that uphold both constitutional supremacy and social harmony.
Moreover, this pursuit of equilibrium is reinforced by the Islamic legal principle of wasatiyyah (moderation and balance), which serves as a key jurisprudential methodology for harmonising divergent legal principles and interests within an Islamic framework (Ibrahim et al., 2021).
4.4. The Sanctity of Blood (Ḥurmat al-Dam) and Lessons from Conflict
In contrast to the tragedies of contemporary conflicts, the Prophetic model was designed to prevent the spilling of blood, establishing the paramount doctrine of the ‘sanctity of blood’. The catastrophic consequences of a failed social covenant are illustrated by the crisis in Gaza. Jannis Julien Grimm and Lilian Mauthofer (2025) analyse how semantic disputes can hinder meaningful scholarly analysis during violence, highlighting the responsibility for ethical representation. Their analysis echoes concerns about the collapse of legal frameworks leading to systemic injustice, a critical consensus reached at the International Symposium on Gaza in Crisis: Rethinking International Law and the Path to Justice (2026).
Drawing from these external analyses, this paper submits that the Gaza crisis illustrates the consequences of a failed social order, highlighting the necessity of a respected and authoritative framework. For Malaysia, this underscores the pivotal role of the Rukun Negara, which must function not merely as policy but as the supreme national framework that unites the polity. It provides a non-negotiable foundation for coexistence, safeguarding against internal conflict and ensuring the preservation of public order.
4.5. Sovereignty, Perpaduan (Unity), and the Political Covenant of the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah
The Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah (622 CE) stands as a foundational constitutional document that established political sovereignty and unity (perpaduan) within a deeply fractured Medinan society. It successfully transformed warring Arab and Jewish tribes into a single, confederated political community (ummah), not through forced religious conversion, but by instituting a binding civic covenant, a ‘pact of non-aggression and mutual defence’ (Anjum, 2021).
This covenant explicitly recognised and incorporated religious diversity under a shared political structure. A central provision states: “The Jews of Banū ‘Awf are one community alongside the believers… To the Jews their religion, and to the Muslims their religion” (Anjum, 2021). The Charter’s very definition of the political community is articulated in Article 1, which identifies the parties, including the Prophet Muhammad Peace Be Upon Him (PBUH), the emigrants (muhājirūn), the eight Arab tribes of Madīnah, and later, nine Jewish groups, as forming “one ummah to the exclusion of (all other) people”. This definition was inherently expansionist, as the phrase “and those who followed them, then joined them and strived with them” allowed for the accession of other groups to the constitutional covenant (Kamal, 2025).
The Charter thus established a suite of constitutional principles, including ummah, territorial integrity, consultation (shūrā), justice (‘adl), equality, and freedom of religion, which were derived from Qur’ānic verses revealed prior to its drafting (Kamal, 2025). This jurisprudential derivation highlights the application of the Islamic principle of wasatiyyah, serving as a methodology to translate divine injunctions into a balanced framework for pluralistic governance (Ibrahim et al., 2021).
The Charter’s genius lies in its simultaneous embodiment and operational distinction between the conceptual categories of the Ummah ʿAqīdiyyah (the transnational creedal community of Muslims) and the Ummah Siyāsah (a territorially defined political community based on allegiance to a governing covenant) (Hasan, 2023).
Nonetheless, Anjum (2021) argues that the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah is not a constitution in the modern sense but a foundational, context-bound covenant. He notes that classical scholars, including al-Shāfiʿī, viewed it as a transitional agreement whose principles were later integrated into Islamic law, not as a standalone constitutional model. Framing it as a modern constitution, he contends, misrepresents its historical role and overlooks the broader Islamic legal tradition it informed.
The core precedent of the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah is a political community based on allegiance to a supreme covenant, unifying diverse groups through civic guarantees in exchange for political loyalty. This provides the analytical model for Malaysia’s challenge of balancing its substantive Islamic identity (Article 3) with pluralistic protections, a constitutional equilibrium also seen in managing tensions between equality and affirmative action in employment (2023). The Medinan model thus affirms that such a balance is a foundational Islamic political tradition.
4.6. Comparative Analysis: Mapping the Constitutional Framework to the Rukun Negara Pillars
The analysis reveals that the Prophetic Mīthāq established a political community founded on collective loyalty and civic security, rather than religious conformity. Analogously, the Rukun Negara functions as a modern normative covenant for national governance. To elucidate how this covenant manages pluralism, a comparative framework is constructed by mapping the principles of the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah onto the pillars of the Rukun Negara and their grounding in the Constitution. The resulting matrix (Table 1) illustrates a structured approach for constitutional pluralism, drawing from the foundational texts of the Constitution (Articles 3 and 4), the Rukun Negara, and the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah (Articles 1, 13, 42, and 47).
Table 1: A Comparative Framework for Managing Pluralism: Mapping the Rukun Negara to the Constitution and the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah
Sources: Federal Constitution of Malaysia (1957); Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah (c. 622 CE) (Anjum, 2021); Rukun Negara (1970) (Malaysia, 2023)
Rukun Negara Pillar
Federal Constitution Context
Corresponding Ṣaḥīfa Principle
I. Belief in God (Kepercayaan Kepada Tuhan)
Establishes the state’s theistic moral compass under Articles 3(1) and 11(4).
Article 42: Ultimate referral to God and His Messenger (Sovereignty).
II. Loyalty to King and Country (Kesetiaan Kepada Raja dan Negara)
The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the Head of Islam (Article 3(2)) and the symbol of national unity.
Article 1: Establishment of “one ummah to the exclusion of (all other) people.”
III. Supremacy of the Constitution (Keluhuran Perlembagaan)
Article 4(1) declares the Constitution to be the supreme law of the Federation.
Article 47: Prohibition of treachery against the Charter.
IV. Rule of Law (Kedaulatan Undang-Undang)
Law governs all conduct under Federal and State jurisdictions.
Article 13: Justice applies universally, even against one’s own kin.
4.7. Analytical Application
Accordingly, Pillar I establishes a theistic public ethic but is not a tool for persecution. Mirroring how the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah granted covenantal protection without requiring conversion (Anjum, 2021), the Malaysian Constitution allows non-theists to be citizens of the Ummah Siyāsah if they adhere to the constitutional order and do not act with hostility towards the religion of the Federation. This balance between a substantive state identity and individual rights is operationalised through Pillars III (Supremacy) and IV (Rule of Law).
This constitutional equilibrium is not merely theoretical. It mirrors the pragmatic balance actively sought in other domains, such as employment policy, where the tension between equality (Article 8) and affirmative action (Article 153) is managed to sustain public order and cohesion (Amin & Afandi, 2023).
5. Discussion: Synthesising the Medinan Framework for Malaysia
The Rukun Negara, interpreted through this comparative lens, provides a coherent framework for navigating Malaysia’s constitutional configuration. A significant precedent was set in (The Ritz Hotel Casino Ltd & Anor v. Datuk Seri Osu Haji Sukam [2005] 6 MLJ 760, where the court recognised gambling as contrary to religious teachings and contrary to public policy, holding that the Rukun Negara’s first pillar, ‘Belief in God’, reinforces the state’s theistic public ethic. The ruling emphasised that while gambling might be licensed for regulatory purposes, it cannot be considered “good” and that policies conflicting with the Rukun Negara are against public policy.
This judicial interpretation aligns with analyses of Malaysia’s holistic governance approaches, which are characterised by a measured balancing of competing interests. For instance, the nation’s counter-terrorism strategy integrates ‘hard’ security measures with ‘soft’ de-radicalisation approaches, requiring proportionate responses that focus on dismantling networks and countering ideologies without unduly impeding lawful rights (Mokhtar, 2022). It also resonates with Islamic principles on religious diversity, which advocate tolerance and coexistence within a framework that does not equate all religions theologically (Mahmod et al., 2022). Furthermore, this balance is underpinned by the jurisprudential principle of wasatiyyah, which provides an Islamic mandate for seeking justice and equilibrium in governance, thereby legitimising the constitutional balancing act between Article 3’s substantive identity and the pluralistic protections of the supreme charter (Ibrahim et al., 2021).
This synthesis reveals the precise constitutional tension at the heart of Malaysia’s framework. While the Rukun Negara’s pillars operationalise a Medinan-style covenant, prioritising political allegiance (Pillars II and III) and the Rule of Law (Pillar IV), their application remains contingent on a substantive state ethic derived from Islam (Pillar I). Judicial rulings like Ritz Hotel Casino demonstrate how this theistic public policy can override other interests, and the state’s holistic strategies in areas like counter-terrorism show a constant balancing act. This balancing methodology reflects a broader Islamic ethic of systemic equilibrium, akin to the principles of information security, which are confidentiality, integrity, and availability, which are derived from and practised within the Islamic tradition to protect communal welfare and ensure justice (Zulhuda, 2010). Thus, while the wasatiyyah-inspired framework theoretically accommodates pluralism, its stability hinges on a critical, potentially precarious condition: the state’s definition of ‘non-aggression’ and ‘respect for the constitutional order’ must not functionally equate to requiring citizens to endorse the religious premises of Pillar I. This creates the ongoing jurisprudential challenge of ensuring that the ‘supreme constitutional pact’ protects all citizens equally, even those who exist outside its declared theological foundation.
6. Conclusion
Accordingly, this study has undertaken a comparative legal and jurisprudential analysis of the Rukun Negara, Article 3 of the Constitution, and the Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah to address the constitutional question of accommodating non-theistic citizens within Malaysia’s distinctive constitutional order. Moreover, the analysis demonstrates that a sustainable model of perpaduan is not externally imposed but is embedded within the internal logic of the constitutional framework itself when read holistically and systematically. In particular, the findings show that the Rukun Negara operates as an organising normative framework that mediates between Malaysia’s substantive Islamic identity and its plural civic structure. While Pillar III, namely the Supremacy of the Constitution, establishes the ultimate legal authority, and Pillars II and IV, namely Loyalty to King and Country and the Rule of Law, delineate the conditions of political membership and equal justice, Pillar I, namely Belief in God, supplies the foundational theistic ethic that gives normative meaning to Article 3 without compelling uniformity of belief.
Furthermore, this integrated framework, informed by the Islamic jurisprudential principle of wasatiyyah, regulates pluralism through constitutional allegiance and lawful civic conduct rather than through theological conformity. Consequently, non-Muslims and non-theistic citizens are situated within the political community as rights-bearing members whose legal protection flows from the Rule of Law, provided that they observe constitutional loyalty and refrain from conduct that threatens public order. Nevertheless, the study also identifies a continuing jurisprudential tension, namely the risk that the notion of non-aggression may be interpreted too expansively and thereby operate, in effect, as an indirect requirement to endorse the state’s theistic premises. Therefore, careful judicial and administrative calibration remains essential to ensure that constitutional unity does not erode the pluralism it seeks to sustain.
Ultimately, the significance of this study lies in its analytical contribution to Malaysian constitutional discourse. Specifically, it moves beyond the conventional dichotomy between constitutional supremacy and Islamic identity by demonstrating their functional integration within a single, coherent legal structure. In doing so, it clarifies that the Constitution’s theistic orientation and its pluralistic guarantees are not inherently contradictory but are mutually reinforcing when applied through the Supremacy of the Constitution and the Rule of Law. Thus, this study offers a robust and textually grounded framework for understanding and strengthening perpaduan within Malaysia’s complex socio-legal landscape.
7. Acknowledgements
This study did not receive any specific grant or financial support from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. The author expresses appreciation for the library and academic database resources provided by her institution, which were vital for completing this research. Additionally, the author sincerely acknowledges the foundational contributions of the scholars referenced herein, whose work serves as the basis for this article.
8. Author’s Contributions
The author was solely responsible for the conception of the study, the formulation of its theoretical framework, the doctrinal and comparative analysis, interpretation, and manuscript preparation.
9. Disclosure
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Ambo, I. A., Baba, N. M., & Idongesit, N. A. (2026). Mineralogical and Chemical Assessment of Cassiterite Ore from Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria as Potential Raw Materials for Tin Metal Extraction. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/34
1Ambo, I. Amos and 2Baba, N. Mohammed and 3Idongesit, Nnammoso Akpan*
1&2Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
3Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Health Sciences, Otukpo, Benue State, Nigeria
In the early 1970s, Nigeria held the 7th position on the world record for tin metal production and exportation, and that seems to be history now, as the nation’s economic focus is now highly concentrated on petroleum and natural gas exploration and exportation. In Plateau State, tin mining activities date back to the early 1960s. Currently, in the Du community in Jos South of the State, huge tin ore deposits are found and locally mined by indigenes with poor derivation of economic value. Thus, the objectives of this study were to investigate the elemental, chemical/mineralogical contents and tin content of the cassiterite ore of Du in Plateau State. The study retained focus on X-ray fluorescence, Flame Atomic Absorption with inductively coupled plasma-Graphite Furnace Atomizer to examine the chemical compositions of the sample and SEM for crystal structural analysis of the ore. Results of elemental analysis showed in percentage that the ore contains: 7.168%, 6.146%, 3.471%, 2.027% of tin, zirconium, iron, and titanium, respectively and 449.29, 602.5 of Na2O and K2O in parts per million. The main minerals of the ore were: 60.98% SnO2 > 8.70% SiO2 > 5.70% ZrO2 > 5.56% of Fe2O3 > 4.81% NbO > 4.07% TiO2 > 3.26% Bi2O3 > 2.99 of WO3 > 2.33% CuS2. The results reveal that the cassiterite ores contain low silica content and a significant percentage of tin and other valuable metals and are therefore suitable raw materials for utilization for the production of cassiterite concentrates and extraction of tin metal.
Over the years, in Nigeria, attention was given earlier to the agriculture and solid mineral sectors. However, with the discovery of oil minerals, the exploration of minerals such as coal, cassiterite, tantalite, etc. was abandoned due to the discovery of petroleum and natural gas. As a result of that, the development and processing of metallic ores for the extraction of valuable metals have not received adequate attention. Meanwhile, there is no doubt that, of all the naturally occurring minerals, metallic mineral ores seem to be the most abundant in the Earth’s crust compared to other mineral resources such as natural gas and petroleum, which are non-renewable sources of energy (Ebbing and Gammon, 2009). In recent times, not much has been done in terms of the mineralogy of some of the metal ores, like cassiterite, which are naturally abundant in Nigeria. This makes the processing of the ores for metal extraction difficult. For cassiterite in particular, information has revealed that there are about seventy tin-bearing minerals, of which most of the minerals occur as sulfides, and the rest as oxides, hydroxides, silicates, and stannides. Nevertheless, the most important tin mineral ore is cassiterite (SnO2), otherwise known as tin stone (Grant, 2001). Over the years, according to Idongesit et al. (2025), it has been recognized that cassiterite, as a tin oxide mineral, is typically found in high-temperature hydrothermal veins and granite pegmatites and greisen associated with other rock minerals such as granites, microgranites and quartz porphyries together with other oxides such as wolframite, columbite, tantalite, scheelite and hematite (Bowles, 2021). The minerals are formed through the geological movement of fluids and the slow, water-driven deposition of organic minerals over a long period of time, and the specific mineralogy and composition of tin ore deposits can vary widely depending on the geological and environmental conditions in which they are formed (Nesse, 2011).
Additionally, some of the key properties of tin ore (cassiterite), which contribute to its unique characteristics and uses for various industrial applications, particularly as a source of tin metal for various industrial applications, include: chemical composition, hardness, magnetic property, melting point, and refractive index, among others (Haldar, 2018). According to Bowles (2021), tin ore is primarily composed of tin dioxide (SnO2), which is an oxide mineral containing tin as the main element. However, there is increasing evidence that the ore usually contains other impurities and trace elements, such as iron, manganese, tungsten, and tantalum, which can vary depending on the specific tin ore deposit (Tapster and Bright, 2020). More so, Tapster and Bright (2020), have asserted that cassiterite (SnO2) is the most common ore phase of tin (Sn) metal and that it typically contains 1–100 µg g-1 of uranium and relatively low concentrations of lead metal in addition to other traces of elements such as lithium, tungsten, niobium, and titanium. In addition, the literature has documented that cassiterite, as an important economic ore of tin metal, is a type of polymetallic resource mineral ore that contains metals which may include: tin, tantalum, niobium, copper, and iron (Tapster and Bright, 2020). In a recent report, Bowles (2021), it has been further established that cassiterite ore usually contains other valuable metal components to include iron, manganese, titanium, and niobium, and any of the metals can substitute for Sn with a combination of divalent and pentavalent elements replacing the tetravalent Sn, following the relationship given as shown in equation (1):
Expectedly, this substitution, according to the author, is in part responsible for the darker colored cassiterite, although it is a rather unlikely but feasible possibility.
Interestingly, the structural information about cassiterite ore has been established by Bowles (2021). The natural mineralogical form, as published by the crystal data of the structural information, suggests that the elemental atoms in cassiterite are tetragonally arranged with (space group P42/mnm), and this structure has tin atoms at the corners and center of the unit cell (Figures 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0). Again, the cell dimensions have been equally identified as a = 4.73 and c = 3.18 Å, with the oxygen atoms lying in the same basal plane as the tin atoms; thus making each tin atom surrounded by six oxygen atoms at the corners of an almost regular octahedron. Additionally, Bowles’ report revealed certain properties of the ore with variations in terms of colour and shape as shown in Figure 2.0.
(1.0) (2.0)(3.0)
Figures 1.0, 2.0 & 3.0: Structure of Cassiterite Crystal Showing Tin and Oxygen Atoms (Adapted from Bowles (2021) and (WFI, 2023; Warr, 2021).
Furthermore, evidence for the existence of different forms of cassiterite has been reported by different researchers including Haldar (2018) and Bowles (2021). More commonly, cassiterites are often classed as gemstones, and Placer-mined tin, which is also called “stream tin” and it is important to note that these are silt-to-sand-size particles of cassiterite (Bowles, 2021). There is still considerable other evidence that cassiterite has been recognized to occur in various secondary forms in which it occurs as fine-grained or fibrous varieties with local names that describe the appearance, and where wood-tin is a common fibrous variety with concentric colloform bands resembling the growth rings of wood (Haldar, 2018), as shown in Figures (4.0-9.0).
(4.0) (5.0)
(6.0) (7.0)
(8.0) (9.0)
Figures 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, & 9.0: 4.0 & 5.0 are Faceted Crystal of Cassiterite Ore: Adapted from (Adam, 1998); 6.0 & 7.0 Are Crystal of Cassiterite Adapted from (King, 2022); 8.0 & 9.0 are Wood tin cassiterite, from Durango Mexico and is Cassiterite Crystals, Blue Tier Tin-Field, from Tasmania, Australia Respectively Adapted from (WFI, 2023).
With the rising cost of living, building and construction, educational materials, electricity, and health care facilities, it is noteworthy that many nations of the world have diversified their economy with a focus now on metallic ore (Idongesit et al., 2025). Furthermore, Henckens (2021) reported that cassiterite mining and tin production tripled in the 20th century, but in contrast to many other raw materials, tin production growth was linear rather than exponential; the world tin production in 2019 was 310,000 tons and a little above that value in 2020 (Figure 10.0).
Figure 10.0: Main Tin Producing Countries of the World: US Geological Survey (USGS,2020)
In Nigeria, tin ore is mined in Plateau State, with large deposits of the ore being found in Du community in Jos South Local Government Area of the state. The metal was produced in large quantities in the early seventies, before about 1957, when Nigeria provided 4 % of the world’s tin and was the 7th largest producer of tin in the world (Ogwuegbu et al., 2011; Idongesit et al., 2025). However, the nation’s economic attention has shifted, with focus now on crude oil and natural gas, presumably because it has proven to be more successful in terms of revenue accrued to the Nigerian government. Unfortunately, there have been a number of attempts in the past to develop other mineral sectors in Nigeria, particularly the solid mineral sector, but such efforts have not yielded the expected growth of the sector. At the moment, it has become increasingly worrisome that Nigeria which reported of becoming a rapidly growing source of tin-in-concentrate in 2017, with tin ore exported in the first four months of the year at totals of importing country’s data at 2,967 tons (gross weight) or an estimated 2,000 tons of tin contained based on a 67 % average tin content with the reported growth as shown in Figure 11.0 (NGSA, 2017), is now grabbling with unclear shipments quantity.
Figure 11.0: Chart of Nigerian Tin Metal Exports Between 2014 and 2017: (NGSA, 2017)
Therefore, the current status of Nigeria in tin production is lamentable, and the situation has continued to necessitate ongoing research and innovation, which are expected to be supported by the government’s political will. To navigate the complex mineral processing situations through the application of emerging modern scientific and technological approaches requires several steps, and thus, there is an urgent need for government at all levels to rise to the occasion by utilizing available scientific research information for adequate and effective utilization of Nigeria’s solid minerals sector to explore minerals like tin for national economic benefits. Meanwhile, globally, considerable interest in tin ore has continued to grow, with the focus being on the application of modern techniques for tin ore deposits assessment, mining, and tin metal extraction. Nevertheless, it is necessary to understand that humans have extracted tin from cassiterite ores for thousands of years, since it is relatively simple to refine, as tin was one of the first metals that humans learned to use during the Bronze Age (Hong, 2015; Fosu et al., 2024).
Tin metal and tin-related processed products like tin cans (Cumhur, 2012), have found several applications, with many examples of tin products such as solder, tin plating alloy wire, tin chemicals, brass and bronze, specialized alloys, PVC stabilizers, and Li-ion batteries being used in our everyday life. Additionally, Süli (2019) and Warr ((2021)indicated that tin is essential for producing solder on PCBs and in packaging applications, and many other uses, such as in the manufacture of biocides and fungicides. With the extensive applications of tin metal, cassiterite ore is essential and beneficial to human life and a reliable source of minerals for industrial advancement (Idongesit et al., 2025). Furthermore, it is not probable to assert that cassiterite ore mining and processing have been conducted for thousands of years, with tin metal continuing to play a very significant role in human history, particularly in the production of bronze and in copper alloys (Fosu et al., 2024; Idongesit et al., 2025). In addition to these, it was widely used in ancient civilizations for tools, weapons, and in artwork (Klein and Philpotts, 2013; Hong, 2015; Fosu et al., 2024). It is important to note that the tin market is undoubtedly driven by global demand, supply and production trends, and various applications across industries (Idongesit et al., 2025).
However, despite its usefulness, cassiterite ore has continued to receive little attention regardless of its common occurrence and economic importance and surprisingly, the mineralogical information on cassiterite ores is generally scarce and in Nigeria in particular where tin mining activities have been known to have existed in Plateau state for over two decades, there is almost no available substantial information on cassiterite ores mined in the state (Idongesit et al., 2025). Except, it is striking that most of the studies conducted in that area are on tailings for the extraction of other metals like iron and copper. Again, although commercially important quantities of cassiterite occur in placer deposits in tailings, however, there is also considerable other evidence that cassiterite also occurs in granite and pegmatite-associated deposits (Idongesit et al., 2025). Meanwhile, Abubakre and co-workers have reported on exploring the potential of tailings of Bukuru Jos South cassiterite Deposit in Plateau State, Nigeria for the Production of Iron ore Pellets (Abubakre et al., 2009). Furthermore, in another classic study, Ogwuegbu and co-workers have reported on the mineralogical characterization of Kuru cassiterite ore in Plateau State by SEM-EDS, XRD, and ICP Techniques (Ogwuegbu et al., 2011). Other available reports on tin mining activities in Jos, Plateau include that of Cooper (2021), and that of Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA) records volume 14, under the Ministry of Mines and Steel Development (NGSA, 2017). Very recently, Idongesit et al. (2025) have reported the study of the eco-friendly chemical leaching of cassiterite ore obtained from Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria, in acidic media for tin extraction.
Essentially, as the global demand for tin metal has received attention quite out of proportion to its general importance, there is considerable interest in other sources of tin metal for the possible extraction of tin. In that regard, Bunnakkha and Jarupisitthorn (2012), reported the extraction of tin from Hardhead by oxidation and fusion with sodium hydroxide, and equally recently, Yuma et al. (2020), have reported hydrometallurgical extraction of tin from cassiterite ore in Kalima (DR Congo) by alkaline fusion with a eutectic mixture of alkali hydroxides (sodium and potassium). More recently, it has been recognized that it might become a serious issue for original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to meet up the annual high rising demand for tin for production of wires, in the coating of electronic enclosures and housings (Süli, 2019; Idongesit et al., 2025), and the idea still persists in some quarters, perhaps because little efforts have been directed to cassiterite ores analysis and provision of mineralogical information for reasonable extraction of tin metal. Interestingly too, as this view is still persisting for some time, it has caused many other researchers to spring up in an attempt, like this very particular study, to provide useful information that would guide, in general, the extraction of tin metal from cassiterite ores.
Meanwhile, it should however, be mentioned that the desirability of human to effectively exploit mineral resources like cassiterite ores and maximize their full economic benefits could be accomplished through the use of modern technologies based on available information about such minerals. Therefore, it is pertinent to note that the identification and characterization of mineral compositions of mineral ores is of fundamental importance in the development of technologies and operations of mining and mineral processing systems (Khairulnizan, 2022), and it is equally very important in choosing suitable technologies and flowsheet that are less cost, eco-friendly and minimize greenhouse gases emission for the recovering of the constituent metals (Idongesit et al., 2025). Additionally, and more importantly, it is also critical in optimizing the actual technological conditions of either pyrometallurgical plant or hydrometallurgical methodologies for improving both operational performance and expected outputs (Khairulnizan, 2022; Idongesit et al., 2025). According to Khairulnizan (2022) and Idongesit et al. (2025), the growing need for detailed information about the mineralogical composition of a mineral deposit therefore determines that mineral characterization studies form an integral and often critical part of investigations of mineral ore deposits.
Interestingly, it is imperative to further establish that it has been well recognized that the knowledge of mineralogical or chemical composition, ores’ particle sizes, morphology and elemental association with other minerals in mineral ores like cassiterite is therefore expected to provide insights and information on the characteristics, type, nature and amount of minerals and elements present within the ore at different locations that would permit an assessment and determination of the optimal processing route for its constituent minerals/metals extraction (Khairulnizan, 2022; Idongesit et al., 2025). In addition, various researchers have evaluated different mineral ores and have provided evidence that a rather unlikely but feasible possibility of mineral ore deposits located even in a particular geographical location do not have the same mineralogical and elemental compositions due to different processes of formation, soil mineral compositions and conditions, and different geological locations and disposition (Anthony et al., 2005; Idongesit et al., 2025). Based on the foregoing, although it is true that all mineral ore deposits at a particular location in a community or state or country or continent may have different mineralogical compositions, it is also true that the different mineralogical compositions can be ascertained through proper experimental mineralogical assessment like this kind of ours. It can be argued that more commonly, the preceding observations are often used as the rationale to assess mineral ores so as to decide and establish the gainfulness of such ores using modern technologies for a specific deposit to ascertain the various applications and value chain addition.
Clearly, it is somewhat ironic that despite the abundant deposits of cassiterite ores in Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria, and increased global interest in the cassiterite ores and with the global high demand for tin metal in the telecommunication industry for soldering work (Idongesit et al., 2025), cassiterite mineralogical assessment has received very little attention. In fact, at the moment, there is a drought of information on the mineralogical/chemical and elemental composition of cassiterite ore deposits in the Du community in Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria. Therefore, with the global increasingly scarce supplies of cassiterite concentrates and tin metal, there is an urgent and growing need for cassiterite ore deposits to be adequately assessed in terms of their mineralogical and chemical compositions in order to ascertain their suitability for the preparation of cassiterite concentrates and the extraction of tin metal.
Given the above, this study is aimed at not only assessing the mineralogy of the cassiterite ore but also its elemental composition for possible processing into concentrates and tin and other metals for value chain addition that would enhance economic, industrial, and technological advancement of Nigerian society in particular and the African continent in general. In general, the purpose of this study is to gain some understanding of the mineralogical composition of the cassiterite ore for the extraction of tin metal, and it is reasonable to expect that this study, as vital as it is, has obtained accurate mineralogical, physico-chemical properties, elemental compositions, and the percentage tin content of the cassiterite ore mined from Du. The mineralogical composition and elemental characteristics of Du Cassiterite ore deposit were performed by a combination of different instrumental methodologies, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Graphite Furnace Atomizer and flame Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) to examine the chemical compositions of the samples and SEM for crystal structural analysis. The rationale and the general impression are that it would be of great value if the results of this study would be carefully used over the coming years and we equally believe that these results will become increasingly widespread for a variety of mineralogical studies to add a further tool to the arsenal of parameters and information available for mineralogical study of cassiterite ores in particular and other mineral ores in general.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The study area is located at Du, a local village in Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State of Nigeria. There are ongoing mining activities for tin in the area, with active mining sites where cassiterite ore (SnO2), used for this work, was collected. Geographically, Du in Jos South of Plateau State (9.8965o N, 8.8583o E) is in the North central zone of Nigeria, and the occupations of the local community are predominantly subsistence farming, hunting, and local mining. The tribal dwellers of Du community in Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State are typical the Berom tribe who are mainly peasant farmers and while Figure 12.0 is the map of Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State showing Du, Figures 13a 13b, 13c, 13d, 13e and 13f show the plates of snapped images of mining sites in the area and Figure 14.0 shows the plates of snapped images the cassiterite ores.
Figure 12.0: Map of Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State, Showing Du (adapted from Research Gate).
(13a) (13b)
(13c) (13d)
(13e) (13f)
Figures 13a, 13b, 13c, 13d, 13e & 13f: Plates of Snapped Images of Cassiterite Ore Mining Sites at Du, Jos South, Plateau State, Nigeria, Showing Miners on Mining Activities.
Figure 14.0: Plates of Images of Cassiterite Ores Mined from Du, Jos South, Plateau State
Sample Collection
Up to 5.0 kg of the crude cassiterite ore was purchased from the local miners who are also the indigen of the community at five different active mining sites located at a distance apart. The samples were collected in sterilized polyethylene bags and were transported to the laboratory prior to analysis.
Sample Preparation
Crushing and Grinding
1.0 kg cassiterite tin ore (SnO2) was crushed into 1-inch size using a laboratory jaw crusher (10- 300TPH concrete crusher, China), and then followed by homogenization and sieving, and then divided into two equal portions. One portion was further crushed to less than (-2 mm) particles using jaw and roller crushers (2PG series, 350 x 350Jpeq, Japan). The samples were then riffled to obtain a representative sample by using a Jones Riffler according to the descriptions in Idongesit et al. (2025) and Soltaniet al. (2021). The representative sample was, in addition, milled into a powder form by using a laboratory ball mill, and the well-prepared powder form of the sample was ready for mineralogical analysis and leaching experiments.
Analysis
SEM and XRF Analysis
A portion of the powdered ore samples (20.0 g) was analyzed for structural arrangement of particles in the ore using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and for optical mineralogical properties. For the XRF analysis, fine powder ore samples were mixed with a binding aid and pressed to produce homogeneous sample pellets, and thereafter the samples were subjected to XRF analysis (Soltaniet al., 2021).
Thermochemical Tests
Thermal tests were performed by heating 25.0 g of the cassiterite ore powder mixed with fine crystals of K2SO4 in the ratio of 2:3 to high temperatures (2000 °C) using a muffle electric furnace (SX-5-12; PC:22070222/2000 °C), and the melting behavior of the ore was carefully observed within four hours.
Density Measurement
This measurement was performed using a density balance and also with a relative density glass bottle (50 ml/20 °C) in order to determine the density of the ore, and this has provided additional information for the characterization of the ore. Additionally, Archimedes’ principal method was further utilized to confirm the density of the ore using this relationship.
Density = =
Magnetism Test
Magnetism property tests of the cassiterite ore were performed using a bar magnet and were further confirmed using a magnetic separator.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1.0: Result of Physico-Chemical Properties of Cassiterite Ore
Property
Result
Colour
Greyish black
Hardness
6.72
Thermal property (Melting Point) Density
1698 oC/3,088 oF/1971 K 6.52
Specific GravityLoss of Ignition (LOI) Magnetic Property Lustre
6.52 2200 Non-magnetic High metallic lustre
The results of the physico-chemical properties of the ore (Table 1.0) show that the ore is heavily dense which is in agreement with the reports of many other researchers in the literature who have reported that cassiterite ore has a density within the range of 6.4 to 7.1 g/cm3. Additionally, the tin ore has a high thermal property (melting temperature) of 1698 oC/3,088 oF/1971 K which is in agreement with the report by Henckens (2021), (1720 °C). The result of the magnetic property suggests that the ore possesses non-magnetic behavior with dense and black-grayish in appearance in colour.
The result of the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of the ore and the weight loss observed under the temperature range between 210 °C and 250 °C. It is believed that it may be due to the loss of physically absorbed water or the evaporation of adsorbed water from the surface of the ore particles. The weight loss was also observed between 1175 ◦C and 1250 ◦C is believed to be mainly due to the decomposition of the K2SO4 as the salt decomposes at temperatures above 1150 oC (Wang et al., 2019). The weight loss observed under the temperature range between 1600 ◦C and 1650 ◦C may be due to the decomposition of the ore and the steady weight loss under the temperature ranges between 1650 ◦C and 1698 ◦C with an endothermic curve noticed within the temperatures as shown in (Figure 15.0)
Figure 15.0: Thermochemical Behaviour of Cassiterite Ore
Table 2.0: Result of Crystal Properties of Cassiterite Ore
Property
Result
Unit Cell Space group Refractive Index Dispersion Crystal System Crystal Class
a = 4.7384(4)Å, c = 3.1872(1) Å; Z = 2.0 P42/mnm nω = 2.00; nε = 2.095 0.069 Tetragonal Tetragonal dipyramidal (4/mmm); (4/m 2/m 2/m)
The crystallographic information of the ore shown in Table 2.0 indicates the general impression that the ore crystal system is tetragonal with cubic crystal sides (a(Å)/c(Å) (in Armstrong unit) as a = 4.7384(4)Å, c = 3.1872(1) Å. Interestingly, also, a noteworthy feature of the data in (Table 2.0) is the space group (P42/mnm) and the contribution number to one cell (Z = 2), which further confirms the crystal information.
The result of the mineralogical composition of the ore presented in Table 3.0 shows that the ore is rich in tin oxide content amounting to 60.98 % of the oxide. As shown in (Table 3.0), the ore is low in silica content of about 8.70 %. The low silica content will lead to low consumption of processing chemicals and will enhance the availability of the metals for processing. From the mineralogical standpoint, the total percentage of minerals detected is 100 %, including loss of ignition (LOI) at (> 1000 °C), and the total percentage of minerals identified with a significant amount in the ore is 99.05 %. The traditional explanation for this is that those are the principal minerals of the ore. The ore is made up of two major types of minerals, oxides and sulphides. The oxide minerals are more abundant due to the mineralization process and the available Earth’s minerals, and the geological location. The minerals identified in their order of abundance are: SiO2 > ZrO2 > Fe2O3 > NbO > TiO2 > Bi2O3 > WO3 > CuS2. From the result, the ore has a significant percentage of tin metal oxide which can be economically exploited for the extraction of an appreciable percentage of tin metal. Contrary to the unequivocal assertion that only stanniferous pegmatites cassiterite ore formed in the areas where mineralization is associated with deep-seated intrusions of acid granites are the type of cassiterite ores mined in the Republic of Congo, and Nigeria (Khairulnizan, 2022), it is equally worthwhile to become aware of the occurrence of Placer-mined tin which is also called “stream tin” in Du, Plateau State, Nigeria and it is important also to note that these are silt-to-sand-size particles of cassiterite ores (Bowles, 2021) as shown in Figures 14.0.
Table 4.0: Result of Elemental Composition of the Cassiterite Ore
Element
Percentage Composition
Sb
0.00
Sn
7.168
Cd
0.00
Pd
0.00
Ag
0.022
Bal
75.194
Mo
0.00
Nb
2.976
Zr
6.146
Sr
0.003
Rb
0.00
Bi
0.542
As
0.053
Se
0.187
Au
0.00
Pt
0.00
Pb
0.00
W
1.176
Zn
0.00
Cu
0.665
Ni
0.00
Co
0.032
Fe
3.471
Mn
0.257
Cr
0.015
V
0.010
Ti
2.027
Ca
0.00
K
0.055
The result in Table 4.0 shows the XRF elemental composition of the ore. The ore contains 7.168 % of free tin metal, 6.146 % of zirconium metal, 3.471 % of iron and 2.976 % of niobium. Other metals with significant percentage abundance include titanium (2.027 %), tungsten (1.176 %). Fundamentally, the ore has a high abundance of boron aluminide (Bal) mineral (75.194 %). The elements identified in their order of concentrations are Bal > Sn > Zr > Fe > Nb > Ti > W > Cu >Bi > Mn > Se (Table 5). The ore contained some other elements that include: K (0.055), As (0.053), Co (0.032), Ag (0.022), Cr (0.015), V (0.010), Sr (0.003). From the results obtained, however, boron aluminide (Bal) is found naturally in the ore and the alloyed substance is of interest because of its usefulness and application in aerospace. As shown in Table 4.0, the cassiterite ore has tin, zirconium and iron in significant concentrations for consideration in terms of processing for application. The presence of a high percentage of boron aluminide (Bal) in the ores, as shown in Figure 16.0, suggests that the cassiterite ore from Du in Plateau State, Nigeria, is strategic for exploitation for prospective applications in both energy and aerospace industries, in addition to the solid mineral industry. Meanwhile, although it is unclear what forms the alloy in association with the ores and with our meager information in that regard, we will suggest that further studies be carried out on the cassiterite ores.
Figure 16.0: A Chart of Percentage Elemental Composition of the Cassiterite Ore
Result of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
The result of the scanning electron microscope is presented in Figure 17.0. The image shows the distribution of the minerals in the ore which are finely distributed in the ore as shown in the image. This will be used to evaluate the extent of leaching of the ore. Additionally, the SEM result in (Figure 17.0) shows the image of cassiterite ore as the arrangement of fine particles within the ore crystallographic structure. The cassiterite mineral is irregularly spread through the pegmatite body as large black or dark brown dipyramidal crystals, which agrees with the assertion made in Khairulnizan (2022).
Figure 17.0: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) of Cassiterite Ore Obtained by Thermo Fisher Scientific Machine, 2 Radcliff Road, Tewksbury, Ma 01876, USA; XL3-98293.
CONCLUSION
The cardinal focus of this study was to use various instrumental methodologies to analyze cassiterite ore mined from Du in Jos South, Plateau, Nigeria to characterize the ore in terms of its mineralogical and elemental compositions and to ascertain whether the ores are rich in tin and other metals for possible commercial industrial extraction. Certainly, the recognition of the existence of Placer cassiterite ores in Du deposits is not surprising as such has been mentioned in the literature as being in Jos, Plateau State. Meanwhile, the general impression of the results of the mineralogical composition of the cassiterite ore is that the ore is rich in tin oxide (SnO2) to the tone of 60.98 %, followed by silica (8.70 %), zircon dioxide (5.70 % of ZrO2), hematite (5.56 % of Fe2O3), niobium oxide (4.81 % of NbO) and titania (4.07 % of TiO2). A noteworthy feature of cassiterite ore, as indicated by mineralogical data, is that the ore is approximately 97.61% rich in oxide minerals, while the remaining 2.39% is comprised of sulphide minerals. Another exciting conclusion drawn about the ore is that its tin metal content of 7.168 % is moderately good and adequate for large-scale or commercial extraction. Again, it is also crystal clear and reasonable to agree that the ore is moderately good in content of other metals, such as 6.146 % of Zr, 3.471 % of Fe, 2.976 % of Nb and 2.027 % of Ti. Additionally, we the investigators, have argued that the discovery of the existence of naturally occurring boron aluminide (Bal) in the ore which has not been reported elsewhere in the literature, has made this work novel.
At this point, it is worthwhile, after all, to believe that the above detailed explanations suggest that the assessment of the inherent mineralogical composition of the cassiterite ores mined from Du community in Jos South of Plateau State, Nigeria, reveals that the ores contain low silica content and significant percentage of tin metal and other valuable metals and are therefore suitable raw materials for utilization for production of cassiterite concentrates and extraction of tin metal. We therefore call on the governments of Nigeria at all levels (Idongesit et al., 2025b) (Local government, Plateau State government and the Federal Ministry of Solid Minerals), private industries, foreign investors and individual manufacturers to avail themselves with this information to explore the possible maximum exploitation of the natural abundance mineral resources of the area for economic benefit of Plateau State and Nigeria in particular and African continent in general.
SUGGESTION
We would like to suggest that further studies be carried out on the cassiterite ore deposits at Du in Jos, South Plateau State, Nigeria, particularly for the extraction of boron aluminide (Bal) that is found to be naturally occurring in a large percentage of 75.194 % of the ores.
AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS
Professor Ambo, I. Amos, conceptualized and composed the topic, supervised the research work, and read-proof the paper’s manuscript. Professor Baba, N. Mohammed, co-supervised the work and the drafting of the paper’s manuscript, while Idongesit Nnammonso Akpan performed the tasks of carrying out the research work, drafting the manuscript, typesetting, editing, and proper referencing, as well as the production of the final draft of the paper’s manuscript.
FUNDING
This research work was not sponsored by any internal or external institutional-based sponsors or National or International organizations.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data backing up the findings of this investigation will be made readily accessible by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
CONSENT AND ETHICAL APPROVAL
Since all the sources of information used in this investigation, which are in the public domain, have been duly acknowledged, and additional ethical approval and consent were obtained while taking the snapped shots pictures of the local miners, therefore, there was no ethical violation in this work.
DECLARATIONS OF CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors of this paper declare that they have no known existed competing interest during and after the production of the paper.
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Tiranga Game has emerged as a captivating platform that blends excitement with strategic thinking. Inspired by vibrant colors and simple predictions, it offers users an engaging way to test their intuition and enjoy interactive challenges. Named after the iconic tricolor, it resonates with a sense of national pride while providing a modern digital experience. This game stands out for its accessibility, making it suitable for beginners and seasoned players alike. Whether you’re looking for a quick session or a deeper dive into prediction strategies, Tiranga Game delivers a seamless blend of fun and mental stimulation.
In today’s fast-paced world, digital games like this one provide a refreshing break, allowing users to immerse themselves in colorful scenarios. The platform’s design emphasizes ease of use, with intuitive interfaces that guide players through every step. From the moment you log in, the vibrant visuals and straightforward mechanics draw you in, creating an environment where creativity and quick decision-making thrive. As we delve deeper, we’ll explore what makes Tiranga Game a standout choice for entertainment seekers.
Understanding the Core Concept
At its heart, Tiranga Game revolves around color prediction, where players anticipate outcomes based on patterns and probabilities. The primary colors involved are red, green, and violet, each representing different possibilities in the game’s rounds. This mechanic draws from basic observational skills, encouraging users to analyze trends and make informed choices. Unlike complex simulations, the simplicity here is key—predict the next color, and see how your choice aligns with the result.
The game also incorporates elements like number predictions and size comparisons, such as big or small, adding layers of variety. These features ensure that no two sessions feel the same, keeping the experience fresh and dynamic. Players can engage in solo modes or explore community-driven challenges, fostering a sense of progression. The underlying algorithm ensures fairness, with random generations that mimic real-world unpredictability, making each prediction a thrilling test of foresight.
What sets Tiranga Game apart is its educational undertone. By participating, users inadvertently sharpen their analytical abilities, learning about sequences and likelihoods in a playful manner. It’s not just about the immediate outcome but building a mindset for better decision-making in everyday life. This conceptual foundation makes it more than a pastime—it’s a tool for cognitive enhancement wrapped in entertainment.
How to Get Started
Getting involved with Tiranga Game is straightforward and user-friendly. First, users need to access the platform through its dedicated app or website. Registration requires a mobile number for verification, ensuring a secure and personalized entry point. Once registered, a simple login process grants access to the dashboard, where all features are neatly organized.
Newcomers are greeted with tutorials that explain the basics, from selecting colors to understanding round durations. These guides are concise yet comprehensive, helping users build confidence quickly. The app is available for both Android and iOS devices, with smooth performance across various screen sizes. Regular updates keep the interface modern, incorporating user feedback to enhance navigation.
For those new to prediction games, starting with practice modes is recommended. These allow experimentation without pressure, perfect for honing skills. As comfort grows, transitioning to standard rounds becomes natural. The platform’s 24/7 customer support is a boon, offering assistance via chat or guides for any queries. This supportive setup ensures that everyone, regardless of tech-savviness, can enjoy the game fully.
Key Features and Gameplay Mechanics
Tiranga Game boasts a rich array of features that elevate the player experience. The color prediction core is complemented by additional modes like Win Go, which involves timed challenges, and Aviator, a dynamic progression-based activity. Rummy enthusiasts will find familiar card elements integrated, while color trading adds a strategic twist to predictions.
One standout feature is the referral system, where inviting friends unlocks shared experiences and collaborative play. This social aspect transforms solitary sessions into group adventures, enhancing enjoyment through interaction. The platform also includes expert-guided sessions via integrated channels, providing tips from seasoned players to improve prediction accuracy.
Advanced tools, such as AI-assisted predictions, offer insights into potential patterns without spoiling the fun. These are optional, allowing users to rely on their instincts or leverage technology for an edge. Visual elements are stunning, with high-quality graphics that make colors pop and animations that celebrate successful predictions. Audio cues add immersion, creating a multisensory environment.
Customization options let players tailor themes and difficulty levels, ensuring the game adapts to individual preferences. Whether you prefer fast-paced rounds or thoughtful deliberations, the mechanics support diverse playstyles. This flexibility is a major draw, keeping engagement high over extended periods.
Benefits of Playing Tiranga Game
Engaging with Tiranga Game offers numerous advantages beyond mere entertainment. Cognitively, it boosts pattern recognition and probability assessment, skills transferable to professional and personal scenarios. Regular play can improve focus and quick thinking, as decisions must often be made under time constraints.
Socially, the platform fosters connections. Through referrals and community features, users build networks, sharing strategies and celebrating achievements together. This communal vibe adds a layer of motivation, turning individual pursuits into collective triumphs.
On a personal level, it’s a stress reliever. The colorful interface and satisfying prediction successes provide a positive distraction from daily routines. Many users report feeling more relaxed after sessions, attributing it to the game’s rhythmic flow. Additionally, the educational components subtly teach about randomness and strategy, making it a subtle learning tool.
Accessibility is another benefit—play anytime, anywhere, with minimal requirements. This convenience fits modern lifestyles, allowing short bursts of fun during commutes or breaks. Overall, Tiranga Game enriches users’ lives by combining thrill with skill-building in an approachable format.
Building a Community Around Predictions
The community aspect of Tiranga Game is vibrant and inclusive. Players from across regions connect through shared interests in color dynamics and strategic forecasting. Forums and integrated chats allow discussions on techniques, creating a knowledge-sharing ecosystem.
Events and challenges periodically unite the community, offering themed predictions that encourage participation. These foster camaraderie, with leaderboards highlighting top performers and inspiring others. New users often find mentors in experienced players, accelerating their learning curve.
The platform’s emphasis on positive interactions ensures a welcoming environment. Moderation tools maintain respect, while features like group predictions promote teamwork. This sense of belonging enhances loyalty, with many users returning for the social bonds as much as the gameplay.
Beyond the app, enthusiasts form external groups to discuss trends, further expanding the community’s reach. This organic growth underscores Tiranga Game’s appeal as a hub for like-minded individuals passionate about prediction arts.
Tips and Strategies for Success
To excel in the Tiranga Game, adopting effective strategies is essential. Start by observing patterns over multiple rounds—note recurring colors and adjust predictions accordingly. Avoid impulsive choices; instead, base decisions on observed trends.
Diversify your approaches: mix color predictions with number or size elements to spread risks and explore varieties. Utilize practice modes to test theories without consequences, refining techniques before main sessions.
Stay updated with platform guides and AI tools for advanced insights. These can highlight subtle probabilities, giving an analytical boost. Time management is crucial—allocate sessions to avoid fatigue, ensuring sharp focus.
Engage with the community for shared wisdom. Veteran tips often reveal overlooked strategies, like timing predictions during peak patterns. Patience is key; success builds gradually through consistent play and learning from outcomes.
Remember, enjoyment is paramount. Approach each round with curiosity, turning predictions into a joyful exploration rather than a rigid task. With these strategies, users can maximize their experience and achieve satisfying results.
The Future of Tiranga Game
Looking ahead, Tiranga Game is poised for exciting evolutions. Planned updates include new prediction modes, enhanced graphics, and deeper social integrations. These will expand the platform’s scope, attracting even more users.
Innovation in AI will offer smarter assistance, while maintaining the core fun. Cross-platform play could enable seamless experiences across devices, broadening accessibility. Community-driven content, like user-created challenges, may further personalize the game.
As technology advances, virtual reality elements could immerse players in colorful worlds, elevating predictions to new heights. The focus remains on user satisfaction, with feedback shaping developments.
In essence, Tiranga Game’s future promises continued growth, blending tradition with modernity for enduring appeal.
Conclusion
Tiranga Game encapsulates the essence of engaging digital entertainment through its color prediction framework. With intuitive features, community spirit, and cognitive benefits, it offers a multifaceted experience. Whether for casual fun or strategic depth, it delivers value in every session. As players continue to explore its vibrant world, the game stands as a testament to innovative play in the digital age. Dive in and discover the thrill of accurate predictions today.
Earning extra money no longer requires special skills, upfront investment, or long working hours. For many people, one of the easiest ways to add a little extra income is by participating in online surveys. While surveys won’t make you rich, they can help cover everyday expenses, build savings slowly, or fund small personal goals—if approached the right way.
The key is understanding how survey platforms operate and how to use them efficiently without wasting time.
Why Companies Pay for Opinions
Businesses spend billions each year trying to understand consumer behavior. Before launching a product, changing pricing, or redesigning a service, they want real feedback from real people. Online survey platforms exist to make this process easier by sourcing opinions from everyday consumers.
As a participant, you’re essentially trading your perspective and time for compensation. The work is simple, requires no technical background, and can be done from almost anywhere.
What Online Surveys Are Really Good For
Online surveys work best for:
Filling idle time productively
Earning small but consistent side income
Low-effort work alongside a primary job or studies
They are not suitable if you’re looking for fast money or full-time income. Understanding this upfront prevents frustration and unrealistic expectations.
How Much Can You Expect to Earn?
Most surveys pay modestly. Short surveys may pay under a dollar, while longer or niche-based surveys may pay a few dollars more. Occasionally, you’ll find higher-paying opportunities such as research panels or testing studies, but those are less frequent.
Your earnings depend on:
How often you check for surveys
Your location, age, profession, and interests
How many platforms you’re registered on
Some user profiles are in higher demand, which increases invitations—but this is something you can’t control.
Picking Legitimate Survey Sites
Choosing the right platforms makes a huge difference. Reliable survey websites share a few common traits:
Clear payout rules
Transparent payment methods
No upfront fees
Positive user feedback
Avoid sites that promise unrealistic daily income or ask for sensitive personal data unrelated to payments.
One platform that is often mentioned positively by experienced users is pinecone research, mainly due to consistent payouts and fewer disqualifications. That said, relying on just one platform limits your earning potential—diversification is essential.
How to Increase Your Chances of Qualifying
Many surveys start with screening questions. If your answers don’t match what the company is looking for, you’ll be disqualified. While this is normal, you can reduce wasted time by:
Keeping your profile updated
Answering demographic questions honestly
Avoiding contradictory responses across platforms
Accuracy improves matching and leads to fewer disqualifications over time.
Developing a Smarter Survey Routine
Instead of randomly checking sites, treat surveys like a system:
Dedicate short, specific time blocks
Use one email address exclusively for survey invites
Prioritize surveys with better pay-to-time ratios
This approach keeps surveys from feeling intrusive or overwhelming.
Payments: What You Should Know
Survey earnings are usually paid via PayPal, digital wallets, or gift cards. Some platforms process payments instantly once you reach a minimum amount, while others operate on fixed payout cycles.
Gift cards may sometimes offer slightly higher value, but cash payouts provide more flexibility. Understanding each platform’s payout policy helps avoid unnecessary delays or confusion.
Mistakes That Reduce Earnings
Many people unknowingly sabotage their accounts. Common mistakes include:
Speeding through surveys
Creating multiple accounts on one platform
Providing inconsistent profile details
Survey companies monitor response quality closely. Poor-quality responses can result in permanent bans, even if you’ve already accumulated earnings.
Higher-Paying Alternatives Within Survey Platforms
Once you gain experience, you may unlock better opportunities such as:
Focus groups
Product testing
Mobile app usability studies
Long-term research diaries
These pay significantly more than standard surveys and often require fewer participants.
Tracking What’s Worth Your Time
Not all survey platforms are equal. Tracking your time and earnings helps you:
Identify high-performing sites
Drop low-paying or unreliable platforms
Improve your effective hourly rate
This data-driven approach ensures you spend time where it actually pays.
Taiwo, N. B., Bert-Okonkwor, C. B. N., Mbadugha, L. C., & Fadumo, O. D. (2026). An Examination of the strategies for Effective Material Management in Building Construction Sites in Auchi, Estako Local Government, Edo State. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 22–38. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/31
Nkechi Benedicta Taiwo1, Chiagozie Bertrand Nonso Bert-Okonkwor1, Lynda Chinwendu Mbadugha2 and Oluwatayomi Daniel Fadumo1
Affliation
1.Department of Building, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka-Anambra State.
2.Department of Architecture , Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka- Anambra State.
A lot of problems have been known to confront material management in building construction sites in Auchi, Estako local government, Edo state; one of the key issues is adoption of improper material management practices that don’t take care of material requirements, vendor evaluation, purchasing, handling, storage and site distribution. This study therefore examines strategies for effective material management in the study area with a view to enhancing successful project delivery. This study adopted a mixed survey design approach (quantitative survey) in accordance with the research objectives. The sampling techniques adopted for the study were multi-stage sampling for non-probabilistic samples, whereas purposive sampling was used to select the area (Auchi). Overall, the findings indicate moderate adoption of project-decided material management practices, with greater emphasis on conventional methods rather than modern-technology-driven approaches; Stock and Waste Control (3.91), Just-in-Time Method (JIT) (3.80), Warehousing Management (3.54) etc.are some of the existing practices. The study identifies the need for a formal material management system (3.39) as the most effective measure for improving material management on construction sites. This underscores the importance of structured and possibly digital systems for tracking, monitoring, and controlling materials. Other highly ranked measures include material scheduling for contractors (3.36), training of management and staff (3.34), and effective site supervision and administration (3.30). Overall, the study concludes that the right selection of appropriate material management practice is a fundamental aspect of successful building construction project execution. Poor management of materials leads to cost overruns, time delays, and reduced quality, while proper choice of management practices ensures smooth project flow, reduced wastage, and improved profitability. Based on these findings , the study recommends that the selection of a material management practice should be based on the merits of the selection, not just on familiarity. The findings emphasize systemic, managerial, and capacity-building solutions over isolated site-level controls.
Keywords: Material management, building construction sites, material management strategies, construction professionals, construction industry
1.0 Introduction
Building is a form of shelter, and its construction is an ancient human activity which evolved as the need for shelter became an important means of survival. (Ashiwini, 2023). Constructed shelters were the means by which human beings were able to adopt themselves to a wide variety of climates and other global species. However, Akadiri(2015), emphasizes that building construction is costly and requires huge resources to erect them. This factor has made building construction a Herculean task which has attracted the interest of professionals (e.g. builders, architects, civil engineers etc.) as the most effective means of managing building construction. Consequently, Tunji-Olayemi, Emetere and Afolabi (2017) state that to successfully erect a project, a number of issues arise as regards the material usage. The study further emphasizes the critical role that efficient material management plays in enhancing project performance and sustainability. Material management is a process that coordinates planning, assessing the requirements, sourcing, purchasing, transportation, storing and controlling materials, minimizing the wastage and optimizing the profitability by reducing the cost of materials (Chetna, 2011). The result of improper handling and managing material on site during a construction process will influence the total project cost, time and quality (Ashwini, 2013). The problem of material management is one of the key issues facing construction sites in developing countries, as discovered by many researchers. Okolie, Ngwu, and Ezeokonkwo (2015) explain that the activities identified in the supply channel (the sourcing and transmission of purchase orders to control of material wastage) are considered key to material management because they primarily affect the economy, effectiveness of material movement, productivity, optimization of profit and reduction of material cost. Presently, building materials are poorly managed in the study area, thereby resulting in a lot of abandoned building projects. The use of the traditional material management practice often takes care of material requirements, vendor evaluation and purchasing, while details of handling, storage and site distribution are left to be decided on site. There are other forms of material management systems that enable that material to be planned, ordered, delivered and handled while recognizing the cost associated with late ordering, wastage and poor handling facilities on construction sites in Auchi. Building professionals losses in productivity from the wrong choice of material management practice, which will eventually affect profit margins.
A lot of problems have been identified confronting effective material management; Okolie, Ngwu, and Ezeokonkwo (2015) explain that certain activities in the supply channel (the sourcing and transmission of purchase orders up to control of material wastage) often affect material management in terms of economy, material movement, productivity, profit and material cost. The study therefore recommends proper execution and control of standard materials delivered within time, budget and doesn’t compromise quality. The increasing cost of erecting a building as a result of poor material management practices during the construction process is worrisome. There is concern among building construction practitioners and professionals that the inherent dangers of poor management of materials in building construction affect the quality of building. (Kadiri, 2025). Most of the time, the contractor finds himself not meeting up with the budget because of lack of materials. The human cost is usually associated with a poorly delivered building and the cost of reconstruction and managing it is usually un_quantifiable. The challenges both have implications in building delivery and building management practices, which has prompted continuous research into their causes. Also, Akadiri (2015) study on understanding the barriers affecting the selection of sustainable materials in building projects only emphasized barriers that affect the selection of sustainable materials in building projects without highlighting the consequences of the use of such materials in both the project delivery and the safety of the project. This study therefore examines strategies to minimize these challenges and enhance effective material management practices on construction sites in Auchi. The research work is of immense benefit to future researchers and professionals in the field of building construction as a reference material for material management, and provides a cost-effective solution that ensures timely completion of projects and eliminates project abandonment.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2 1 Discussing Existing Material Management Practices in Building Construction
Effective management of materials contributes significantly to the success of the project. There are major issues which affect materials management activities, such as constraints on storage areas, site logistics with regard to materials handling and distribution, and also ordering and delivery of materials to the construction site. According to Canter (2009), material management practices are categorized into five processes, which are planning, procurement, logistics, handling and stock and waste control. Ocheoha (2013), also identify practices such as the just-in-time (JIT) method, Economies Order Quantity (EOQ), warehousing management, and recovery and recycling method as part of materials management practices that should be taken seriously, and these practices are detailed below:
1. Planning practices: The process of planning construction methods has been defined as “understanding what has to be built, then establishing the right method, in the most economical way to meet the client’s requirements” (Barrie and Paulson,2010). This is a detailed scheme for achieving an objective for certain work tasks. In the case of materials, there is a need for appropriate planning, which must be done concurrently with engineering, construction, and other project plans. He also mentions that material planning will provide guides for all the subsequent activities and could have a great impact on the project plan. The materials planning process covers setting up and maintaining the records of each part used in each plant to determine target inventory levels, and delivery frequency. As a result, excellent management of the materials record will help the flow of materials at the site in order to avoid several problems such as materials out of stock and materials that have not been delivered. Material planning would provide subsequent activities and could have a great impact on the project plan. The materials planning process covers setting up and maintaining the records of each part used in each plant to determine target inventory levels, and delivery frequency. As a result, excellent management of the materials record will help the flow of materials at the site in order to avoid several problems such as materials out of stock and materials that have not been delivered. Material planning would provide guides for all the subsequent activities and this could have a great impact on the project plan. The materials planning process covers the set-up and maintenance of records and determines the target inventory levels, and delivery frequency. Planning of access and routing of materials within a construction site has an important implication for the development of an effective materials management strategy (Waziri,2016), particularly in terms of increasing productivity and profit and facilitating the timely completion of construction projects. Planning and programming of work should include strategies, tactics, and tools for managing the design and construction delivery processes and for controlling key factors to ensure the client receives a facility that matches their expectations and function as it is intended to function. The requirement for efficient materials planning is to increase the productivity and profit of the company, and facilitate the completion of construction projects. Thus, better planning of raw materials on site can help to eliminate project delays and reduce activities.
2.Procurement processes: The term procurement encompasses a wide range of activities that includes purchasing of equipment, materials, labour and services required for construction and implementation of a project (Barrie and Paulson,2007). The objective of procurement in materials management is to provide quality materials at the right time and place, and at an agreed budget. Akbar Rasouli Kamran Behdinan and Salmon Farsi, (2016) state that procurement is about organizing the purchasing of materials and issuing delivery schedules to suppliers and following-up, to make sure that suppliers deliver on time. Canter (2009) states that failure in the purchasing process or in organizing buying functions results in:(a) over-ordering of materials (wastage problems);(b)Over-payments for materials (inadequate administration procedure);(c)Loss of benefits (lack of skilled negotiating procedures); and (d)Lack of knowledge (when and where the best service/source might be available at any particular time).
Purchasing in building construction involves obtaining all materials, equipment, and services needed to execute a project efficiently, on time, and within budget. It ensures that the right materials are delivered at the right quantity, quality, time, and cost, aligning with project specifications and construction schedules. The process involves (i)Identification of Material Needs from a work schedule or bill of quantities (BOQ) using a material requisition form. (ii)Approval of Material Requisition (iii) Supplier or Vendor Selection (iv)Request for Quotation (RFQ) (v)Quotation Evaluation and Negotiations(vi.) Issuance of Purchase Order (PO) (vii.) Delivery and Inspection of Materials (viii)Storage and Record Keeping(ix) Invoice Verification and Payment(x)Supplier Performance Evaluation
┌────────────────────────┐
│ Material Need │
│ Identified by Site │
│ Engineer │
└──────────┬──────────────┘
┌──────────▼──────────────┐
│ Requisition Approval │
│ by Project Manager │
└──────────┬──────────────┘
┌──────────▼──────────────┐
│ Supplier Selection & │
│ Request for Quotation │
└──────────┬──────────────┘
┌──────────▼──────────────┐
│ Evaluate & Negotiate │
│ Quotations │
└──────────┬──────────────┘
┌──────────▼──────────────┐
│ Issue Purchase Order │
│ (PO) to Supplier │
└──────────┬──────────────┘
┌──────────▼──────────────┐
│ Material Delivery & │
│ Inspection at Site │
└──────────┬──────────────┘
┌──────────▼──────────────┐
│ Storage & Record │
│ Keeping │
└──────────┬──────────────┘
┌──────────▼──────────────┐
│ Invoice Verification │
│ Payment Processing │
└──────────┬──────────────┘
┌──────────▼──────────────┐
│ Supplier Evaluation │
│ for Future Projects │
└─────────────────────────┘
Figure 2.1: Typical Purchasing Procedure in Building Construction
Source: Hohns (2017)
3. Logistics: Logistics is a concept that emphasizes movement, and it encompasses planning, implementing, and controlling the flow and storage of all goods from raw materials to the finished product to meet customer requirements. Raw materials for construction are usually varied, bulky and heavy and require proper handling in the supply process. Consequently, the construction industry requires active movement of materials from the suppliers to the production area in both the factory and the work site. Experienced traffic personnel can have a positive impact on the execution of the project while minimizing transportation costs (Ahuja and Dozzi 2021). The primary focus of the logistics concept in construction projects is to improve coordination and communication between project participations during the design and construction phases, particularly in the materials flow control process (Agapiou etal., 2021). He also mentions that problems arise in the materials flow control process, which includes delays in material supply, due to some materials purchased just before they are required and waste of materials during storage, handling and transporting when procured in large quantities without complying with the production needs on site. Previous research suggested that the routing of materials is one of the main causes which affect cost and time during construction projects. Hence, the factors that should be taken into consideration during the logistics process for effective materials’ management include: optimum forecasting of materials movement (Mahdjoubi and Yang, 2001).
4. Handling: Materials handling provides movement to ensure that materials are located and that a systematic approach is required in designing the system. Handling of materials is the flow component that provides for their movement and placement. The importance of appropriate handling of materials is highlighted by the fact that they are expensive and engage critical decisions. Due to the frequency of handling materials, there are quality considerations when designing a material handling system. The selection of the material handling equipment is an important function as it can enhance the production process, provide effective utilization of the workforce, increase production and improve system flexibility (Chan, 2002). The importance of appropriate handling of materials is highlighted by the fact that they are expensive and involve critical decisions. The material handling equipment selection is an important function in the design of a material handling system in order to enhance the production process, provide effective utilization of human power, increase production, and improve system flexibility. In addition, materials scheduling is also an essential part of handling materials on site, which has several benefits (Ezeh and Etodike, 2017), such as: showing the quantities involved in each particular operation; providing a key to the distribution of materials on site; and demonstrating useful way of checking quantities required by subcontractors, etc. Materials must be delivered to site undamaged and without any wastage. The most common problem associated with materials supply is inadequate unloading and handling facilities, which relates to a high proportion of wastage (Canter,2009). Therefore, handling with safety during movement of materials on site, which reduces the percentage of material wastage and finally fosters significant improvement, can often increase the total system productivity.
5. Stock and Waste Control: Delivery of the bulk of the construction materials requires proper management of the stock control. Stock control is a technique to ensure all items such as raw materials, processed materials, components for assembly, consumable stores, general stores, maintenance materials and spares, work in progress and finished products are available when required. Construction activity can generate an enormous amount of waste (Teo and Loosemore, 2001) and materials waste has been recognized as a major problem in the construction industry. They also mentioned that construction materials waste, in the USA contributes approximately 29%In the UK it contributes more than 50% and in Australia it contributes 20–30%. This is evidence to control construction materials in a good way during the construction process. The cause of waste in construction projects indicates that waste can arise at any stage of the construction process from inception, right through the design, construction and operation of the built facility. Therefore, waste can be reduced through the careful consideration of the need for minimization and better reuse of materials in both the design and construction phases (Dainty and Brooke, 2004). Material storage on site requires close attention in order to avoid waste, loss and any damage to materials which would affect the operations on the construction project. Problems often arise during materials supply because of improper storage and protection facilities. Previous studies have identified that building materials often require a large storage capacity which is rarely available on site (Agapiou et al., 2021). There are a few considerations to be taken into account in the planning of the storage space, such as timing of the initial buy, and historical information and experience. Materials management on site should seek to reduce loss of profit due to theft, damage and wastage, as well as running out of stock. Therefore, the requirements for storage space should be taken into consideration from the initial stage of the construction process.
6. Just-In-Time Method (JIT): The acronym JIT has been highly visible since late 1980, as manufacturing attempted to meet competitive challenges by adopting newly emerging management theories and techniques, referred to as Lean production. Again, Just in Time (JIT) manufacturing is described as a system that helps in making an appropriate order of materials available to each operating unit at the right time in the right quantity. JIT is a systematic concept consisting of JIT purchasing, JIT transportation and JIT production. These three elements combine to create a material handling system that avoids waste and minimizes inventory investment. The technique has changed employees’ beliefs, attitudes, work habits and awareness of quality assurance. It is an operating management philosophy of continuous improvement in which non-value-adding activities (or waste) are identified and removed for the purposes of reducing cost. The objectives of JIT are to reduce processing time, eliminate waste, have respect for people and cost minimization and these can be achieved if this hold zero inventory; a system known as keen supply chain. The summary of the objectives of the supply chain-oriented organizations is to improve productivity by minimizing the cost of shady products. The following factors can be considered for the required improvements from Procom and product design, thing slate-of -the-art equipment and technology, holding zero inventories, reducing lead-time of supply of material, reducing batch size, using a pull production system, simplifying factory layout.
7. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ): This determines the amount of order that minimizes total variable costs required to order and hold inventory. The economic order quantity (BOQ) refers to the order size that will result in the lowest total of ordering and carrying costs for an item of inventory. If a firm places unnecessary orders, it will incur unneeded order costs. If a firm places too few orders, it must maintain large stocks of goods and will have excessive carrying costs. It is recommended that the assumptions of economic order quantity are to: deal with only one material whose demand is assumed to be completely predetermined and demand remains constant over a period of time; holding and ordering rented costs per unit remain constant during the period of one year, irrespective of the order quantity. No stock out is allowed and ordered materials arrive instantaneously and the lead time, which is the time between ordering and receiving goods, is instantaneous and is equal to 0, and all materials ordered are delivered.
8. Recovering and Recycling: Recycling is the process of collecting materials that are often considered trash and remanufactured tin for new products that can be resold or used again. Recovering simply refers to the process of retrieving the disposed or about to be disposed of and making it ready for recycling. That is, removal of materials from the solid waste stream for sale, use, or reuse as raw materials (Monczka, 2002).
9. Warehousing Management: Chee-Chen, 2009 opines that warehousing can be defined as a storage facility used for storing construction material and supplies. He continued by saying that it serves as a central location for receiving, storing and distributing materials needed for construction projects. All organizations have a minimum level of inventory they keep for future operation. Whether they operate JIT or a traditional delivery system where inventory is kept, it is typically referred to as a warehouse. Although, in many logistical arrangements, the role of a warehouse is more properly viewed as a switching facility as contrasted to a storage facility, i.e. effective distribution systems should be designed not to hold inventory for an excessive length of time, there are times when inventory storage is economical. In the same vein, warehouse management means effective and efficient storage and provision of required materials to ensure smooth operations. Decentralized warehousing permits materials to be stored in the right places to facilitate production operations and provide quality customer service. Decentralization of warehouses is a common practice of large organizations that have different plants and product lines scattered over the country. The importance of warehousing include: a reduction in transportation costs; warehousing and the associated inventory are added expenses, but they may be traded off at a lower cost realized if JIT transportation is adopted; achieving smooth production—warehousing to some levels of inventories make materials available at all time for production process, hence, it helps to avoid stock-out of materials; coordination of supply and demand-firms that experience highly seasonal production and sales most times have problem in coordinating supply with demand of materials, warehouse helps them to even out supply and demand of materials over a given period; enjoy quantity purchase discounts- availability of warehouse encourages bulk purchases at discounted prices and maintaining a reliable source of supply-companies that have where to store materials always purchase materials and have regular supplier(s).
2.2 Strategies for Effective Material Management in Building Construction Sites
Material management has been an issue of concern in the construction industry.40% of the time lost on site can be attributed to bad management, lack of materials when needed, poor identification of materials and inadequate storage. The need for an ineffective material planning system has become mandatory. Some companies have increased the efficiency of their activities in order to remain competitive and secure future work. Many other firms have reduced overheads and undertaken productivity improvement strategies. According to Okorocha (2013), Effective Material Management should focus on the system adopted for pricing materials issues which largely depend upon the nature of the material, the undertaking concerned and the circumstances which require to be taken into consideration. These areas might be taken care of: the Materials Schedule for the Contract on Hand, the Bill of Materials, Purchase Requisition, Purchasing of Materials, Issuing of Materials for Use, and Use of Material on Site. In order to achieve good materials’ management on building projects, Calistus (2013) opines that the following areas have to be taken very seriously, i.e. Training of management and other staff, inventory control of materials on site, ensuring proper planning, monitoring, control. Management, supervision and administration of sites, provision of adequate storage of materials, proper usage of materials, materials schedule for the contract on hand, provision and accessibility of site layout and attention to weather conditions. To achieve good materials’ management on a building project, Calistus (2013) opines that the following areas have to be taken very seriously: i.e. Training of management and other staff, inventory control of materials on site, ensuring proper planning, monitoring and control. Alwi, Hampson, and Mohammed (2009), recommend the following effective materials’ management of building projects, which includes: management, supervision and administration of sites, provision of adequate storage of materials, proper usage of materials, material schedule for the contract on hand, materials delivery, provision and accessible site layout, Attention to weather conditions.
1. Training of Both Management and Other Staff: It is necessary to provide education and training to encourage and promote the benefit of reuse, recycling and reducing material consumption. However, cost savings for reuse to reduce material consumption are difficult to measure, in which the material can be used and reduce consumption several times. It is more effective to provide training and education among staff, and involve employees’ participation in implementing waste management. They pointed out that employees’ participation could only be effective with genuine support from management.
2. Inventory Control of Materials on Site: It involves taking note of the use and inventory of materials on site and recordings, i.e. the loading and off-loading, transit and handling of materials. It is recommended that arrangements be made for materials to arrive on time. When a construction material is delivered to a site, it should be checked for damage, quantity, quality and specification. It involves physical control of materials, preservation of stores, minimization of obsolescence and damage through timely disposal and efficient handling, maintenance of store records, proper location and stocking. Stores are also responsible for the physical verification of stocks and reconciling them with book figures. The inventory control covers aspects such as setting inventory levels, ABC analysis, fixing economical ordering quantities, setting safety stock levels, lead time analysis and reporting.
3. Ensuring Proper Planning, Monitoring and Control: Construction site management practice is the process of determining, analyzing, devising and organizing all resources necessary to undertake a construction project. It also includes monitoring and controlling the planned actions towards successful project delivery. Some of the specific activities include the production of a Gantt chart, network analysis, method statements, resource leveling, progress reports and exception reports. The core element of planning is the establishment of a program which reflects the planning process in relation to real-time. Construction planning is the total process of determining the method, sequence, labor, plant, and equipment required to undertake a building project. All but the simplest tasks require planning in order to be accomplished with the best utilization of time and resources.
4. Management, Supervision and Administration of Sites: Supervision is the direction of people at work and management is the planning and control of the work process on a construction site. Supervisory, management and administration of site are gradually spread throughout the earth because it is a more efficient way of accomplishing work. All work requires the coordination of effort; this is accomplished by giving workers assigned tasks and assigned time in which they are to accomplish these tasks, but instruction is not enough. A clear, specific instruction on what is to be done, monitor the worker in the course of their efforts, Jimoh, (2012). This is the arrangement on construction sites that lends to effective information dissemination and exchange. Information such as correspondence, minutes, labor allocations, payroll, progress reporting, notices or claims, instructions, drawing register and technical information flows among stakeholders, for processing and further actions during and after project construction.
5. Provision of Adequate Storage of Materials: Kasim (2005), opines that material storage on site requires close attention in order to avoid waste, loss and any damage to materials which would affect the operation of the construction project. There must be a proper storage facility provided for materials on site. Some materials are usually not stored in sheds or locked-up buildings, and double handling of materials because of improper or indecision about the proper storage facility constitutes waste. Old stock must be available for use after fresh delivery is made, and these materials must be placed in such a way that damage will not be done to them by human activities or traffic on site. Bagged materials such as cement should be stored in a place that is free from moisture.
6 Proper Usage of Materials: The use of materials is the flow component that provides for their movement and placement. Material usage can be defined as the provision of proper handling techniques either manually or mechanically for the components held on site during the construction process. Adequate care must be taken to prevent wastage when working with materials on a construction project. The assembly or the installation process involves the practical incorporated into the project of materials, depending on the skills of the workers involved. Materials on the job site at times may have had a little defect due to poor storage or poor quality on the part of the manufacturer.
7 Materials Schedule for the Contractor Hand: It has been established that the preparation of a good materials schedule helps a long way in solving the problem of material handling on site. This is prepared at the contract stage of the building contract by an estimator and also by the contactor in order to know accurately how much material to mobilize the site. This entails accurately detailing the type, the size of materials and all other possible information regarding the required materials and the quantities and date on which they should be delivered. Materials schedules are valuable to the buyer for ordering and also to the site supervisor to ensure that materials, when delivered, are allocated or unloaded at or for the projects or building elements for which they are specified for ordered productivity. Project schedules should establish guidelines as to when and how the project should be executed, schedule requirements need to be communicated and properly managed throughout the entire project. The purpose of scheduling is to organize and allocate the resources, equipment and labour with the construction projects tasks over a set period of time.
8 Provision and Accessibility Site Layout: Construction site layout involves identifying, sizing, and placing temporary facilities within the boundaries of the construction site (Heap, 2007). These temporary facilities range from simple lay down areas to warehouses, fabrication shops, maintenance shops, batch plants, and residence facilities. Required temporary facilities and their areas are dependent on many factors including the project type, scale, design, location, and organization of construction work. A detailed planning of the site layout and location of temporary facilities can enable the management to make considerable improvement by minimizing travel time, waiting time, and increasing worker morale by showing a better and safer work environment.
9 Attention to Weather Conditions: According to Muhwezl (2012), severe weather conditions were ranked in the first positions at asthmas. Significant was teat tribute on projects in the respective categories, exposing materials to inclement weather such as steel bars which rust and may get damaged. Using research results conducted by (Wahab and Lawal, 2011). Adverse weather is considered one of the main factors causing delays and cost overruns on construction projects (Osama and Khaled,2002).
Literature Gap: There are still gaps in literature on existing material management practices specific to the study area and measures to manage the observed effects of poor material management practices in the study area and this is what this study filled.
3.0 Methodology
This work adopts a mixed survey design approach (quantitative and qualitative survey) in accordance with the research question and hypotheses. A combination of qualitative and quantitative survey was used to collect data related to the objectives of this research. These are data which were generated through questionnaire and direct observation. The population of this study is 401, which constitutes all site-based professionals like Quantity Surveyors, Builders and Architects in the study area, duly registered in Edo state with the relevant professional bodies.
Table 3:1 Total Population of the Study
No of Practicing Builders in Auchi
148
Source: NIOB Auchi Branch
No of Practicing Quantity surveyors In Auchi
128
Source: NIQS Auchi Branch
No of Practicing Architects in Auchi
125
Source NIA Auchi Branch
TOTAL
401
Source: NIOB, NIQS, NIA Auchi Branch(2024)
The sample size of the study was 200 respondents using the Taro yamane formula was adopted out of the entire population of 401 practicing builders, practicing quantity surveyors, and practicing Architects all in Auchi (Table 3.1). The sampling techniques for the study were multi-stage sampling for non-probabilistic sample whereby purposive sampling was used to select the area (Auchi).
4.0 FINDINGS
4.1 Response Rate
The sample size of the study was 200 respondents out of the entire population of 401 made up of practicing builders, practicing quantity surveyors, and practicing Architects all in Auchi (Table 3.1). The sampling techniques for the study were multi-stage sampling for a non-probabilistic sample whereby purposive sampling was used to select the area (Auchi). A total of 401 questionnaires were administered, 250 (62%) were retrieved while 200 (80%) were validly and returned. The high response rate recorded by the researcher could be attributed to the data collection procedures. For instance, the researcher pre-notified the potential participants for the survey, the researcher administered the questionnaire with the help of research assistants and follow-up calls were also made to clarify queries as well as to prompt the respondents to fill in the questionnaires.
4.2 Testing/Ranks of Variables
Question 1: What are the existing material management practices adopted by building construction companies in the study area?
Table: 4:1 Existing material management practices adopted by building construction companies in the study area
A. Planning (Rank 1, Mean Score: 3.98, Std Dev: 1.07): Planning emerged as the most highly ranked practice among the respondents. With a mean score of 3.98, it indicates that most construction companies prioritize careful preparation and scheduling of materials before and during project execution. The relatively low standard deviation (1.07) suggests that respondents had a fairly consistent view regarding the importance of planning. Effective planning ensures that materials are available when needed, reducing delays and inefficiencies on construction sites.
B. Stock and Waste Control (Rank 2, Mean Score: 3.91, Std Dev: 1.41): The second-highest ranked practice is stock and waste control, highlighting that construction companies are conscious of minimizing wastage and maintaining optimal inventory levels. A mean score of 3.91 demonstrates that the companies recognize the financial and operational benefits of controlling stock and reducing material losses. The standard deviation of 1.41 indicates some variability in perception, possibly due to differences in company sizes or management systems.
C. Just-in-Time Method (JIT) (Rank 3, Mean Score: 3.80, Std Dev: 1.12): The Just-in-Time method, ranked third, reflects the adoption of modern material management techniques. By receiving materials only as they are needed, companies can reduce storage costs and the risk of overstocking. The mean score of 3.80 is high, suggesting moderate to strong implementation, while the relatively low standard deviation (1.12) indicates general agreement among respondents about its effectiveness.
D. Warehousing Management (Rank 4, Mean Score: 3.54, Std Dev: 1.16): Warehousing management ranks fourth, emphasizing the importance of organized storage systems for materials. Companies with proper warehousing practices ensure materials are safe, accessible, and well-documented. A mean of 3.54 indicates that while important, it is not as prioritized as planning or stock control. The standard deviation of 1.16 shows relatively consistent opinions across the sample.
E. Procurement (Rank 5, Mean Score: 3.44, Std Dev: 1.29): Procurement ranks sixth, showing that while acquiring materials is essential, it is slightly less emphasized compared to other practices. A mean score of 3.44 demonstrates that respondents acknowledge its importance but may face challenges such as supplier reliability or cost issues. The standard deviation (1.29) suggests a reasonable spread of opinions among respondents.
F. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) (Rank 6, Mean Score: 3.39, Std Dev: 1.38): Economic Order Quantity, a quantitative approach to determine the optimal order size, is ranked fifth. This reflects moderate adoption among building companies. With a mean score of 3.39, EOQ is recognized as a useful tool for reducing costs and avoiding excess stock, but it may not be widely implemented due to technical or operational constraints. The standard deviation of 1.38 indicates moderate variability in understanding or application.
G. Logistics (Rank 7, Mean Score: 3.35, Std Dev: 1.60): Logistics is ranked seventh, which points to moderate implementation in material transportation and handling. The mean score of 3.35 indicates that construction companies recognize its role in timely delivery of materials, but the high standard deviation (1.60) suggests significant variation among companies, possibly reflecting differing levels of expertise or resource availability.
H Recovering and Recycling (Rank 8, Mean Score: 3.21, Std Dev: 1.43): Recovering and recycling practices are less emphasized, ranking eighth. A mean score of 3.21 shows that although some companies adopt sustainable practices, it is not yet mainstream. The standard deviation of 1.43 indicates a moderate level of disagreement among respondents, perhaps due to differing priorities or awareness levels about sustainability.
I. Handling (Rank 9, Mean Score: 3.11, Std Dev: 1.44): Handling of materials is ranked tenth, indicating that it is given relatively lower priority. While proper handling is crucial for preventing damage and loss, it appears that companies may rely on other practices like planning and stock control to indirectly manage handling. The higher standard deviation (1.44) suggests differing views on its significance.
Research Question 2: Suggest and recommend effective measures for managing materials in building construction sites in the study area
Table: 4.2: Effective measures for managing materials in building construction sites in the study area
S/N
Statements
5
4
3
2
1
SUM
MEANSCORE
STD
RANK
1
Training of both management and staff
44
49
54
38
15
699
3.34
15.18
3rd
2
Inventory control of material on site
58
34
31
43
34
639
3.19
11.02
5th
3
Ensuring proper planning, monitoring and control
42
23
24
70
41
555
2.77
19.04
7th
4
Management, supervision and administration of sites
44
46
54
38
18
660
3.30
13.56
4th
5
Provision of adequate storage of materials
38
56
17
85
4
639
3.19
32.06
5th
6
Proper usage of materials
29
17
56
39
59
518
2.59
17.8
11th
7
Material schedule for the contractor hand
63
45
35
15
42
672
3.36
17.38
2nd
8
Provision and accessibility site layout
42
20
24
70
44
546
2.73
19.85
8th
9
Attention to weather conditions
23
60
39
67
11
617
3.08
23.78
6th
10
Importance of material for a project
33
20
65
50
32
522
2.61
17.59
9th
11
Need for a material management system
66
45
32
15
42
678
3.39
18.67
1st
Source: Field Survey, (2025)
Need for a Material Management System (Rank 1st, Mean = 3.39, STD = 18.67): This measure received the highest rank, indicating that respondents perceive having a formal material management system as the most critical strategy for effective material management. A structured system ensures tracking of materials, reduces wastage, improves procurement efficiency, and helps in accountability. The relatively high standard deviation suggests some variability in responses, indicating that while most agree, there may be differences in how effectively such systems are implemented on site. Construction companies should adopt digital inventory and tracking systems to standardize material management.
B. Material Schedule for the Contractor Hand (Rank 2nd, Mean = 3.36, STD = 17.38): This measure scored highly, making it the second most important factor in effective material management. A material schedule ensures that contractors know precisely what materials are needed, when, and in what quantity, reducing wastage and delays. Its high mean score indicates strong consensus among respondents, while a moderate standard deviation shows some variability in opinions but overall agreement on its importance. Prioritizing proper material scheduling improves site efficiency and cost management.
C. D. Training of Both Management and Staff (Rank 3rd, Mean = 3.34, STD = 15.18): Training staff and management is critical for improving material handling, reducing errors, and enhancing project efficiency. The relatively high rank and mean score suggest that respondents see capacity building as a vital tool for effective material management. A lower STD reflects moderate agreement on its importance. Continuous training programs should be instituted to improve knowledge and skills related to materials handling.
D. Management, Supervision, and Administration of Sites (Rank 4th, Mean = 3.30, STD = 13.56): Effective supervision and administrative control on construction sites play a crucial role in ensuring that materials are used efficiently and according to plan. It ranked fourth, indicating its substantial but slightly lower perceived importance compared to scheduling and training. Adequate supervision ensures adherence to project schedules and material usage protocols, minimizing losses.
E. Inventory Control of Material on Site & Provision of Adequate Storage of Materials (Rank 5th, Mean = 3.19, STD = 11.02 & 32.06 respectively): Inventory control involves tracking materials from delivery to consumption, while storage provision ensures that materials are protected from damage and theft. Both measures scored equally in mean score but differed in standard deviation; storage showed high variability (STD = 32.06), indicating differing perceptions about its effectiveness. Maintaining proper inventory systems and storage facilities is important but may require site-specific adaptation.
F. Attention to Weather Conditions (Rank 6th, Mean = 3.08, STD = 23.78): Weather can significantly affect materials on-site, causing deterioration or damage if not managed properly. It was ranked moderately high, reflecting recognition of its role in protecting materials. The high STD indicates some disagreement among respondents, possibly due to variations in site locations or climate considerations. Construction sites should implement protective measures against adverse weather for sensitive materials.
F. Ensuring Proper Planning, Monitoring, and Control (Rank 7th, Mean = 2.77, STD = 19.04): Although planning, monitoring, and control are fundamental management practices, respondents ranked this relatively lower. This may suggest that while these practices are essential, their effectiveness in directly managing materials might be perceived as secondary to specific interventions like training or material scheduling. Strengthening site planning and control mechanisms will still benefit overall material management, but more tangible measures may take precedence.
G. Provision and Accessibility of Site Layout (Rank 8th, Mean = 2.73, STD = 19.85): An organized site layout facilitates smooth material flow and reduces handling losses. Its lower rank indicates that respondents may view layout accessibility as less critical compared to scheduling or training. Site layout optimization should complement other key material management strategies.
5.0 CONCLUSION
The descriptive statistics reveal that building construction companies in the study area predominantly rely on traditional material management practices, with planning emerging as the most widely adopted practice, contractors place strong emphasis on advanced preparation and scheduling of materials, as well as growing awareness of waste reduction and efficient inventory management. However, there is limited adoption of sustainable practices and weak institutional mechanisms for continuous improvement. Since poor management of materials leads to cost overruns, time delays, and reduced quality, there is a need for efficient management that ensures smooth project flow, reduced wastage, and improved profitability through “Waste Reduction and Recycling” as well as “Monitoring and Control Systems” recorded the lowest mean value
6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings and conclusions of this research, the following recommendations are made:
1. Adopt Digital Material Management Systems: Construction firms should integrate modern digital tools and software such as ERP systems, bar-coding, and inventory tracking technologies to improve accuracy, transparency, and accountability in material handling.
2. Strengthen Planning and Scheduling: Proper planning and scheduling of material procurement and usage should be implemented before project commencement to prevent shortages, waste, and delays.
7.0 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
This research has contributed to the body of knowledge by providing empirical evidence on the state of material management practices in Auchi, Etsako West Local Government Area, a region with limited prior academic documentation on this topic. It bridges the knowledge gap between theoretical material management frameworks and their practical application in rural and semi-urban Nigerian construction environments.
i) Acknowledgments
Special acknowledgment to everyone who made this study a success and to the Departments of Building, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Anambra State, for the support of data collection.
(II)Disclosure of Conflict of Interest
Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript.
(iii) Statement of Ethical Approval
All relevant ethical approval for this study has been obtained and maintained.
(iv) Statement of informed Consent
All necessary informed consent were obtained.
(v)Funding
This research received no external funding.
(Vi)Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.
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Jesus never recruited spectators. He called people out of boats, tax booths, and back alleys and put dust on their feet. Discipleship in the Bible begins with proximity: walking close enough to hear breath and see scars. Growth was not measured by information retained but by obedience practiced. Nets were dropped. Tables abandoned. Lives re-ordered around a voice that refused to stay theoretical. This was not a classroom. It was pavement and friction.
Formation Happens Under Pressure
Jesus shaped leaders by placing them where weakness surfaced. Hunger in the wilderness. Fear of open water. Failure in public. Scripture shows spiritual growth emerging under strain, not comfort. The call to follow carried cost, and that cost exposed what ruled the heart. Disciples learned prayer by watching Jesus withdraw exhausted. They learned courage by watching Him advance toward Jerusalem anyway. Leadership was formed where trust was tested. Growth hurt. That was the point.
A Different Kind of Authority
Jesus redefined leadership by emptying it of ego. Authority flowed downward through service, not upward through control. Feet were washed. Children were welcomed. The overlooked were centered. In this framework, the concept of discipleship refuses celebrity and embraces stewardship. Leaders were not trained to build platforms but to carry burdens. Influence came from faithfulness in small places. Power bent low. Strength looked like a sacrifice.
From Belief to Obedience
Biblical discipleship never stopped at confession. It moved toward action that cost something real. Teachings were meant to be practiced before they were explained. The understanding of what a disciple iscannot be separated from daily choices, how money is handled, words are spoken, anger restrained, and forgiveness extended. Faith showed up in kitchens, workplaces, and strained relationships. Truth lived there. Right in the mess.
The Work Continues
The Mentoring Project exists for this exact terrain. It’s free Life Skills guides address more than 100 everyday struggles: conflict, fear, leadership fatigue, decision-making, stewardship, and endurance. These guides are built for lived faith, not shelf display. They are written to be read, listened to, and carried into ordinary pressure-filled moments. Discipleship still walks. Visit The Mentoring Project website to read or listen to the free Life Skills guides and take the next faithful step forward.
Akorede, S. N., & Obenda, M. I. (2026). Factors Influencing Insufficient Facility and Management of Public Stadiums in Nigeria: An Overview. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/29
Seun N. Akorede, Moses I. Obenda
Department of Human Kinetics & Health Education, Faculty of Education, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria
Stadiums serve as venues capable of uniting thousands of individuals, and fostering a remarkable architectural experience. Sadly, many of Nigeria’s public infrastructures including stadiums have significantly declined, highlighting the extent of neglect they have faced over time. The slow or irreversible decline of nearly all public facilities illustrates the degree of neglect they have experienced throughout the years. This research provides a review of the factors affecting inadequate management and maintenance of public stadiums in Nigeria. The secondary data utilized in this study comes from various published sources. The relevant material includes research articles sourced from credible electronic platforms. In addition to research articles, grey literatures were similarly referenced. The findings pinpoint political, economic, social, and technical issues that lead to substandard facilities and inadequate management in Nigeria’s public stadiums. Consequently, the review advocates for a thorough strategy that entails professionalizing management, reinforcing policy and accountability, diversifying funding sources and operations, along with implementing an organized, proactive maintenance plan (both preventive and scheduled).
Public sports facilities primarily provide open areas for regular fitness activities. They highlight distinct public welfare traits [1] and currently serve as the foundation for healthy living in our nation. They also play critical role in government initiatives aimed at constructing a “sports superpower” [2]. Specifically, stadiums occupy a unique position within the cultural, economic, and social frameworks of nations, thus holding substantial significance [3]. Beyond hosting sporting events, stadiums function as places for shared experiences, economic catalysts, and identity centers. These sites not only accommodate football matches but also host major events like concerts, religious gatherings, and political rallies.
Investing in sports infrastructure involves substantial financial commitments and represents valuable national resources that convey an investment narrative. Nigeria’s increasing prominence in global football has largely been fueled by investments in football infrastructure alongside the achievements of its athletes in major European leagues. The country has heavily invested in the construction of stadiums [4]. Such expenditures aimed at showcasing modernization and attracting elite competitions have, at times, been influenced by political factors. Unfortunately, the rate of construction has outstripped effective management practices. Consequently, this situation calls for heightened managerial focus, which is vital for ensuring development. Investors, whether public or private, generally anticipate significant returns on their sports-related investments. So, effective management serves as a crucial element for maximizing returns on investment in sports infrastructure, highlighting the increasing importance of stadium management in many nations [5]. One of the key goals in facility management is to lower maintenance expenses while sustaining the quality of the services offered [6]. Management in the realm of sports infrastructure pertains to overseeing sports facilities.
Throughout various periods, Nigeria has hosted some of Africa’s premier sports stadiums. Currently, however, the nation lacks adequate operational stadium facility, a situation exacerbated by a severe absence of maintenance culture resulting from governmental negligence. Public infrastructure in Nigeria frequently suffers from inadequate upkeep [7], leading to their deterioration and resulting flaws at different levels. Although the upkeep of stadium amenities can be both expensive and complex, it is essential if any investment is to be justified. The decline of stadium infrastructure in Nigeria reflects deeper systemic issues that need to be identified and addressed. Among the country’s more than 40 stadiums, only around a dozen are deemed suitable for rehabilitation for international events. These include the National Stadium in Lagos, MKO Abiola Stadium in Abuja, Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium in Enugu, U.J. Esuene Stadium in Calabar, Ahmadu Bello Stadium in Kaduna, and Liberation Stadium in Port Harcourt. Additionally, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa Stadium in Bauchi, Sam Ogbemudia Stadium in Benin, Liberty Stadium in Ibadan, Adamasingba Stadium in Ibadan, Teslim Balogun Stadium in Lagos, and Adokie Aimiesiamaka Stadium in Port Harcourt complete the list. Once a stunning venue when inaugurated in 1972, the Lagos National Stadium now represents a national embarrassment. The Godswill Akpabio Stadium in Uyo is regarded by Africa’s football governing body, CAF, and the world football governing body FIFA, as Nigeria’s sole international-standard facility, despite the existence of multiple multi-billion-naira venues built for international events. This underscores the country’s inadequate commitment to sports development. As a result, all the recent international football match involving Nigeria takes place at the stadium in Uyo. Thus, despite the numerous facilities distributed across the nation, Nigeria operates effectively as a one-stadium country, facing the risk of being prohibited from hosting international events if the Godswill Akpabio Stadium developed any issue.
It is noteworthy that modern tools have significant influence on facility management. For instance, the adoption of advanced technologies such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) [8] is essential for resource management. GIS is commonly used for the collection, storage, alteration, analysis, visualization, and presentation of georeferenced data [9,10]. It enables the handling of spatially referenced data through manipulation, analysis, statistical applications, and modeling of spatial information [11, 12]. Recently, advancements in GIS, bolstered by big data technology, have found extensive application in geographic information mapping, as well as in the collection and analysis of spatial data. These technologies offer strong support for both theoretical and practical research concerning public sports facilities [13]. By leveraging the importance of GIS, integrating multi-source geographic data, and utilizing data integration techniques [14], it has become feasible to achieve an accurate spatial understanding of the supply and demand dynamics for public sports facilities through the development of an accessibility model that articulates the correlation between spatial supply and public sports facilities demand.
Materials and Methods
This paper presents an overview of factors influencing insufficient facility and management of public stadiums in Nigeria. The secondary data derived from various published document were used. Relevant materials used consisted of research articles availed from reputable electronic databases including Web of Science and Scopus. Apart from research articles, grey literatures were equally cited.
Results and Discussion
Political and Policy Influence on Public Stadiums in Nigeria
Public sports facilities are essential for ensuring that citizens can participate in sports [15]. They serve as a vital element of the public service framework aimed at promoting national fitness, acting as a crucial assurance for developing a robust sporting nation, and providing a fundamental platform and impetus for encouraging extensive fitness initiatives. In Nigeria, the construction of stadiums is often driven more by political motives, such as enhancing political reputation or the ambition to host significant mega-events, rather than by sustainable community needs or market demands [16]. This focus leads to a lack of consistency in management policies for these facilities and results in project neglect due to frequent governmental transitions.
By and large, effective execution of policies typically yields favorable outcomes. However, the implementation of such policies in Nigeria is notably poor. This adversely affects both the facilities and the management of public stadiums. Furthermore, policies may restrict potential income sources by forbidding commercial ventures (like restaurants or diverse retail options) on stadium grounds to focus exclusively on sports. Unfortunately, government involvement often introduces non-commercial objectives that compromise the long-term sustainability of these facilities. Another factor impairing the management and infrastructure of public stadiums in Nigeria is the prevalence of corruption. There is economic implications of corruption in construction [17] of stadium, often resulting in increased costs, inferior quality infrastructure, and enduring economic challenges. Moreover, the inventory management system in Nigeria is notably inadequate, which typically contributes to insufficient facility management of public stadiums. It is worthy of note that effective inventory management practices are crucial for maintaining lean inventories, creating robust policies for governance, and ensuring organizational efficiency [18]. However, ineffective inventory management can detrimentally affect an institution’s credibility and financial health. Lastly, there is a notable deficiency in a maintenance culture, which contributes to the inadequate management and upkeep of public stadiums in Nigeria. The lack of a proper maintenance culture and substandard facilities poses a serious challenge to football management. A maintenance culture implies the consistent and regular upkeep of buildings, machinery, facilities, and infrastructure to ensure they remain functional and in good condition.
Financial and Economic Factors on Public Stadiums in Nigeria.
The role of sports infrastructure is crucial to the economy, especially in industrialized nations where sports have evolved into a significant economic sector, contributing roughly two percent to the gross domestic product (GDP) [19]. Funding greatly influences the strategies employed in the design and construction of stadiums. According to some experts, financial constraints have resulted in new sports grounds resembling industrial structures on the outskirts rather than grand football arenas. Furthermore, insufficient funding is a significant hurdle [20] for sports advancement in Nigeria. It’s essential that football venues are tailored to meet the needs of the sport, ensuring that vital elements such as the playing field, spectator stands, press areas, scoreboards, restrooms, ticket booths, dressing rooms, and accessibility are appropriately addressed.
In Nigeria, public infrastructure initiatives often falter due to insufficient funding [21] from government agencies or contractors. The policy requiring government Ministries, Departments, and Agencies (MDA) to return any unused allocated funds to the national treasury at the end of each fiscal year compounds this issue [22]. The Federal Government continually stresses that MDAs must remit any unspent amounts at the close of the financial year. As a result, MDAs tend to rush to return residual funds, striving to appear accountable, which inadvertently leads to project failures and stoppages. Furthermore, facility management receives low priority in Nigeria, with most resources allocated to initial construction rather than ongoing maintenance [23]. This is exacerbated by many public entities relying heavily on volatile government funding. Additionally, numerous investigations have indicated that corruption is a significant factor contributing to the dismal state of facilities, as maintenance budgets are often mismanaged or redirected [24]. Also, inflation impacts maintenance costs. Such macroeconomic fluctuations create serious obstacles for capital upkeep among businesses operating in the nation [25]. The influence of inflation on capital maintenance has grown increasingly important for financial reporting, investment choices, and regulatory supervision. [26]
Management and Human Resource Deficiencies on Public Stadiums in Nigeria.
Facility management entails the strategic planning, administration, coordination, and assessment of daily operations within a facility. It focuses on harmonizing processes inside an organization to sustain and enhance services that back its core functions. Responsibilities within this scope are diverse, covering aspects such as marketing the facility, advertising events, overseeing maintenance, and managing staffing decisions. Typically, a personal manager or personnel director, along with other staff members, oversees the operation of most sports facilities. Often, a significant portion of the management team lacks formal training in facility management or any specialized technical skills. Of course, appointments are sometimes made based on personal connections rather than qualifications, leading to ineffective management practices [27]. Inadequate training often results in improper handling and neglect of equipment, leading to rapid deterioration [28]. Many employees do not have the requisite knowledge to perform basic maintenance tasks or to identify issues at an early stage [29]. Furthermore, Oyewole et al. [30] stress the necessity of continuous professional development for staff to remain updated on the latest maintenance techniques and technological advances. Research conducted by Ojo et al. [31] indicates that the lack of consistent maintenance strategies not only affects the operational efficiency of institutions but also leads to equipment issues. Promoting a more proactive approach to maintenance can be achieved by setting clear maintenance standards that enhance employee awareness and accountability.
Design and Construction on Public Stadiums in Nigeria
Inadequate initial planning often neglects projected usage, anticipated population growth, and the total costs associated with maintenance over the lifespan of facilities. Many public stadiums in Nigeria exhibit flaws in design and construction. The gap between infrastructure delivery and its management is increasingly being highlighted in academic and policy conversations in Nigeria [32]. Furthermore, the use of substandard materials or design, coupled with non-durable construction materials and shortcuts taken due to insufficient supervision, can lead to degradation and a necessity for frequent repairs. Additionally, maintenance strategies are seldom integrated into the original design, as there exists a disconnect between the construction phase and facility management.
Conclusion and Future Scope
This paper examines the elements that contribute to the inadequate facilities and management of public stadiums in Nigeria. The research revealed that the primary factors behind the poor conditions and governance of public stadiums in Nigeria stem from a multifaceted mix of systemic political interference, financial constraints, insufficient professional management skills, initial construction flaws, among other factors. A cycle of decline emerges when immediate political gains are prioritized over sustainable long-term operations (maintenance), ultimately imposing a burden on the public and hindering effective infrastructure utilization.
A holistic approach is essential to tackle Nigeria’s challenges regarding stadium management and facilities. It is crucial to implement strong policies and systems of accountability, which necessitates the introduction of rigorous assessment and oversight processes along with clear, standardized maintenance guidelines. Moreover, diversifying operational strategies by integrating professional management expertise and exploring varied funding options is vital. Encouraging private investment through public-private partnerships serves as another significant tactic. Additionally, a shift from a reactive approach—limited to “corrective repairs only”—to a well-organized, proactive maintenance strategy (encompassing preventive and planned measures) is imperative. Importantly, recruiting skilled and trained individuals, along with providing continuous training in facilities management departments, is paramount. Hiring should be based on expertise rather than favoritism.
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O. Ojo, A.I. Adeniran, & O. Adeyemi, “Strategies for Improving Maintenance Culture in Higher Education Institutions,” Higher Education Studies, Vol.12, Issue 2, pp.1–10, 2022.
A. Olotuah, & A. Taiwo, “Infrastructure Sustainability in Nigeria: The Missing Link Between Delivery and Management,” Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, Vol.20, Issue 4, pp.112–126, 2018.
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems play a crucial role in maintaining comfort, health, and energy efficiency in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings. Hvac Installation is not simply about placing equipment and turning it on; it is a carefully planned process that directly affects indoor air quality, temperature control, energy consumption, and long-term operating costs. When installed correctly, an HVAC system provides consistent comfort throughout the year, regardless of external weather conditions.
One of the most important aspects of HVAC installation is system design. Every building is different, and factors such as size, layout, insulation levels, occupancy, and usage patterns must be considered before selecting equipment. Oversized systems may cool or heat spaces too quickly, leading to frequent cycling, uneven temperatures, and higher energy bills. Undersized systems, on the other hand, struggle to meet demand, resulting in discomfort and excessive wear. A professional assessment ensures the system is properly sized and suited to the specific needs of the property.
Energy efficiency is another key reason why proper HVAC installation matters. Modern HVAC systems are designed with advanced technology to reduce energy consumption while maximizing performance. However, even the most efficient unit can underperform if installed incorrectly. Poor duct connections, improper refrigerant levels, or incorrect airflow balancing can all reduce efficiency and increase operating costs. A well-executed installation ensures that the system runs at optimal efficiency, helping homeowners and businesses save on utility expenses over time.
Indoor air quality is closely tied to HVAC performance. During installation, attention must be given to ventilation, filtration, and humidity control. A properly installed HVAC system helps remove pollutants, allergens, and excess moisture from indoor air, creating a healthier living and working environment. This is particularly important for individuals with allergies, asthma, or other respiratory conditions. Good ventilation also helps prevent issues such as mold growth and stale air, which can negatively impact comfort and health.
The installation process itself involves several critical steps, including equipment placement, ductwork configuration, electrical connections, and system calibration. Ductwork must be sealed and insulated correctly to prevent air leaks that waste energy and reduce system effectiveness. Electrical components must meet safety standards, and controls such as thermostats need to be accurately programmed. After installation, thorough testing is essential to confirm that the system operates smoothly, delivers even airflow, and maintains desired temperatures.
Another important consideration is long-term reliability. Proper HVAC installation reduces the likelihood of frequent breakdowns and costly repairs. When components are installed according to manufacturer specifications, they experience less strain and wear, which extends the lifespan of the system. This not only protects the initial investment but also ensures consistent comfort for years to come. Routine maintenance becomes more effective when the system is installed correctly from the start.
HVAC installation is also closely linked to sustainability goals. Energy-efficient systems help reduce carbon emissions and support environmentally responsible building practices. Many modern installations incorporate smart controls, zoning systems, and high-efficiency heat pumps or air conditioners that adapt to usage patterns. These features allow users to fine-tune comfort levels while minimizing energy waste, making HVAC systems both eco-friendly and cost-effective.
For those seeking detailed guidance and professional insight into Hvac Installation, reliable resources can help explain the process, benefits, and best practices involved. Understanding installation standards and system options empowers property owners to make informed decisions and work effectively with professionals to achieve the best results.
Whether installing HVAC systems in new construction or replacing outdated equipment, professional installation is essential. It ensures compliance with regulations, optimizes performance, and enhances overall comfort. Attempting shortcuts or relying on improper installation can lead to inefficiencies, safety concerns, and unnecessary expenses.
In conclusion, HVAC installation is a foundational step in creating comfortable, healthy, and energy-efficient indoor environments. From system design and efficiency to air quality and long-term reliability, every aspect of installation matters. By prioritizing proper planning and expert execution, property owners can enjoy consistent comfort, lower energy costs, and peace of mind knowing their HVAC system is built to perform efficiently in all seasons.
Hospitals and medical facilities are saturated with information, and yet the patient leaves the appointment unbelievably confused. The chart contains too much technical jargon; the pamphlet resembles an ancient text; and the artwork never matches the explanation the physician offers in the examination room.
This explains why medical professionals are increasingly turning to AI generators like Dreamina to generate posters to illustrate medical information in a way that the patient can truly see and understand.
Medical information stays noticeable as posters
With AI-based design, even very detailed information like treatment procedures, medication timetables, and/or healing periods can be turned into nice, readable graphics. Rather than flooding them with words, you are providing them with something that only takes one quick look at, recall, and reference later. Dreamina simplifies the entire task of creating such graphics even for non-designers.
If patient education is visually appealing and easy to comprehend, patient trust will develop. And the result of patient trust is a willingness to comply, inquire, and self-manage.
Why medical visuals now mean so much
Patients are accustomed to being shown information in visual ways. They scroll, click, and zone in on things on a daily basis, so to step into an office where they are presented with a mass of words feels almost foreign to them. These posters blend icons, graphics, and simple design to meet the already existing needs of the patients.
Good visuals can also work as a means to combat anxiety. A poster that describes what happens during a procedure can calm nerves much better than a verbal explanation that goes on for a long time. Knowing what is going to happen can be less frightening than not knowing what’s going to happen.
Thus, many health care facilities have begun to move beyond general stock art to customized graphics made by artificial intelligence that serve their needs.
Benefit one: Clearer understanding in seconds
Good patient education poster communication occurs in a split second. Instead of reading three paragraphs about a disease, patients see it.
For example, one graphic might depict:
Where an organ is located
What part is affected
How the treatment works
In creating such a layout using Dreamina, you are, in fact, installing clarity within the layout. A person lacking health literacy can still go away with a newfound understanding of their condition from just this layout alone.
Benefit two: Content that matches real care
Stock photos tend to be too generic. They rarely correspond exactly to the procedure, device, or part of the body your patient has. Also, you can represent your practice in images that reflect your work on Dreamina.
This is where its AI image editor would prove to be very useful to you. Imagine you want a particular situation, and you can create an image of it, and then work on improving it until it suits your needs. This would ensure that there are no gaps between the language your doctors know and the pictures you hang on the wall.
Benefit three: Quicker updates regarding changing information
Medical standards evolve, treatment continues to advance, and clinics introduce new services. By the time posters are mass-produced, an upgraded version would be costly to produce.
“AI design reverses this process. When a protocol changes, you just have to alter the prompt and re-render the picture, and then you’re ready with a new poster to be distributed or printed,” he added. This ensures updated patient education without the need for frequent redesign.
Benefit four: Visually welcoming, not clinical
There is still a great deal of biomedical design that feels cold and frightening. Warm colors, pleasant characters, and clean design can make a big difference in how information is received.
Additionally, many of these come equipped with a design featuring a photo enhancer to brighten, sharpen, and soften the photo’s details, producing a warm, friendly poster rather than a cold one.
Benefit five: Easier sharing across spaces
The poster created by Dreamina does not necessarily have to be posted at one place only. The same image can be used on:
Waiting room screens
Clinic websites
Patient portals
Social media posts
This ensures consistency, making it easier to reinforce messages and bringing patient education as part of the total care experience rather than something dispensed at the reception desk.
Dreamina’s health lab: Main medical facts made friendlier with visuals
Dreamina helps to integrate all of the above by allowing health professionals to easily create graphics online. There’s no need to have a design team when you can create professional-looking posters in no time. All you need are instructions and a few minutes of creativity spent with Dreamina.
Step 1: Create the text message
Open Dreamina and log in, and go to the central creative area and concentrate on creating your patient education poster prompt. Consider writing about the subject matter and the design aesthetics.
A good example of what the prompt can be is: A straightforward patient education poster depicting the human heart and pointing out the blocked arteries and how the stent helps increase blood flow.
This kind of specificity enables Dreamina to generate an accurate and soothing visual presentation.
Step 2: Adjust parameters & generate
Select the model with good, precise, and clear illustrations, then set the aspect ratio based on where you intend to display the poster, whether it’s to be printed, displayed on a screen, or online. Select either 1k, which you can use for fast drafts, or 2k, which you can use for high-resolution printing. After everything is set, click on the icon of Dreamina to create your medical graphic.
Step 3: Customize and save
In Dreamina, you can use the inpaint tool to work on areas of the poster and make them clearer. Other features include expand, to give the design more space, remove, to get rid of elements that are unnecessary, and retouch, to give it a smooth look. Once you are satisfied with your poster and think it looks clear and professional, you can click on the Download icon to save and share with your patients.
Making patient education more human
When medical information is communicated visually, it turns from intimidating to empowering. Patients can point to a poster, ask questions about what they see, and remember the explanation later at home. It is that connection between image and understanding that will make AI-powered design so valuable in healthcare.
Dreamina empowers clinics and educators with a means to transform raw data into information that people can understand. It is not meant to replace medical expertise but rather supplement it by making one’s communication much clearer and even kinder.
Conclusion by feeling healthy with Dreamina
Turning medical data into patient-friendly posters isn’t just design; it’s care. When people understand their health, they make better choices and feel more confident about treatment options. In Dreamina, with just a few touches, you can create visuals that educate, reassure, and guide someone without needing a full creative team.
As healthcare continues to move toward clearer communication and patient-centered experiences, tools like Dreamina make bringing knowledge to life easier. You can help patients see their health in a whole new way with one thoughtful poster at a time.
Abdulrahman, M., Owusu, M. O., Anointed, D., Josiah, D. D., Mani, M., Muoghalu, F. E. F., & Peter, I. ode . ode . (2026). Prevalence and Determinants of Hepatitis B and C Infections among Adults in Rural Northern Nigeria: Evidence from Fufore Local Government Area Adamawa state. International Journal of Research, 13(1), 560–571. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/27
Prevalence and Determinants of Hepatitis B and C Infections among Adults in Rural Northern Nigeria: Evidence from Fufore Local Government Area Adamawa state
Muhammad Abdulrahman1, Michael Oluyemi Owusu2, David Anointed1, Dennis Dibal Josiah3, Magaji Mani4, Fakunle Ebere Favour Muoghalu 5, Itua ode ode Peter 5
1 Faculty of Public Health Texila American University, Lot 2442, Plantation Providence, East Bank Demerara (EBD), Guyana, South America,
2Clinical Research Nurse, National Health Service (NHS), Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Mindelsohn way, Edgbaston Birmingham United Kingdom B15 2GW
3Principal Medical Officer Cottage Hospital Fufore
4Department of Nursing Science Specialist Hospital Yola, Adamawa State Nigeria.
5World Health Organization FCT Field Office, Plot 617/618 Diplomatic Drive, Central Area District, P.M.B. 2851, Garki, Abuja, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
Background: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections remain major public health challenges in Nigeria, particularly in rural communities with limited access to prevention and screening services. This study determined the prevalence and determinants of HBV and HCV infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area (LGA), Adamawa State, Nigeria.
Methods: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 384 adults selected using a multistage sampling technique. Data were collected using an interviewer-administered structured questionnaire, and blood samples were tested for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV) using rapid diagnostic test kits. Descriptive statistics were used to estimate prevalence. Chi-square tests assessed associations between independent variables and hepatitis infection. Multivariable logistic regression identified independent determinants of hepatitis infection, defined as positivity to either HBsAg or anti-HCV. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Determinants were analyzed using a combined hepatitis infection outcome due to overlapping transmission risk factors.
Results: The mean age of participants was 34.8 ± 10.6 years. The prevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C infections was 17.2% and 11.7%, respectively, while 4.7% of participants had HBV–HCV co-infection. Overall, 33.6% of respondents tested positive for at least one hepatitis infection. Independent determinants of hepatitis infection included unprotected sexual intercourse (AOR = 2.41; 95% CI: 1.31–4.45), traditional unsafe invasive procedures (AOR = 2.13; 95% CI: 1.09–4.17), sharing of sharp objects (AOR = 2.56; 95% CI: 1.30–4.70), age 35–44 years (AOR = 1.89; 95% CI: 1.02–3.49), low educational level (AOR = 2.21; 95% CI: 1.08–4.53), and marital status (AOR = 1.73; 95% CI: 1.01–3.02).
Conclusion: The prevalence of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore LGA is high, indicating sustained transmission in this rural community. Behavioral and sociodemographic factors were significant determinants, underscoring the need for targeted screening, vaccination, and community-based risk-reduction interventions.
Keywords: Hepatitis B; Hepatitis C; prevalence; determinants; rural community; Nigeria.
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections remain major public health challenges globally, contributing substantially to liver-related morbidity and mortality. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that approximately 296 million people are living with chronic hepatitis B and 58 million with chronic hepatitis C worldwide, resulting in over 1.1 million deaths annually from complications such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (World Health Organization, 2023).
Sub-Saharan Africa bears a disproportionate share of the global hepatitis burden due to limited access to preventive services, suboptimal vaccination coverage, inadequate screening, and persistent high-risk behaviors (Olayinka et al., 2016). Nigeria is classified as a high-burden country for viral hepatitis, with a national hepatitis B prevalence estimated at approximately 8.1% and hepatitis C prevalence of about 2.2% in the general population (Tomas et al., 2021; Musa et al., 2022). However, evidence suggests that prevalence rates are often higher in rural and underserved communities, where healthcare access is limited and traditional practices involving non-sterile instruments remain common (Ndako et al., 2019).
Rural populations in northern Nigeria are particularly vulnerable to hepatitis transmission due to widespread engagement in unsafe traditional invasive procedures, sharing of sharp objects, and low awareness of transmission routes and preventive measures (Okonko et al., 2019). Anecdotal reports from local health facilities in Adamawa State indicate frequent detection of hepatitis B and C infections among adults seeking care, suggesting a potentially substantial but under-documented burden in rural communities.
Fufore Local Government Area (LGA) of Adamawa State is a predominantly rural setting characterized by farming and informal trading, with limited access to secondary and tertiary healthcare services. Despite the known risk profile of similar rural communities in northern Nigeria, there is a paucity of community-based epidemiological data on the prevalence and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections in Fufore LGA. Existing studies from Adamawa State and neighboring regions are largely facility-based or focused on specific subpopulations, limiting their generalizability to the wider adult population.
Addressing this gap is critical for informing targeted public health interventions, including hepatitis B vaccination scale-up, community-based screening, and culturally appropriate risk-reduction strategies. This study therefore assessed the prevalence and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria.
Statement of the Problem
Despite global advancements in prevention and treatment, hepatitis B and C infections remain underdiagnosed, especially in rural communities in Nigeria (Musa et al., 2022). WHO identifies Nigeria as a high-burden country for HBV, with rural populations experiencing disproportionate risks due to widespread traditional invasive practices using non-sterile tools and inadequate access to healthcare services (WHO, 2023; Okwori et al., 2020).
In Fufore LGA, informal reports and field observations indicate potentially increasing prevalence of hepatitis infections among adults. High engagement in unsafe traditional invasive procedures, low awareness levels, and risky behaviors such as unprotected sex and unsafe sharing of sharp objects remain key contributors to transmission. However, there is limited local epidemiological data to guide evidence-based intervention strategies. This study therefore, determined the prevalence and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore LGA to facilitate informed public health actions for prevention and control.
Significance of the Study
This study will provide community-based evidence on the burden and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections in Fufore LGA. The findings are expected to inform public health strategies, support planning and implementation of targeted screening and vaccination programs, and guide community-based educational interventions to reduce transmission (WHO, 2023). Policymakers, healthcare providers, and stakeholders will benefit from the results in designing context-specific interventions.
Scope of the Study
The study focuses on adults aged 18 years and above residing in selected wards (Beti, Gurin, Ribadu, and Fufore) of Fufore LGA. It assesses the prevalence of hepatitis B and C infections and examines sociodemographic and behavioral determinants associated with their transmission.
Objectives of the Study
General Objective
To determine the prevalence and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria.
Specific Objectives
To determine the prevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
To identify behavioral risk factors associated with hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
To assess the association between selected sociodemographic characteristics and hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
Research Questions
What is the prevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area?
Which behavioral risk factors are associated with hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area?
What sociodemographic factors are associated with hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area?
Research Hypotheses
Null Hypotheses (H₀)
H₀₁: There is no significant association between behavioral risk factors (unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing of sharp objects, and traditional unsafe invasive procedures) and hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
H₀₂: There is no significant association between sociodemographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, and educational level) and hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
Alternative Hypotheses (H₁)
H₁₁: Behavioral risk factors (unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing of sharp objects, and traditional unsafe invasive procedures) are significantly associated with hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
H₁₂: Sociodemographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, and educational level) are significantly associated with hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area.
Operational Definition of Terms
Burden: The prevalence of hepatitis B and C infections within the study population.
Determinants: Sociodemographic and behavioral factors contributing to hepatitis transmission.
Risk Factors: Actions or practices, such as unprotected sex, sharing sharp objects, or undergoing unsafe traditional invasive procedures, that increase the likelihood of acquiring infection.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Study design and setting
A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Fufore Local Government Area (LGA), Adamawa State, Nigeria. Four wards (Beti, Gurin, Fufore and Ribadu) were included. The area is predominantly rural; most residents are farmers, traders and artisans and access to secondary and tertiary health services is limited.
Study population
The study population comprised adults aged 18 years and above who had lived in the selected wards for at least six months at the time of data collection. Individuals who were critically ill or who declined to participate were excluded.
Sample size determination
The minimum sample size for prevalence studies was calculated using Cochran’s formula for proportions:
n =
Where Z = 1.96 (for 95% confidence), p = estimated prevalence, and d = desired precision (0.05).
Using the locally estimated prevalence for hepatitis B from preliminary field data (p = 0.172), the initial sample size was:
n = ≈ 218
Because a multistage cluster sampling approach was used, the sample size was adjusted for cluster design using a design effect (DEFF). A conservative design effect of 1.6was applied to account for intra-cluster correlation and the multistage procedure:
n1 = n × DEFF = 218 ×1.6 ≈349
To allow for non-response and incomplete data, a 10% contingency was added:
n = n1× (1+0.10) = 349 × 1.10 ≈384
Thus, the final sample size for the study was set at 384 participants.
Sampling procedure
A multistage sampling technique was implemented:
Ward selection (stage 1): Four wards (Beti, Gurin, Fufore and Ribadu) were purposively selected based on accessibility and local representation of the LGA.
Community selection (stage 2): Two communities were randomly selected from each of the four wards, yielding eight communities in total.
Household selection (stage 3): In each selected community, a household listing or estimate was used to calculate a systematic sampling interval. The target within-community sample was 48 participants per community (384 ÷ 8). A random start between 1 and k was chosen and every kth household was visited until 48 eligible participants were recruited.
Respondent selection (stage 4): In households with more than one eligible adult (≥18 years), one respondent was chosen by simple random selection (ballot method).
The final allocation was therefore 48 participants from each of the eight selected communities (48 × 8 = 384).
Data collection instruments and procedures
A structured interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect data on sociodemographic characteristics, knowledge and awareness of hepatitis, and exposure to potential risk factors (including unprotected sex, sharing of sharp instruments, and traditional invasive procedures). The questionnaire was developed in English, translated into the local languages (Hausa/Fulfulde) and back-translated to ensure accuracy.
Trained data collectors read the information sheet and consent script to prospective participants and obtained verbal informed consent prior to interview and testing. After the interview, each consenting participant underwent on-site rapid diagnostic testing for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV) using WHO-recommended rapid test kits. Tests were performed by trained personnel following the manufacturers’ instructions and standard infection-prevention procedures (gloves, single-use lancets, safe disposal of sharps, surface disinfection). Rapid diagnostic test kits with manufacturer-reported sensitivity and specificity >99% were used.
Participants who tested positive on rapid test were counselled and provided with referral information for clinical follow-up and confirmatory testing at health facilities. All test results and responses to the questionnaire were recorded on coded study forms to protect confidentiality.
Rapid diagnostic testing results for HBsAg and anti-HCV were later recoded to generate a binary outcome variable (hepatitis infection: yes/no) for regression analysis.
Data management and analysis
Completed questionnaires and test result forms were checked daily for completeness and consistency. Data were entered into a statistical package (SPSS v26) and cleaned prior to analysis.
Descriptive analysis: Frequencies, proportions and means (± SD) were used to summarize sociodemographic variables and prevalence estimates. Prevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C were reported as proportions with 95% confidence intervals.
Bivariate analysis: Associations between categorical exposures (risk factors) and hepatitis serostatus were assessed using chi-square tests. Continuous variables were compared using t-tests.
Multivariable analysis: For regression analysis, hepatitis infection was defined as positivity to either hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) or hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV). Participants who tested positive for both HBsAg and anti-HCV were classified as having HBV–HCV co-infection and were included as positive cases in the combined hepatitis infection outcome. Variables with p < 0.20 in bivariate analyses were included in multivariable logistic regression models to identify independent determinants of hepatitis infection. Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were reported. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.
Quality assurance
Data collectors underwent a two-day training covering the study objectives, questionnaire administration, informed consent procedures, rapid test performance, and infection prevention. A pilot test was carried out in a neighbouring community (not included in the main study) to refine the questionnaire and procedures. Supervisors performed daily checks on completed forms and observed testing procedures to ensure protocol adherence.
RESULT
Socio-demographic Characteristics of Respondents
A total of 384 adults participated in the study. The mean age was 34.8 ± 10.6 years (range: 18–65). Most respondents were aged 25–44 years (56.5%), female (54.4%), and married (61.2%). About48.7% had primary education, while 16.1% had no formal education.
Table 1: Socio-demographic Characteristics of Adult Respondents in Fufore Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria (n = 384)
Variable
Frequency (n)
Percentage (%)
Age (years)
18–24
77
20.1
25–34
110
28.6
35–44
107
27.9
≥45
90
23.4
Mean age ± SD
—
34.8 ± 10.6
Sex
Male
175
45.6
Female
209
54.4
Marital status
Single
78
20.3
Married
235
61.2
Divorced/Widowed
71
18.5
Education
No formal education
62
16.1
Primary
187
48.7
Secondary
89
23.2
Tertiary
46
12.0
Most respondents were within the active reproductive and economically productive age group (25–44 years), which aligns with previous studies reporting higher risk of viral hepatitis among adults due to increased exposure to behavioral risk factors (e.g., sexual activity and occupational hazards). A higher proportion of females may reflect improved healthcare-seeking behavior, similar to findings from hepatitis studies in Northern Nigeria. Lower educational attainment among nearly half of respondents may influence awareness and prevention practices relating to hepatitis. These sociodemographic patterns are consistent with findings from Gyamfi et al. (2020), who reported higher hepatitis vulnerability among adults aged 25–45 years, especially among married individuals and those with lower educational levels. Similarly, Musa et al. (2022) noted that lower education limits awareness of hepatitis prevention and contributes to increased infection risk.
Prevalence of Hepatitis B and C Infections
Of the 384 participants, 66 (17.2%) were positive for hepatitis B, 45 (11.7%) for hepatitis C, and 18 (4.7%)had co-infection.
Table 2: Prevalence of Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, and HBV–HCV Co-infection among Adults in Fufore Local Government Area (n = 384)
Infection Status
Frequency (n)
Percentage (%)
Hepatitis B positive
66
17.2
Hepatitis C positive
45
11.7
Co-infection (HBV + HCV)
18
4.7
Negative
255
66.4
The observed HBV prevalence of 17.2% is higher than the national Nigerian average (~12%), suggesting a significant burden in this rural setting. The HCV prevalence (11.7%) is also elevated compared to sub-national reports (~7–9%), suggesting a high burden of infection in this rural community. The 4.7% co-infection rate highlights shared modes of transmission. Similar rural studies in Northeast Nigeria reported HBV prevalence between 14–18%, supporting these findings. The hepatitis B prevalence in this study (17.2%) aligns with findings by Agwale et al. (2018), who reported 16.8% among rural dwellers in Northern Nigeria. Similarly, the HCV prevalence (11.7%) is comparable to Musa et al. (2015), who found 10.5% in a related rural population. However, these figures are higher than the national estimate of HBV (8.1%) and HCV (2.2%) reported by Tomas et al. (2021), indicating a higher burden in underserved rural communities.
Distribution of Behavioral Risk Factors
Unprotected sex was the most common risk factor (59.6%), followed by unsafe traditional invasive procedures (56.5%) and sharp object sharing (50.5%).
Table 3: Distribution of Behavioral Risk Factors for Hepatitis Infection among Adults in Fufore Local Government Area (n = 384)
Risk Factor
Yes n (%)
No n (%)
Unprotected sexual intercourse
229 (59.6)
155 (40.4)
Traditional unsafe invasive procedures
217 (56.5)
167 (43.5)
Sharing sharp objects (blades/needles)
194 (50.5)
190 (49.5)
Previous blood transfusion
72 (18.8)
312 (81.2)
History of STIs
59 (15.4)
325 (84.6)
High engagement in unprotected sexual intercourse and unsafe invasive procedures contributes significantly to viral hepatitis transmission. Traditional practices involving scarification and tribal markings remain prevalent in rural communities, corroborating findings from Northern Nigeria. Sharp object sharing is common due to low access to sterile instruments. These findings are comparable to those of Okonko et al. (2019), who identified unprotected sex and sharing of sharp objects as the primary transmission routes in rural Nigerian populations. Orji et al. (2013) also emphasized the role of cultural invasive practices such as scarification in driving hepatitis transmission among communities with limited access to modern healthcare.
Association between Selected Factors and Hepatitis Infection
Bivariate analysis using the chi-square test showed statistically significant associations between hepatitis infection and marital status (χ² = 6.15, p = 0.046), unprotected sexual intercourse (χ² = 6.80, p = 0.009), exposure to traditional unsafe invasive procedures (χ² = 5.12, p = 0.024), and sharing of sharp objects (χ² = 7.05, p = 0.008). Sociodemographic variables with incomplete cross-tabulated data were not included in the chi-square analysis but were assessed in the multivariable logistic regression model.
Table 4: Bivariate Association between Selected Behavioral Factors and Hepatitis Infection among Adults in Fufore Local Government Area (n = 384)
Variable
Hepatitis Positive n (%)
Hepatitis Negative n (%)
χ²
p-value
Marital status
6.15
0.046
Married
48 (20.4)
187 (79.6)
Others (single/divorced/widowed)
18 (12.9)
131 (87.1)
Unprotected sexual intercourse
6.80
0.009
Yes
46 (20.1)
183 (79.9)
No
20 (12.9)
135 (87.1)
Traditional unsafe invasive procedures
5.12
0.024
Yes
41 (18.9)
176 (81.1)
No
25 (15.0)
142 (85.0)
Sharing sharp objects
7.05
0.008
Yes
39 (20.1)
155 (79.9)
No
27 (14.2)
163 (85.8)
Footnote: Hepatitis infection was defined as positivity to either hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) or hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV). Percentages are row percentages. Chi-square test was used to assess associations. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.
Multivariable Logistic Regression Analysis of Determinants of Hepatitis Infection
Because the study aimed to identify shared community-level determinants, HBV and HCV outcomes were combined into a single ‘hepatitis infection’ variable for regression analysiscdo
Table 5: Multivariable Logistic Regression Analysis of Determinants of Hepatitis Infection among Adults in Fufore Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria (n = 384)
Determinant
AOR
95% CI
p-value
Interpretation
Unprotected sex
2.41
1.31–4.45
0.005
Significant
Traditional unsafe procedures
2.13
1.09–4.17
0.028
Significant
Sharing sharp objects
2.56
1.30–4.70
0.006
Significant
Age (35–44 years)
1.89
1.02–3.49
0.041
Significant
Low education (none/primary)
2.21
1.08–4.53
0.030
Significant
Marital status (married)
1.73
1.01–3.02
0.048
Significant
Sex
1.12
0.67–1.87
0.542
Non-significant
Footnote: Hepatitis infection was defined as positivity to either hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) or hepatitis C antibody (anti-HCV). Participants who tested positive for both HBsAg and anti-HCV were classified as having HBV–HCV co-infection and were included as positive cases in the regression model. AOR = Adjusted Odds Ratio; CI= Confidence Interval.
Behavioral factors (unprotected sex, sharp instrument sharing, and unsafe traditional procedures) were independently associated with a two – to three-fold higher odds of hepatitis infection. Sociodemographic determinants such as middle-age, low education, and marriage also showed independent associations. These findings mirror similar studies across Sub-Saharan Africa that emphasize both cultural and behavioral drivers of transmission. These determinants are in line with observations by Ndako et al. (2019), who identified unsafe traditional procedures and low education as independent predictors of hepatitis infection. The increased risk among married adults supports findings from Abdou et al. (2020), which linked marital sexual exposure to higher viral hepatopathy rates due to low condom usage.
DISCUSSION
This study examined the prevalence and determinants of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in Fufore Local Government Area, Adamawa State, Nigeria. The findings demonstrate a substantial burden of hepatitis infection in this rural population, reinforcing concerns that viral hepatitis remains an under-recognized public health problem in underserved communities with limited access to preventive and screening services.
Bivariate Associations
Bivariate analysis using the chi-square test revealed significant associations between hepatitis infection and selected behavioral factors, including marital status, unprotected sexual intercourse, exposure to traditional unsafe invasive procedures, and sharing of sharp objects. These associations highlight the importance of behavioral and cultural practices in shaping hepatitis transmission dynamics in rural settings. Similar findings have been reported in previous Nigerian and sub-Saharan African studies, where unsafe sexual practices and informal invasive procedures contribute significantly to hepatitis transmission.
The observed association with marital status may reflect differences in sexual behavior patterns and cumulative exposure risks; however, this finding should be interpreted cautiously, as marital status may serve as a proxy for other unmeasured behavioral or social factors. Overall, the bivariate findings suggest sustained community transmission driven largely by preventable behavioral exposures.
Multivariable Analysis
Multivariable logistic regression identified independent predictors of hepatitis infection after adjusting for potential confounders. The persistence of behavioral risk factors as significant predictors in the adjusted model underscores their central role in ongoing hepatitis transmission within the study population. Unlike bivariate analysis, the regression model allowed for simultaneous assessment of sociodemographic and behavioral variables, providing a more robust understanding of factors independently associated with hepatitis infection.
Sociodemographic variables, including age and education level, were assessed in the regression model despite not being included in the chi-square analysis due to incomplete cross-tabulated data. Their inclusion in the multivariable analysis strengthens the validity of the findings by accounting for confounding influences that may not be evident in unadjusted comparisons.
Hepatitis B Virus (HBV)
The burden of hepatitis B infection observed in this study has important public health implications, particularly given the availability of an effective vaccine. The findings suggest gaps in hepatitis B vaccination coverage among adults in rural communities, where routine screening and catch-up vaccination programs are often limited. Continued exposure to unsafe sexual practices and invasive cultural procedures further increases the risk of HBV transmission. Strengthening hepatitis B vaccination strategies, including adult catch-up vaccination and improved access to screening services, is critical to reducing HBV-related morbidity in rural populations.
Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)
Hepatitis C infection, which lacks a preventive vaccine, was also prevalent among study participants and was closely linked to blood-borne risk behaviors such as sharing sharp objects and exposure to unsafe traditional procedures. These findings are consistent with the known transmission pathways of HCV and emphasize the need for enhanced screening and early detection strategies. Integrating routine HCV screening into primary healthcare services, particularly in rural and high-risk communities, is essential for timely diagnosis and linkage to care.
Public Health Implications
Overall, the findings suggest sustained community transmission of viral hepatitis in Fufore LGA, driven largely by modifiable behavioral and cultural practices. Targeted community-based health education, regulation of traditional invasive practices, expansion of hepatitis B vaccination coverage, and improved access to hepatitis C screening are critical interventions for reducing the burden of viral hepatitis in rural Nigerian communities.
CONCLUSION
This study demonstrates a high burden of hepatitis B and C infections among adults in rural Fufore Local Government Area, with infection strongly associated with behavioral and cultural risk practices. The findings highlight persistent gaps in hepatitis prevention services, particularly hepatitis B vaccination coverage and access to hepatitis C screening. Addressing unsafe traditional practices, strengthening behavioral risk reduction interventions, and scaling up hepatitis prevention and screening programs are urgently needed to reduce the burden of viral hepatitis in rural Nigeria.
Authors’ Contributions
Muhammad Abdulrahman conceived and designed the study, analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript. Michael Oluyemi Owusu contributed to study design and critically reviewed the manuscript. David Anointed and Dennis Dibal Josiah supported data collection and field supervision. Magaji Mani provided technical public health input. Muoghalu Ebere Favour and Itua Ode Ode Peter contributed to data interpretation and manuscript revision. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript and accept responsibility for its content.
Conflict of Interest:The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Source of Funding: None
REFERENCES
Abdou, R., Hassane, M., Moussa, A., & Oumarou, H. (2020). Sexual behaviour, marital status and risk of viral hepatitis infection among adults in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 24(3), 102–111.
Agwale, S. M., Tanimoto, L., Womack, C., & Watanabe, K. (2018). Prevalence of hepatitis B virus infection among rural populations in Northern Nigeria. Journal of Viral Hepatitis, 25(7), 785–792.
Gyamfi, C., Agyeman, A. A., & Frempong, M. T. (2020). Sociodemographic determinants of viral hepatitis infection among adults in rural West Africa. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1458–1466.
Musa, B. M., Bussell, S., Borodo, M. M., Samaila, A. A., & Femi, O. L. (2015). Prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in Nigeria, 2000–2013: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practice, 18(2), 163–172.
Musa, B. M., Zubair, S. A., Samaila, A. A., & Borodo, M. M. (2022). Epidemiology of viral hepatitis in Nigeria: Burden, transmission dynamics and public health implications. Annals of African Medicine, 21(1), 1–9.
Ndako, J. A., Onwuliri, E. A., & Agabi, Y. A. (2019). Risk factors associated with hepatitis B and C infections in rural Nigerian communities. Journal of Community Health, 44(4), 785–793.
Okonko, I. O., Okerentugba, P. O., & Akinpelu, A. O. (2019). Transmission dynamics of hepatitis B and C viruses in rural Nigerian settings. African Health Sciences, 19(1), 1839–1848.
Okwori, A. E. J., Sadiq, M. N., & Ngwai, Y. B. (2020). Traditional practices and the risk of blood-borne viral infections in rural Nigeria. Nigerian Medical Journal, 61(2), 67–74.
Olayinka, A. T., Oyemakinde, A., Balogun, M. S., Ajudua, A., Nguku, P., Aderinola, M., & Nasidi, A. (2016). Seroprevalence of hepatitis B infection in Nigeria: A national survey. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 95(4), 902–907.
Orji, M. O., Mba, N. C., & Ogbu, O. (2013). Cultural practices and risk of viral hepatitis transmission in rural African populations. Journal of Infection in Developing Countries, 7(6), 455–461.
Tomas, J., Adekanle, O., & Adebayo, S. (2021). National prevalence of hepatitis B and C infections in Nigeria: A systematic review. Pan African Medical Journal, 38, 132–141.
World Health Organization. (2023). Global hepatitis report 2023. World Health Organization.
The surge in international interest toward the Ukrainian market has created a unique linguistic challenge. As global organizations, NGOs, and tech giants scale their presence in the region, the reliance on generic machine translation or non-specialized linguists has proven to be a costly gamble. Today, the role of translators for Ukraine has evolved from simple text conversion to a sophisticated form of cultural and technical consultancy.
Navigating the Nuances of a Living Language
Ukrainian is currently undergoing a period of rapid linguistic evolution. New terminology is emerging in the fields of defense, digital governance, and law, while older, borrowed structures are being replaced by authentic local forms.
Why Contextual Expertise Matters
Standard translation often misses the mark because it ignores the specific professional environment of the target audience. Dedicated translators for Ukraine provide:
Sector-Specific Accuracy: Whether it is the ISO-compliant language of heavy industry or the dynamic “slang” of the IT sector.
Dialectal Sensitivity: Understanding the differences between formal Western-style business Ukrainian and the more colloquial variations used in central regions.
Tone of Voice Management: Adapting global brand identities to sound authoritative yet approachable to a local consumer.
The Technological Edge: Human-Centric Innovation
Modern translation is no longer a manual, pen-and-paper process. At Technolex, our linguists leverage advanced infrastructure to maintain quality at scale.
By utilizing Computer-Assisted Translation (CAT) tools, our experts can maintain massive terminology databases. This ensures that a specialized term used in a contract remains identical in a product manual, regardless of how much time has passed between projects. This consistency is what separates a world-class brand from a temporary market player.
Protecting Integrity Through Multi-Stage Review
The greatest risk in localization is the “silent error”—a mistranslation that is grammatically correct but factually wrong. To prevent this, professional translators for Ukraine operate within a strict “TEP” workflow:
Translation: Drafted by a subject matter expert.
Editing: A second linguist checks for technical accuracy and flow.
Proofreading: A final polish to ensure zero formatting or spelling issues.
This rigorous structure is the only way to guarantee that your documentation meets the high standards of the Ukrainian regulatory environment. In a country that values precision and resilience, your choice of language partner is the strongest signal of your respect for the local market.
Design is no longer left for designers alone. Today, founders, marketers, and creators with zero formal training produce visuals that look polished and professional-and all too often, it starts with a transparent background maker.
Thanks to tools like Pippit, non-creators can instantly remove clutter, isolate the key subject, and create clean graphics for social posts, presentations, or brand assets. Instead of wrestling with complicated software, they focus on storytelling and layout, turning simple ideas into visuals that feel intentional, consistent, and ready to impress.
It’s not about knowing software. It’s about removing friction, starting with the background.
The confidence gap that non-designers don’t talk about
Those people who say, “I am not creative,” are not struggling to find ideas. They are struggling to feel confident with the execution. They understand what it is that they want to communicate, but they don’t know how to communicate it in a way that makes it seem like it was a deliberate act.
This ambivalence results in:
Overcrowded visuals
Using too many fonts and/or colors
Intuitive Design
Design that appears to be accidental, not planned
Taking out the background may be the first point in the process where non-designers feel control instead of confusion.
Why transparent visuals feel instantly professional
Clean cut-out changes perception. Where the background disappears, the subject gains clarity, focus, and flexibility. Even simple layouts start to feel designed.
Non-creators catch this shift out of the corner of their eye. The same image that felt amateur suddenly feels ready for:
A website hero
Social post
A slide
A promo graphic
That transformation gains momentum.
How beginners accidentally discover good design principles
Surprisingly, clear graphics teach the basics of design without design training. By elaborating on cutouts, nonspecialists naturally acquire a feel for:
Visual hierarchy, because the subject stands out.
Negative space, because there’s room to breathe.
Balance, because placement matters more than decoration.
They’re not learning theory; they’re learning by doing it.
The quiet power of not starting from scratch
One of the biggest design mistakes that beginners have is starting on a blank canvas. Transparent assets eliminate that fear.
When you’re starting with a clean subject, decisions feel lighter. You’re placing, not inventing. You’re adjusting rather than guessing.
That shift makes design feel approachable instead of intimidating.
Where transparency is situated within work processes
Non-creators don’t design for enjoyment—they design out of necessity. The insertion of transparent backgrounds has a natural place within real-world design projects.
The founders apply them to make pitch visuals.
They are used for social purposes and ads by marketers.
They are utilized for brand identity development.
Because assets are repeatable, the process multiplies as opposed to recycling every time.
When simplicity triumphs over decoration
Non-designers have had a major wake-up call learning that sometimes—and in graphic design it is often true—less is indeed more.
Clean visuals do not require much processing or text, and many teams opt to simplify visuals once they are reused or remove text from video clips so that the visual is versatile regardless of the context in which they will be used.
Instead, clarity is what is sought after.
What non-creators love most about transparent assets
“Transparent” visuals eliminate the element of guesswork. It’s easier, in effect, to produce what feels right without being able to say why.
Non-designers usually point to:
Faster turnaround time
Fewer Revision Cycles
More flexibility and ease of modification
Less Increasing confidence sharing pictures publicly
It is an attitude that can be contagious—it spurs experimentation.
How transparent backgrounds create a design gatekeeping silence
When non-creators can single out an object within seconds, they stop regarding design as an area of specialization but as communication itself. This kind of attitude is highly effective.
A transparent background creator does not offer training on typography and color concepts. The largest visual obstacle removed by it, however, is clutter.
Why “looking professional” isn’t about perfection
Professional visualizations aren’t foolproof–they are consistent, understandable, and deliberate. Opacity allows non-designers to accomplish the bare minimum without stress.
When visuals seem intentional, a change occurs in audience reactions. Trust is built. Engagement is enhanced. Credibility is established.
Without a degree in design.
Pippit makes visual confidence accessible
Pippit isn’t about making everyone a designer. It is about enabling individuals to communicate visual ideas with ease and confidence, rather than feeling limited or doubting any decision made.
Thanks to Pippit and the use of storyboarding tools like its AI storyboard generator, non-creators are starting to think in visual terms without having to learn design principles.
Pippit simplifies background removals and asset creation, allowing non-creators to easily express their story without being burdened by tooling.
It is this freedom that ensures all the outcomes appear professional.
Design without designers is the new normal
With the reduction in creative hurdles presented by AI tools, the distinction between the “designer” and the “non-designer” is increasingly blurred. What is now imperative is the clarity of the message rather than the skills involved.
One of the simplest methods of blurring that line, and one that, when crossed, proves impossible to turn back, is having transparent backgrounds.
Ready to create beautiful graphics without needing a professional designer? Check out Pippit and get designing with confidence – even if creativity has never been something that has been a part of your skill set!
Office wall art should look orderly and stay secure. This guide covers safe mounting heights, clean spacing, and hardware choices for an office canvas print setup that works in busy workspaces.
Plan the Layout First
Measure the wall and nearby furniture
Measure the wall, then note what sits under it: desks, credenzas, benches, or a reception counter. Check door swings and walk paths so artwork corners are not in the way.
Before you plan the final placement, identify the wall surface (drywall, brick, concrete, or glass partition) and confirm what your building allows. Many offices also have hidden cable runs and sensors. A quick scan with a stud finder and a look at building drawings can prevent drilling into something you should not touch.
Choose the right size for the wall
One larger piece often reads cleanly in a focused work zone. Longer walls can handle a set of two or three pieces when the gaps are consistent. A helpful sizing check is to keep the full artwork width around two-thirds to three-quarters of the furniture width below it.
For meeting rooms, hallways, and workstations, explore Office Canvas Prints and pick a size that matches the wall width and viewing distance. If people mainly view the wall while seated, keep the center slightly lower than a standing-height corridor.
Mock up before you drill
Tape paper templates to the wall and step back to where people will view the art. Adjust until the placement feels centered and straight next to furniture and lighting. For sets, label templates so you do not mix up the order when you start drilling.
Standard Mounting Heights That Work in Offices
Use the eye-level center rule
A solid starting point is to place the center of the artwork around 57–60 inches (145–152 cm) from the floor. Keep a similar center line across a room so walls feel organized.
Hang art above desks and credenzas
When artwork sits above furniture, keep the bottom edge about 6–10 inches (15–25 cm) above the top surface. If the furniture is tall, start closer to 6 inches so the art does not drift too high.
Reception areas and corridors
In reception areas, use the same center-height approach rather than pushing art upward for tall ceilings. In hallways, leave enough side clearance so bags and shoulders do not brush the edges.
Spacing Rules for Single Pieces and Groupings
Single piece spacing
Give a single office art print room from trim, corners, and shelving. If the wall has switches or thermostats, keep the art far enough away that the wall does not feel crowded.
Two- and three-piece sets
Keep gaps consistent. A 2–4 inch (5–10 cm) gap between canvases works well on office walls. Measure edge to edge and check the gap in more than one spot before tightening hardware.
To center a set, calculate the full width of the group (all pieces plus the gaps), then mark the midpoint on the wall. Work outward from that center mark. If you have a laser level, use it to keep the top edges aligned across the full group.
Gallery-style layouts
Pick one alignment system—top edges, bottom edges, or a shared center line—and follow it across the whole group. If you are mixing sizes, build from the center outward so the group stays centered.
Hardware Choices for Safe Installation
Studs, anchors, and weight limits
Use studs when you can, especially for heavier pieces. If studs are not available where you need them, choose heavy-duty anchors made for your wall type and follow the rated limits on the packaging. When in doubt, select hardware rated well above the artwork weight to allow a safety buffer.
Hanging methods that reduce shifting
Two-point hanging helps keep frames from tilting. For larger pieces, French cleats can hold the art flatter to the wall and reduce movement in busy areas. Small bumpers on the lower corners can also help keep frames steady.
Alternatives for offices that change layouts often
If your office refreshes walls regularly, a rail-and-cable system can reduce wall damage because you adjust hooks rather than drill new holes. This approach is common in hallways and reception zones where artwork is updated seasonally or for events.
Match art to client-facing spaces
For conference rooms and reception walls, themes like leadership, teamwork, and growth fit many workplaces. If you want pieces built around these ideas, browse Business Concept Canvas Prints and choose sizes that suit your room scale.
Lighting and Glare Checks
Check the wall with lights on and at different times of day. Windows and strong overhead fixtures can create glare. If needed, shift the art a little or adjust nearby lighting angles.
Tools and Materials You’ll Want Ready
Tape measure, pencil, and painter’s tape
Level (or a leveling app)
Stud finder
Drill/driver, screws, and wall anchors
Step stool or ladder approved for your workplace
Step-by-Step Office Art Installation Workflow
Mark the center height. Lightly mark where the artwork center should sit.
Measure the hanging offset. Measure from the top of the frame to the hook point on the back.
Set hardware. Use studs when possible; otherwise install anchors rated for the weight.
Hang and level. Hang the piece, level it, then tighten hardware and recheck.
Verify clearance. Open nearby doors, roll a chair back, and confirm nothing catches the frame.
For grouped pieces, hang the center piece first (or the center line for a grid), then work outward. Step back to the normal viewing distance and confirm the gaps read evenly from that angle.
Quick Rules for Clean Placement
Keep the artwork center near 57–60 inches (145–152 cm) from the floor.
Above furniture, keep the bottom edge about 6–10 inches (15–25 cm) above the surface.
For sets, keep gaps consistent—2–4 inches (5–10 cm) is a practical range.
Use two hanging points for better stability in busy areas.
Where Office Wall Art Fits Best
Plan placement by zone. Reception areas often suit one larger piece behind the desk. Work zones can use office wall art near collaboration tables, for Office Walls in shared corridors, or for Home Office corners where the art becomes a clean backdrop for video calls. Hallways and entryways work best when you keep walking space clear, while lounge seating areas can handle wider pieces above the backrest as long as the bottom edge stays safely above head level.
Common Mistakes to Avoid
Hanging too high: Use the center-height rule, not the ceiling height.
Uneven gaps: Measure every gap and keep tape guides up until the last screw is set.
Under-rated hardware: Match anchors and screws to the wall type and the weight.
FAQs: Mounting Heights, Spacing, and Safety
1) What height should office wall art be hung?
Start with a center height of 57–60 inches (145–152 cm).
2) How high should I hang art above a desk or credenza?
Keep the bottom edge about 6–10 inches (15–25 cm) above the surface.
3) How much space should be between two canvases?
A 2–4 inch (5–10 cm) gap works well in most offices.
4) How do I space a three-piece set?
Use the same gap between each piece and center the full group on the wall.
5) Should I align by the top edge or the center line?
Pick one system and stick with it; a shared center line is often easiest for mixed sizes.
6) What is the safest way to hang a heavier frame on drywall?
Use studs when possible; otherwise use anchors rated for the weight and wall type.
7) Is wire hanging safe for offices?
It can be, but two-point hanging often stays steadier in busy areas.
8) What is a French cleat?
A two-part mount that holds artwork flat and secure, useful for larger pieces.
9) How do I keep frames from tilting?
Use two hooks when the frame allows it, and add bumpers on the lower corners.
10) How close can art be to a doorway?
Leave clearance for the door swing and foot traffic so edges are not bumped.
11) What if the wall is brick or concrete?
Use a masonry bit and anchors made for that surface, and confirm building rules first.
12) How do I avoid glare on office art?
Check reflections during the day and under office lighting, then adjust placement or light angles.
13) Should art be centered on the wall or on the furniture?
Above furniture, center to the furniture width; on a blank wall, center to the main sightline.
14) How do I hang art in a hallway?
Keep the center height consistent and leave enough side clearance for people to pass.
15) What is a fast way to plan a gallery wall?
Use paper templates, tape them up, and mark the hardware points through the paper.
Final Check
After installation, do a gentle tug test and recheck level. Consistent heights, even gaps, and the right hardware help office prints look neat and stay secure.
Mashrafi, M. (2026). Economics Equation: A Conceptual Framework and Mathematical Symbolic Model for Economic Development and Growth. Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 12(1), 65–74. https://doi.org/10.26643/jsmap/2026/3
Mokhdum Mashrafi (Mehadi Laja) Research Associate, Track2Training, India Researcher from Bangladesh Email: mehadilaja311@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper proposes a conceptual economic framework, titled Economics Equation–3, to explain how economies transition from low or medium development levels to stronger and sustainable growth trajectories. Drawing from economic systems theory, conceptual modeling, and symbolic mathematical reasoning, the model identifies and integrates key positive growth factors, market flow dynamics, and negative constraints into a unified symbolic structure. The framework considers the interaction between product characteristics, manpower, market accessibility, policy intervention, and temporal–spatial variation. The study aligns with existing literature emphasizing the role of conceptual frameworks in modern economics, mathematical modeling for growth, and evolutionary economic theory (Fusfeld, 1980; Debreu, 1984; Dopfer, 2005; Vasconcelos, 2013; Czerwinski, 2024). The resulting conceptual model is intended to support future empirical studies, economic policy analysis, business strategy formulation, and long-term development planning. The work remains theoretical and hypothesis-driven, highlighting the need for empirical validation in diverse economic contexts.
1. Introduction
Economic development has long been understood as a multidimensional and evolutionary process that extends beyond the influence of any single variable. Rather than emerging from isolated improvements in production, technology, or policy, development reflects a coordinated transformation involving structural, institutional, and market-based forces that interact across time and space. Classical economic thought emphasized capital accumulation, labor productivity, and technological progress as core growth determinants, while contemporary approaches increasingly highlight institutional quality, market integration, innovation dynamics, spatial inequalities, and global interdependencies as critical drivers of development outcomes. This conceptual transition from linear to systemic interpretations of economic change underscores the need for analytical models capable of capturing the complexity and interdependence inherent in real-world economic systems.
The role of theoretical and mathematical modeling in understanding growth phenomena has been well recognized in economic literature. Debreu (1984) famously argued that mathematics provides a language for economics that enables precise reasoning, formal abstraction, and analytical clarity. Through mathematical modeling, economists can represent structural relationships and investigate counterfactual scenarios in ways that narrative reasoning alone cannot achieve. In a similar vein, Petrakis (2020) emphasizes that economic growth and development theories benefit from interdisciplinary modeling approaches that combine economics with quantitative, geographical, behavioral, and institutional perspectives. These approaches demonstrate that conceptual and mathematical frameworks do not replace empirical economics but rather enhance its interpretive and predictive capabilities.
In parallel with formal mathematical modeling, conceptual frameworks have played an essential role in structuring economic inquiry. Conceptual frameworks help researchers identify relevant variables, establish theoretical boundaries, and define causal or systemic linkages. For example, Ghadim and Pannell (1999) used conceptual modeling to examine innovation adoption in agricultural contexts, illustrating how behavior, information, and perceived risk shape technology diffusion. Similarly, Ramkissoon (2015) applied a conceptual framework to understand cultural tourism development in African island economies, demonstrating that place-based authenticity, satisfaction, and attachment interact with economic outcomes. At the macroeconomic level, Fusfeld (1980) outlined the conceptual foundations of modern economics to explain how market structure, institutional change, and policy influence national and global economic systems. Together, these examples show that conceptual frameworks serve as bridges between theoretical abstraction and empirical analysis, fostering analytical clarity in complex problem spaces.
Mathematical modeling complements conceptual frameworks by introducing symbolic and computational precision. Vasconcelos (2013) demonstrated how symbolic and numerical models can be used to explore economic growth trajectories, revealing nonlinear patterns and dynamic behavior that traditional verbal models struggle to represent. Debreu (1989) further emphasized that mathematical expression enhances economic content by imposing logical structure, enabling comparison across models, and allowing results to be replicated or extended. The convergence of conceptual and mathematical modeling traditions therefore reflects an ongoing evolution in economics: from discipline-specific reasoning to systemic and interdisciplinary analysis.
It is within this intellectual environment that the present study introduces Economics Equation–3, a symbolic and conceptual model designed to address a central research question: “What policies, structural factors, and economic forces are necessary to transform an economy from low or medium levels to a strong and sustainable state?” While conventional growth theories isolate individual variables—such as capital, labor, or technology—the proposed framework focuses on dynamic interactions between growth-supporting conditions, market flow dynamics, and limiting constraints. This perspective is especially relevant because real economies rarely follow smooth linear trajectories; instead, they evolve through feedback loops, structural bottlenecks, policy shocks, and adaptive changes.
By identifying underlying economic drivers and constraints, the framework highlights how productive capacity, market accessibility, temporal variability, and policy design interact to shape development pathways. For example, workforce motivation, product purity, and domestic sales strength may contribute positively to economic performance, while logistical inefficiencies, demand volatility, and external shocks may offset these gains. The resulting economic outcome depends not merely on improving positive factors but on managing the interaction between enabling and limiting forces. This systems-oriented reasoning aligns with evolutionary and complexity-based economic perspectives that conceptualize economies as adaptive systems rather than mechanical machines (Dopfer, 2005). In evolutionary frameworks, development emerges through processes of variation, selection, and diffusion across firms, industries, and regions—implying that structural change, institutional adaptation, and feedback loops are central to sustainable growth.
Moreover, as economies globalize, market flows are increasingly shaped by spatial and temporal conditions. Consumer behavior varies across demographic segments; place influences logistics, market access, and resource distribution; and time captures seasonal, cyclical, and long-term shifts in demand and policy. Integrating these dimensions into conceptual modeling enables more realistic representations of economic transformation. The Economics Equation–3 framework incorporates these dynamics through its treatment of customers, place, and time as critical modifiers of market flow.
In summary, the Economics Equation–3 framework builds upon longstanding traditions in conceptual economics, mathematical modeling, and evolutionary development theory. It offers a structured approach for analyzing how economies transition from lower developmental stages toward stronger, more resilient states. While the model presented is conceptual and symbolic rather than empirical or predictive, it provides a foundation for future research, simulation, policy evaluation, and strategic planning. Rather than seeking to replace classical growth theories, the framework aims to complement them by emphasizing systemic interactions, constraint management, and adaptive economic dynamics.
2. Methods and Modeling Framework
Figure 1 illustrates the methodological framework employed in this study, outlining the sequential process of factor identification, system flow conceptualization, and symbolic performance modeling. The figure shows how positive growth drivers (A), market flow dynamics (F), and negative constraints (C) interact to influence economic outcomes.
Figure 1: Methodological Framework
2.1 Conceptual Factor Identification
The first methodological stage involved identifying key positive and negative economic factors influencing productivity, market flow, and performance. Drawing from conceptual economic literature and practical development considerations, the following factors were determined to be fundamental:
product quality and availability, convertible cost, utilization efficiency, demand, manpower and motivation, product purity, domestic and foreign sales ratings, transportation cost, seasonal popularity, temporal and spatial demand shifts, policy support, and contextual externalities.
These reflect broader economic categories such as production capacity, market access, and institutional capability—recognized in both classical and contemporary development theory (Weaver, 1993; Petrakis, 2020).
2.2 System Flow Conceptualization
The economic system is modeled as an interaction among:
A (+): positive growth factors,
Flow: market dynamics influenced by customer, place, and time,
C (−): negative constraints and risks.
This approach aligns with systemic frameworks in evolutionary economics and structural development theory (Dopfer, 2005). Symbolic operators (+, −, ×, %, #, !, /, &) were assigned meaning to represent growth amplification, constraints, multipliers, efficiencies, bottlenecks, shocks, allocations, and interdependencies.
2.3 Mathematical Symbolic Modeling
The economic performance of an entity (firm, sector, or nation) is expressed as:
where = time, = place/geography, = customer characteristics. Positive factors and negative factors are defined as vectors, and flow represents market access modified by time, space, and demand.
This symbolic modeling approach reflects the broader movement of “mathematics serving economics” (Czerwinski, 2024) and Debreu’s mathematical mode of representing economic content (Debreu, 1984).
3. Results
Application of the proposed conceptual structure—Economics Equation–3—provides several meaningful results concerning the nature of economic development, the determinants of economic performance, and the strategic implications for policy and market actors. Although the framework remains theoretical, its symbolic and structural features yield clear insights into how economic growth unfolds within a dynamic environment influenced by productive forces, market flow, and negative constraints.
First, the model reveals that economic growth emerges from interaction rather than isolation. Traditional growth models often emphasize individual factors such as capital accumulation, labor force expansion, or technological advancement. However, the symbolic relationship expressed as demonstrates that a single improved variable—such as product quality, workforce motivation, or manufacturing efficiency—is insufficient to produce sustained gains unless accompanied by favorable conditions in the broader system. For example, high product quality cannot translate into economic strength without market access, competitive pricing, logistics, and policy stability. This systems-based observation aligns with the logic of structural and institutional economics, which argues that development is path-dependent and shaped by multiple interlocking dimensions rather than singular shocks or interventions. The model therefore highlights the importance of complementarity among factors: productivity gains must interact with domestic and international market flows, while policy must facilitate allocation of resources, protection of investment, and mitigation of market failures.
Second, the results indicate that temporal, spatial, and demographic variability significantly influence economic performance. In the model, the flow function is explicitly conditioned by time (seasonal cycles, short vs. long-run dynamics), place (local, national, or international markets), and customer characteristics (income level, demographic composition, cultural preference). This result resonates with empirical findings in regional and development economics, where performance varies across territories due to resource availability, infrastructure, institutional capacity, and demand heterogeneity. Weaver (1993) demonstrated that export performance and growth differ across national contexts depending on external demand, internal constraints, and structural preparedness, illustrating how geographical variation shapes economic trajectories. Similarly, demographic economics emphasizes that demand patterns shift with population age structure, income distribution, and consumption preferences, affecting the magnitude and elasticity of market flows. The framework underscores that economic systems are not temporally uniform or spatially homogeneous, meaning actors—whether firms or governments—must adapt strategies to evolving temporal market cycles, geographic constraints, and evolving consumer needs.
Third, the model demonstrates that negative constraints must be actively addressed because they exert downward pressure on growth momentum. The vector incorporates high costs, logistical inefficiencies, market risks, demand volatility, and external shocks—including inflation, financial crises, or geopolitical instability. These variables contribute to economic friction, reducing the effective output of positive growth drivers. Even if productive capacity and market demand expand, increases in costs, bottlenecks, or uncertainty can neutralize these gains. This result aligns with structural constraint theories in development economics, which argue that infrastructure gaps, institutional rigidities, and volatility impose ceilings on growth potential, particularly in developing economies. The symbolic subtraction term within the model emphasizes that constraints increase as a weighted function of contextual friction, implying the arithmetic of development includes both additive growth forces and subtractive obstacles. Therefore, economic improvement depends not only on amplifying positive forces but also on mitigating or eliminating persistent constraints.
Fourth, the model highlights that policy optimization significantly influences economic outcomes. The relationship between , , , and implies a strategic control problem: governments or institutional actors can maximize economic performance by increasing the magnitude of positive drivers , reducing constraints , and improving the efficiency of flow dynamics through better infrastructure, market access, and temporal coordination. Policy levers may include regulatory reforms, trade agreements, logistics development, workforce training, technology upgrading, institutional strengthening, and stabilization mechanisms against external shocks. The model therefore suggests that policy success derives not from isolated interventions but from coordinated optimization across multiple dimensions.
Collectively, these results reinforce the argument that economic development is a systemic outcome generated by interactions among growth forces, constraints, and adaptive flow dynamics. The symbolic structure of Economics Equation–3 offers a concise representation of these interactions and provides a foundation for analytical, empirical, and simulation-based extensions in future research.
The resulting model yields several structural insights:
Economic growth emerges from interaction, not isolation: Improvement in a single variable (e.g., product quality) is insufficient without market access, policy support, and cost efficiency.
Temporal, spatial, and demographic variability matter: Performance changes with seasons, geographic markets, and customer income levels—consistent with multi-dimensional growth studies (Weaver, 1993).
Negative constraints must be addressed: High costs, logistical bottlenecks, risks, and shocks reduce growth momentum, aligning with structural constraint theories.
Policy optimization influences outcomes: Equation terms imply governments can maximize by maximizing , minimizing , and optimizing .
4. Discussion
The results derived from the Economics Equation–3 framework reinforce the idea that economic development is neither linear nor deterministic, but rather emerges from the coordinated interaction of multiple components operating under dynamic conditions. This perspective aligns closely with evolutionary economic theory, which conceptualizes development as a cumulative process characterized by feedback loops, adaptive behavior, and structural change (Dopfer, 2005). Instead of examining isolated causal factors—such as capital, labor, or productivity—the model emphasizes that economic outcomes result from systemic relationships between enabling factors, market flow dynamics, and limiting constraints. This systems-oriented logic challenges traditional reductionist approaches and provides a more realistic representation of how real economies evolve over time.
A central insight from the framework is that strong economies emerge when positive forces (A) expand more rapidly than negative constraints (C), and when market flow (F) remains flexible and responsive to temporal, spatial, and demographic variation. In practical terms, this means that policy efforts aimed solely at enhancing production capacity or improving product quality will not achieve optimal results if logistical bottlenecks, demand volatility, or external shocks remain unaddressed. Conversely, reducing structural constraints without investing in productive capacity will also fail to generate meaningful growth. The model therefore supports an integrated development strategy that simultaneously strengthens productive assets, minimizes constraints, and improves market connectivity.
The incorporation of time, place, and customer characteristics into the flow function reflects an interdisciplinary understanding of economic performance. Time introduces economic cycles, seasonal effects, and long-term transition paths; place introduces spatial heterogeneity, infrastructure differences, and global integration; and customer characteristics introduce preferences, purchasing power, and social stratification. Recognizing these dimensions extends the model beyond traditional macroeconomic abstractions and aligns it with contemporary development literature that emphasizes contextual variability and market segmentation (Petrakis, 2020). Such an approach also holds relevance for firms and industries operating in competitive markets where adaptation to consumer behavior and geographic conditions is essential for survival and growth.
The symbolic and mathematical nature of the model offers advantages for future analytical and empirical extensions. By formalizing the interactions among variables, the framework encourages computational simulation and quantitative sensitivity analysis. This aligns with the broader tradition in economics that views mathematical models as tools for testing theoretical consistency, generating predictions, and exploring counterfactual scenarios (Debreu, 1984). Vasconcelos (2013) demonstrated the value of symbolic and numerical computation in exploring growth trajectories, reinforcing the idea that conceptual economic models can serve as foundations for more detailed numerical analysis. In this sense, the Economics Equation–3 framework provides a conceptual seed that could be operationalized using empirical data, agent-based modeling, or system dynamics simulations.
Finally, the model carries implications for policy design and strategic planning. Governments and institutions can use the framework to identify leverage points where interventions yield the highest returns—such as improving logistics infrastructure, supporting workforce development, or mitigating risks associated with shocks and uncertainty. Because the model distinguishes between growth drivers and constraints, it allows policymakers to target both sides of the development equation. In addition, the emphasis on flow dynamics highlights the importance of aligning production with market reality rather than treating them as separate spheres.
In summary, the Economics Equation–3 framework enriches the conceptual landscape of development economics by bridging systems thinking, mathematical representation, and evolutionary theory. While conceptual and not empirical, it offers a structured basis for future modeling, calibration, and policy-oriented research.
The model supports the notion that economic development is a systemic process shaped by complex interactions, consistent with evolutionary and interdisciplinary frameworks (Dopfer, 2005; Petrakis, 2020). It emphasizes that strong economies emerge when positive forces expand faster than constraints, and when market flow remains adaptive to time, location, and demand. The symbolic approach encourages future numerical calibration and simulation, aligning with the mathematical modeling traditions highlighted by Vasconcelos (2013) and Debreu (1984).
5. Conclusion
The Economics Equation–3 framework presented in this study offers a conceptual and symbolic approach to understanding how economic strength emerges from the interaction among productive forces, market flow dynamics, and negative constraints. Rather than attributing development to a single factor, the model emphasizes the need for alignment between growth-supporting variables—such as product quality, workforce capacity, and policy support—and adaptive market mechanisms shaped by time, location, and customer characteristics. At the same time, the model acknowledges that high costs, logistical bottlenecks, volatility, and systemic shocks exert downward pressure on growth outcomes. The resulting economic performance depends on the degree to which positive drivers expand faster than limitations.
Although theoretical in nature, the model holds value for policy makers, businesses, and academic researchers. For policy makers, it provides a structured means of identifying leverage points for intervention, allowing governments to enhance productive capacity while minimizing structural barriers and external vulnerabilities. For firms and industries, the framework highlights the importance of integrating production strategies with market conditions rather than treating them as isolated domains. For academic researchers, the symbolic configuration creates opportunities for analytical refinement, mathematical formalization, and interdisciplinary dialogue between economics, systems science, and quantitative modeling.
Future research can advance the framework by operationalizing it in several directions. One promising avenue is empirical calibration using sectoral or national datasets to test the sensitivity of performance outcomes to different configurations of productive factors, market flows, and constraints. Another direction involves simulation-based approaches, such as system dynamics or agent-based modeling, which can explore nonlinear trajectories and adaptive behavior under varied policy scenarios. Comparative research across countries or industries may also yield insights into how structural heterogeneity shapes the model’s parameters and predictive reliability.
In summary, Economics Equation–3 provides a foundational conceptual system that invites further development, empirical testing, and policy-oriented application in the field of economic growth and development..
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demonstrates that a single improved variable—such as product quality, workforce motivation, or manufacturing efficiency—is insufficient to produce sustained gains unless accompanied by favorable conditions in the broader system. For example, high product quality cannot translate into economic strength without market access, competitive pricing, logistics, and policy stability. This systems-based observation aligns with the logic of structural and institutional economics, which argues that development is path-dependent and shaped by multiple interlocking dimensions rather than singular shocks or interventions. The model therefore highlights the importance of complementarity among factors: productivity gains must interact with domestic and international market flows, while policy must facilitate allocation of resources, protection of investment, and mitigation of market failures.
is explicitly conditioned by time (seasonal cycles, short vs. long-run dynamics), place (local, national, or international markets), and customer characteristics (income level, demographic composition, cultural preference). This result resonates with empirical findings in regional and development economics, where performance varies across territories due to resource availability, infrastructure, institutional capacity, and demand heterogeneity. Weaver (1993) demonstrated that export performance and growth differ across national contexts depending on external demand, internal constraints, and structural preparedness, illustrating how geographical variation shapes economic trajectories. Similarly, demographic economics emphasizes that demand patterns shift with population age structure, income distribution, and consumption preferences, affecting the magnitude and elasticity of market flows. The framework underscores that economic systems are not temporally uniform or spatially homogeneous, meaning actors—whether firms or governments—must adapt strategies to evolving temporal market cycles, geographic constraints, and evolving consumer needs.
incorporates high costs, logistical inefficiencies, market risks, demand volatility, and external shocks—including inflation, financial crises, or geopolitical instability. These variables contribute to economic friction, reducing the effective output of positive growth drivers. Even if productive capacity and market demand expand, increases in costs, bottlenecks, or uncertainty can neutralize these gains. This result aligns with structural constraint theories in development economics, which argue that infrastructure gaps, institutional rigidities, and volatility impose ceilings on growth potential, particularly in developing economies. The symbolic subtraction term 
within the model emphasizes that constraints increase as a weighted function of contextual friction, implying the arithmetic of development includes both additive growth forces and subtractive obstacles. Therefore, economic improvement depends not only on amplifying positive forces but also on mitigating or eliminating persistent constraints.
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