The computer organisation and architecture (COA) course is one of the most essential and comprehensive subjects since it contains many basic concepts and information required in the design of a computer system.
The COA is also the most essential component of the syllabus for all computer science degrees at all institutions, as well as for many competitive tests.This lesson is specifically created for absolute novices to understand all important subjects connected to computer organisation and architecture. All fundamental concepts such as computer system functional units, processor, microarchitecture, programme instructions, instruction formats, addressing modes, instruction pipelining, memory organisation, instruction cycle, interrupts, and other important related topics are covered in the COA important topics.
Computer Architecture
Let us first define architecture in order to comprehend the phrase computer architecture. Architecture is described as the art and science of designing a thing. Because the building is one of the most frequent objects in the human world, we typically associate the term architecture with it. The architecture aids in the definition of functional, physical, and performance criteria for any item.
Every item in the actual world is supported by some form of architecture. An architect, for example, will define the building in terms of architectural drawings and specifications for various construction components.Similarly, the system architecture specifies the computer system’s numerous functional components and how these units are linked. It specifies the performance parameters for the system and what the system should achieve in terms of performance.
The computer architecture is a high level design specification that does not specify details of the hardware components. The computer architecture gives an abstracted view of the structure of various functional units and its behaviour. In order to build a computer system, the first step is to design and develop the system architecture. The next step in the process is to finalize the computer organization details.
Computer Organization
Let us first define the term “organisation” in the context of computers. The term organisation is defined as organising and categorising things rationally in order to enhance practical convenience.
Computer architecture serves as the foundation for computer organisation. The system architecture is implemented by the computer organisation. Simply defined, the computer organisation is concerned with arranging various system hardware components and how these components are interrelated. The computer organisation describes the numerous hardware components associated with the various functional units found in the system.
The computer organisation is concerned with the layout of various system hardware components as well as the function of the components. The presence of distinct functional units and their components is defined by computer organisation. It also specifies how distinct functional components interact with one another.The structure and behaviour of digital computers are defined by computer organisation. The primary goal of the computer organisation is to comprehend the various computer hardware components and their interactions.
“The best way to find ypurself is to lose yourself in the service of others”.
A Great slogan given by our great Father of nation “Mahatma Gandhi”. He was born on 2nd october 1869.
Born and raised in a Hindu family in coastal Gujarat, Gandhi trained in law at the Inner Temple, London, and was called to the bar at age 22 in June 1891. After two uncertain years in India, where he was unable to start a successful law practice, he moved to South Africa in 1893 to represent an Indian merchant in a lawsuit. He went on to live in South Africa for 21 years. It was in South Africa that Gandhi raised a family and first employed nonviolent resistance in a campaign for civil rights. In 1915, aged 45, he returned to India. He set about organising peasants, farmers, and urban labourers to protest against excessive land-tax and discrimination. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women’s rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, and above all for achieving swaraj or self-rule.[9]
Also in 1921, Gandhi adopted the use of an Indian loincloth (short dhoti) and a shawl (in the winter) woven with yarn hand-spun on a traditional Indian spinning wheel (charkha) as a sign of identification with India’s rural poor. He also began to live modestly in a self-sufficient residential community, ate simple vegetarian food, and undertook long fasts as a means of self-purification and political protest. Bringing anti-colonial nationalism to the common Indians, Gandhi led them in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930 and in calling for the British to quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned many times and for many years in both South Africa and India.
Today everyone is aware that all the countries are facing the deadly pandemic of COVID-19. Millions of people have suffered due to this pandemic. Lakhs of deaths are already reported all over the world. No country is left who has not suffered because of this deadly virus. But now our scientists have found out the vaccine of this deadly virus. This vaccine is created only due to the excellence, hard work and dedication of our scientists. But the cost of the vaccines are high and the procedure for its manufacturing is not so easy. It takes time for manufacturing vaccine doses in high quantity. As we know that the world’s population is very large and the time taken t manufacture these vaccines is also more therefore, it was highly required to develop a system where vaccine doses are allotted to people on the priority basis. The priority can be on the basis of age, work occupation and many more. India is such a country which a large population. More than 100 crore people needs to be vaccinated as early as possible to make India COVID free country. It requires more 200 crore vaccine doses to completely vaccinate such a huge population. But as we discussed earlier that the process of manufacturing vaccine is a complicated and time consuming task so the vaccination drive is going in India on the priority basis. Firstly front-line workers and doctors were vaccinated. Then senior citizens and 18+ population is getting vaccinated. But the thing is that how India is able to vaccinate its people on priority basis and maintain the track record of its vaccination drive…???? The answer to this question is that India has developed an excellent and completely indigenous CoWIN app.
It is very simple to use and has a user-friendly interface. The slots for vaccination drive are updated on a daily basis on it. Users can book their vaccination slots on it. Filters option on the basis of age group is available and if there is more than one vaccine available then users can choose any one of the vaccine as per their interest.
REQUESTS FROM OTHER COUNTRIES :-
After looking at all these handy features of CoWIN platform, now many other countries are requesting about its source from India. More than 50 countries have already shown their interest in it. Therefore, Indian Government has now decided to make available CoWIN platform as open source application. Now, any country can easily access it without any prior request or any fee. This is a huge step by India to help other countries in this pandemic.
“Despite all our constraints, we have tried to share as much as possible with the world. And we remain eager to learn from global practices. Technology is integral to our fight against covid. Luckily, software is one area in which there are no resource constraints,” PM Modi said. “That’s why India made its covid tracking and tracing app open source as soon as it was technically feasible. With nearly 200 million users, the ‘Aarogya Setu’ app is a readily available package for developers,” PM said. “What we have developed is a robust, inclusive and scalable system that can prevent rent-seeking, black marketing and other malpractices. The CoWIN platform can be scaled-up as per requirements,” Harsh Vardhan, Health Minister (India) said.
Hair fall can be caused due to a lot of things such as diet, stress, hormonal change. Eating a balanced diet with the right nutrients can help promote hair growth. Vitamins, zinc, protein, biotin, and essential fatty acids promote hair growth.
When the protein intake is reduced, it may shut down the production of non essential protein which could include hair growth. After about 2 or 3 month of drastic reduction of protein intake, one might be able to notice hairfall. 10% to 30% of your calorie intake should be from protein.
Eggs, fish, tofu, cottage cheese are a great source of protein which promote hair strength. Meat is extremely rich in iron. Biotin is essential for the production of a hair protein called keratin. Consuming biotin can help improve your hair growth.
Spinach. Healthy green vegetable that’s loaded with beneficial nutrients. Rich in vitamins, and nutrients like folate, iron, vitamin A and vitamin C, all of which are essential for hair growth. If you are not too fond of the Indian-style spinach sabzi, you can also have it as a smoothie.
Carrot and Sweet potato. It’s perfect source of Vitamin A. Vitamin A is essential for hair thickness. They are extremely nutritious for the scalp.
Dairy products. Calcium is an extremely essential mineral for hair growth. You can add berries to your yoghurt for natural sweetness. Berries are loaded with vitamins and antioxidants that may promote hair growth. Ex. Strawberries, berries. Fruits like oranges, guava, pomogranate contain a number of antioxidant and vitamin C to produce collagen, a protein that helps strengthen hair.
Lentils and green leafy vegetables. Pulses are loaded with protein, iron, zinc, and biotin which are all essential nutrients for your hair. It contains folic acid which makes your hair stronger and prevent breakage.
Nuts and Seeds. Replace your unhealthy snacks with the healthy one, like roasted almonds, walnuts, peanuts. Peanuts can be soaked overnight, can be added to salads, or just eaten as a snack.Nuts contain a variety of nutrients including vitamin E, zinc, magnesium and biotin content, selenium, and omega-3fatty acids that may promote hair growth. Nuts help in strengthening hair cuticles and nourish the scalp. Seeds like flax seeds, chia seeds, methi seeds add elasticity to your hair.
If you think you’re lacking any of these nutrients, including vitamins A, C, D and E, zinc, B vitamins, iron, biotin, protein and essential fatty acids try adding some of the above foods to your diet. None of these foods have a side effect, it’s best to consume all of them in moderate quantities.
Women Empowerment is an important thing that needs to be accomplished.India is a country that lacks women’s empowerment.The girl’s in India don’t get access to higher education.Instead,the girls are married at a young age.The women can’t pursue a career of their own because they don’t have an education.
There are various ways in which women empowerment can happen in the country.One of the most significant way is to educate women.They should be given equal opportunities at their workplace in every field.Women should be free to pursue things they want to achieve and achieve all their goals and aspirations.
women empowerment
India is one of the countries which is not safe for women, and there are several reasons.One of the reasons for their lack of safety is the danger of honor killing.Families think that it’s the right to kill the female if they have brought shame to the family.Another big problem that women face is that there’s a lack of education.Women are discouraged from pursuing higher education.To over come this issue people should be united together to make the reality of the women empowerment.
Classified of thr electronic computers may be based on either their principles of operation or their configuration. By configuration, we mean the size, speed of doing computation and storage capacity of a computer.
Based on the principles of operation, computers are classified into three types, 🔅Analog computers 🔅Digital computers 🔅Hybrid computers.
🌟Analog Computer is a computing device that works on continuous range of values. 🌟The Analog Computers give approximate results since they deal with quantities that vary continuously. 🌟It generally deals with physical variables such as voltage, pressure, temperature, speed, etc.
🌟On the other hand a digital computer operates on digital data such as numbers . 🌟It uses binary number system in which there are only two digits 0 and 1. 🌟Each one is called a bit. 🌟Tye digital computer is designed using digital circuits in which there are two levels for an input or output signal m 🌟These two levels are known as logic 0 and logic 1. 🌟Digital Computers can give the results with more accuracy and at a faster rate.
🌟since many complex problems in engineering and technology are solved by the application of numerical methods, the electronic digital computer is very well suited for solving such problems. 🌟Hence digital computers have an increasing use in the field of design, research and data processing.
🌟Digital Computers are made for both general purpose and special purpose. 🌟Special purpose computer is one that is built for a specific application. 🌟General purpose computers are used for any type of applications. 🌟It can store different programs and do the jobs as per as the instructions specified on those programs. 🌟Most of the computers that we see fall in this category.
🖥💻Hybrid Computers💻🖥:
🌟A Hybrid Computing system is a combination of desirable features of analog and digital computers. 🌟It is mostly used for automatic operations of complicated physical purposes and machines. 🌟Now-a-days analog -to-digitial and digital-to-analog converters are used for transforming the data into suitable from for either type of computation.
🌟For example, in hospital’s automated intensive care unit, analog devices might measure the patients temperature, blood pressure and other vital signs. 🌟These measurements which are in analog might than be converted into numbers and supplied to digital components in the system. 🌟Thse components are used to monitor the patient’s vital sign and send signals if any abnormal readings are detected. 🌟Hybrid computers are mainly used for specialized tasks.
“𝗜 𝗟𝗢𝗩𝗘 𝗬𝗢𝗨” means that I accept you for that person that you are, and that I do not wish to change you into someone else. It means that I will love you and stand by you even through the worst times.It means loving you even you are in bad mood or too tried to do that things I want to do. It means love you when you are down not just when you are fun to be with.𝗜 𝗟𝗢𝗩𝗘 𝗬𝗢𝗨 means that I know your deepest secret.The sound of your voice makes me feel like, sweet songs ringing in my ears and my eyes looking you … Beautiful moment. Love is something that I have always searched for and never found and just when I had given up search I found you.your love made me realised what all I had been truly missing and now that your are mine. I love you from the bottom of heat and the core of my being.
Imagine, one day you could wake up and have a robotic arm that could fetch you anything that is more than an arms distance away without you having to get up from your bed or that you could have a brain so powerful that you would memorise anything just by glancing over it for a second, imagine..
As one grows older, questions like can humans live forever? Is immortality possible? seem very bogus, however as technologies evolve along with new philosophical ideas that are born, the hypothetical situation that was thought to be impossible, may not seem too far off.
Growing up, watching movies like the matrix or the terminator or avatar where ideas like living forever and enhancement of the human body, made many people wish that the idea of living forever, was not an idea anymore. From ancient times, transhumanism was portrayed from Icarus flying too close to the sun to many others.
From the media to the mythos, the idea of incorporating technology into humans seems plausible. Thus a movement was born, to make all this advancement possible. So the movement that encourages this advancement, is called transhumanism.
According to the, ‘The Transhumanist Reader: Classical and Contemporary Essays on the Science, Technology and Philosophy of the Human Future,’ transhumanism is a scientific and philosophical movement that calls for the improvement of human existence via the advancement and increasing prevalence of advanced technology capable of significantly altering or enhancing human intelligence and physiology. The movement makes use of the scientific knowledge of human anatomy to allow people to transcend their current biological limitations.The fundamental belief of transhumanism will help cross humans biological limitations by augmentations. Human capabilities are enhanced by augmentations like objects, extensions or technologies. Spectacles, footwear and robotic arm are some of the augmentations.
Transhumanism is viewed as an extension of humanism. According to transhumanism, the present phase of homo sapiens can be seen as an intermediate stage on the road to post-human life forms, which can be achieved by modifying ourselves. Transhumanism originated as a philosophical movement that is currently a growing field.
Science and technology are used to enhance or alter body chemistry to stay healthy and be more in control of our lives. We are all transhumanists (people how advocate for transhumanism m to varying degrees. However, some people advocate transhumanism more broadly, where they advocate for mechanical parts in the body to make the biological figure more enhanced.
Inevitable Evolutions: Human-transhuman-post-human –: Homo sapiens have a range of emotions, experiences. Even though humans are considered the most intelligent species to ever exist, humans do face some limitations. Lifespan – Human character is cut short by death. Humans died and their intelligence dies with them. Intellectual capacity- Humans have cognitive limitations etc, are some of the limitations of the human form. Emotions- Sometimes, emotions may be seen as a disadvantage as, imagine you’re in an argument, and suddenly you start crying, it may show signs of weakness.
Transhuman refers to an intermediate form of being between the human and post-human.
Being posthuman entails breaking free from the constraints that characterise the least favourable dimensions of the “human condition.” Disease, ageing, and death will no longer be a problem for posthumans. They will have much more physical capability and morphological independence. These beings may show a certain type of emotion or no emotion. The distinctions between post-human brains can not be as clear as they are between humans.
However, as every coin has two sides, transhumanism along with its pros also has its cons. Some of the most discussed cons of transhumanism are dehumanisation wherein our uniqueness will be lost and everyone will have the same beliefs, immortality though is regarded as a pro, sometimes maybe a con, as due to immortality, overpopulation may be an inevitable problem, as well as the laws of nature and science would be broken. Transhumanism may also lead to a social divide on the already existing divides in the society, it may just make the rich or the people who will be able to pay for augmentations, thus making the rich even more powerful.
However, the situation is quite complex. Before this movement reaches its peak, one should know, if this movement could be our saving grace or our certain doom.
To know more about this movement, the following sources/books can be referred:
The Transhumanist Reader: Classical and Contemporary Essays on the Science, Technology and Philosophy of the Human Future, First Edition. Edited by Max More and Natasha Vita-More. 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Transhumanism: A Grimoire of Alchemical Agendas – by Scott D de Hart and Joseph P Farrell.
2020 was a year that would be pinpointed in when the story of mankind is told in the future. Right from the Australian bushfires, to oil-spills, flash floods and cyclones. But the one disaster that shook the world into a standstill was the Corona Virus, or Covid-19.
Though the virus itself was formed in 2019, it spread worldwide only in 2020, and by late March – early April, it had succeeded in bringing the entire world to a standstill. And even as it is July 2021, many of the places that had closed down, haven’t opened back up. One such place being movie theatres.
Movie theatres were a prime spot to hangout among teenagers, a place to chill during the weekend for the working adults, and overall in general, a place that everyone looked forward to visit. In 2020, that closed down, and people were confined to their homes. No new content available for quite some time. People began missing the famous “theatre experience”. The big screen, the booming sounds, the chill room, just leaning back and enjoying a fun time with their friends or family. That shut down due to the pandemic.
But as the saying goes, as one door closes, another opens. The pandemic paved way for the Over the Top or OTT platforms, a feature that most parts of India were still not familiar with. The idea that you can watch movies that haven’t even released yet online was something new to the Indians. This was utilized well by the OTT platforms, who did the crucial task of keeping people entertained during the lockdown. The producers of the films were also happy as completed movies, which had to be shelved due to the pandemic could now be released online, and would no longer be a non performing asset for them.
OTT platforms managed to release new movies, and TV shows. In fact, filmmakers started making movies specifically for the OTT medium, as can be seen in movies like Joji or Sara’s. This meant that people could now stream quality content, from their nice and cozy living rooms, maybe even in their pajamas, saving them the trouble of even going to the theatres!
But all this raises the question, was 2020 the end of theatres? Would there be a revival of theatres? Chances are it is not. While OTT films can be viewed from the comforts of one’s homes, theatres stand for something greater than just movies. It’s not just confined to the fact that theatres give an optimum experience of the movies. There is a lot more to it. The interaction in movies, the discussions with your friends or family after the movies, mostly over lunch or dinner at a restaurant, and simply the vibe of going to the cinemas with them, and meeting them in person for something fun. These pleasures transcend the comfort that one gets while watching movies in an OTT forum.
This also does not mean that OTTs would also cease to exist once the theatres reopen. OTTs would still be preferred after a long day of work. All it means is that movies have now become more accessible to everyone, either through theatres or through OTT platforms!
Right to repair is the movement started by the activist and oragination all around the world. Joe -Biden ,US president ,signed an executive order on Federal Trade Commission to institute rules to curb anticompetitive restrictions that limit consumers’ ability to repair gadgets on their own terms. The Uk too had introduced this .
The agenda of the movement is to get compinies to make spare parts of the gadget and the consumers can repair them rather than replacing the product.
Large tech compinies like Apple, Microsoft,Amazon and Tesla are opposing the movement stating that its opening up their intellectual property to third party to repair them.
For the past few days Indian Media, specially national media has focused itself on the conversion rackets taking place in Uttar Pradesh. It has gain public attention and became kind of a bigger issue than COVID itself. If you see with their prospective it’s not something new and I don’t think it will be last time they will be reporting something like this. It can be also seen as way to gain attention as the election are nearing by. There has always been report on news channels about spreading hate towards a specific community.
But what really happened ?
Is everything we saw on the news channel is the truth or there is more to it?
Continue reading to know the whole truth.
On June 20 the U.P. Police Anti Terrorist Scot ( A.T.S.) arrested two persons, Mohammad Umar and Jahangeer Kasmi from Delhi’s Jamia Nagar in a case of alleged mass conversion.
An F.I.R. was filed in Gomti Nagar, Lucknow under various sections of I.P.C. and were also charged with the Sates Anti Conversion Law passed in November of 2020. A statement was released by Umar Gautam’s daughter on 26th June saying,” My father Mr. Mohammad Umar Gautam has been arbitrarily arrested on false charges. He is a proud convert himself, who lives a life of a law abiding citizen of India. He has also not received any illegal funding from any foreign source as alleged by media. These allegations are completely baseless.”
Meanwhile The Office of the Islamic Dawa Center (I.D.C.) at Jamia Nagar’s Jogabai extension remains closed. People living around Umar knew him as a respectable man. But due to fear of counterattack many of them refused to come forward to say anything.
According to the Newslaundry’s Report the people have sad that Umar used to help the people who wanted to convert the religion legally and have refused the claim that the man tried to convert people with force or by bribing the with money.
The F.I.R. names these two with the accusation of forced conversation which included, Missing Person’s case by 247/2021 filed by the parents of Aditya Gupta at Knapur’s Kalyanpur Police Station. The second known to be victim Manu Yadav, A resident of Gurugram, came in light of A.T.S. through social media. At Gurugram’s Babupur village Manu Yadav’s parents who had converted and changed his name to Abdul Manan, his parents are busy giving media Interviews.
According to his mother she last saw her son in the first week of June. 22 year old Manan id deaf and non-verbal. On February 17 Manan showed his parents a conversion certificate and told them he has accepted Islam as his religion. The certificate has been issued by Umar’s organization I.D.C. and was signed by Kazi Jahangir Kasmi.
According to Manan’s mother he stopped eating and became very violent on the thought of letting have Islam and his friends convinced him to keep patience and allegedly the parents agreed to his wish.
Manan’s interest in Islam began in 2017 but his parents refused let him being converted. His mother explains that his situation kept hating worse due to not eating and his mental situation was also not getting better so they agreed. The mother also thinks that his son drifted away from Hinduism due to unemployment. According to her in the December of last year Manan had his physical test for the examination he was preparing for but he failed and became more disappointed. The conversion group took advantage of it and told him that his gods are not helping him enough and if he decides to convert he will be given a government job, a house, land and will get married to a Muslim girl.
After Manan went missing in April, His father, Rajiv Yadav, a cab driver approached the Gurugram Police several times but there was no progress. He claims that he found videos and chats on Manan’s phone which proves that his son was being influenced. He handed over data to U.P.A.T.C. for further investigation. He also blames Manan’s friend Skaheel and two others who befriended him while he was perusing vocational course in welding at an ITI in Gurugram as being responsible for his conversion. The link between these friends and Umar is not clear.
On 28 June , Manan was arrested by U.P.A.T.S. It was claimed that Manan was behind the conversion of Aditya Gupta. In F.I.R. Manan was not accused with the conversion but with damaging the idols at his home and that he has become iradical with respect to Islam.
Aditya converted and changed his name to Abdul Kadir. He was a resident of Kanpur and is 24 years old. Abdul is also deaf and non verbal as Manan. He went missing in March. On 12 April 2021 was reported missing in Kanpur’s Kalyanpur Police Station.
Later Abdul told his parents through a video call that he is in Kerala and has converted to Islam. In June he returned home with a conversion certificate issued by the I.D.C.
Abdul’s mother acknowledged that her son has been inclined towards Islam since 2012. According to the mother her son has started skipping meals and has started getting up early and started paying the she came to realise that he was practicing Islam.
Kadir told Newslaundry that it is difficult for disabled people like him to find a job, hence they switch to another religion. He also said that he has been poor and disable his whole life and after paying and still not getting anything he turned towards different religions and when some of his friends told him that Allah will fulfill his wishes and so he decided to convert to Islam.
The another common link between Manan and Abdul other than I.D.C. is an educational institution at Noida. Both of them were enrolled at Noida Deaf Society. The building has been locked ever since the institution’s involvement came into light. There was some protest also some days ago and therefore two Policemen have been stationed outside the building.
The founder of the Society told the media,” We are collaborating with the ATS and providing support.” She also stated that at NDS they don’t teach religion and its limited to professional programmes only.
To counter allegations of forced conversion Umar Gautham’s family has issued videos of individuals who have came to IDC for documentation.
The initial arrest was made in Deli alleged with the victims from Gurugram and Kanpur who were studets at an institution in Noida.
According to UPATS, what seems to be a pan India racket actually has its rot in Ghaziabad. There has been several incidents taken place and has banned the entry of Muslims in April 2021.
In June 2021,two men who were converts had tried to enter the temple by hiding their identities, Narsinghanan , temple’s priest alleged that the men had came with the purpose to assassinate him. UPATS now claims that they got their lead about Umar Gautam from these two men.
There are concerns about whether the investigation is an attempt for religious divide in an election year. There are still some things unclear and missing in this case and UPATS needs to find as soon as they can.
What do you think about this whole thing please tell your thoughts in the comments below.
It is a well known fact that China rules the world in the sector of marketing. But emerging markets are not that behind. They are catching up and making a place for themselves in the world market.
Business in Emerging Markets
According to a survey done recently by the IMF (International Monetary Fund), it is observed that the emerging markets will be growing at a continuous pace in the next 2-3 years. So, doing business in the emerging markets is going to be successful.
In the last decade, the emerging markets have shown a rapid increase in their sales as compared to the multinationals. And in addition, it proves to be more safer in times of economic deficiency.
Emerging markets are the best platform for many companies to start their business and grow their revenue. Here are some steps to success in emerging markets :
Be up-to-date with the newest technologies.
Move on from the thoughts of uncertainties and insecurities.
If you face any type of problem at any time in your business, then go for collaboration.
Let go of the old strategies and build new ones to excel more in the market.
Try to get familiar and used to the scarcity of work and sales.
Follow these few steps and keep your mind focused in growing and growing more. Business in emerging markets like India is not hard but is a game of well planned strategies and being focused in the work.
Arthur Eddington was a British astronomer, physicist and mathematician. He was born in Cumbria, UK before moving to Weston-super-Mare as a child. He was not from a wealthy family but did so well at school that he got a scholarship to go to Owen’s College, Manchester. He graduated with a physics degree in 1902. Arthur was then offered a position at Trinity College, Cambridge where he completed his master’s degree. He worked at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London, before returning to Cambridge five years later.
He was the first person to propose that stars were powered by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. The limit to how bright a star can be before it begins to collapse is named after him, the Eddington Luminosity.
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity
He is most famous, for his work on Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. Arthur carried out observations of a solar eclipse to confirm the theory. This work was considered so important that it prevented him beginning military service during the First World War. Arthur was happy about this as he was a pacifist, but he did offer to join an ambulance unit, or work as a harvest labourer on home soil.
Arthur viewed the eclipse from the island of Principe, off the west coast of Africa. He chose that location because there was a good chance of clear skies, and he could view the eclipse in full there. During the darkness of the eclipse, Arthur took photographs of stars close to the Sun. These stars are normally blocked by the light of the Sun during the day. Arthur observed that stars close to the Sun had their light shifted by the Sun’s gravitational field. This confirmed Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.
Cosmology
Eddington was also heavily involved with the development of the first generation of general relativistic cosmological models. He had been investigating the instability of the Einstein universe when he learned of both Lemaître’s 1927 paper postulating an expanding or contracting universe and Hubble’s work on the recession of the spiral nebulae. He felt the cosmological constant must have played the crucial role in the universe’s evolution from an Einsteinian steady state to its current expanding state, and most of his cosmological investigations focused on the constant’s significance and characteristics. In The Mathematical Theory of Relativity, Eddington interpreted the cosmological constant to mean that the universe is “self-gauging”.
Eddington number for cycling
Eddington is credited with devising a measure of a cyclist’s long-distance riding achievements. The Eddington number in the context of cycling is defined as the maximum number E such that the cyclist has cycled E miles on E days.
For example, an Eddington number of 70 miles would imply that the cyclist has cycled at least 70 miles in a day on at least 70 occasions. Achieving a high Eddington number is difficult since moving from, say, 70 to 75 will (probably) require more than five new long distance rides, since any rides shorter than 75 miles will no longer be included in the reckoning. Eddington’s own life-time E-number was 84.
He later wrote this short poem about the discovery:
Oh leave the Wise our measures to collate
One thing at least is certain, LIGHT has WEIGHT,
One thing is certain, and the rest debate—
Light-rays, when near the Sun, DO NOT GO STRAIGHT.
Japanese domestic market[JDM} refers to Japan’s home market for vehicles. For the importer, these terms refer to vehicles and parts designed to conform to Japanese regulations and to suit Japanese buyers. The term is abbreviated JDM. Japanese domestic market vehicles may differ greatly from the cars that Japanese manufacturers build for export and vehicles derived from the same platforms built in other countries. The Japanese car owner looks more toward innovation than long-term ownership which forces Japanese carmakers to refine new technologies and designs first in domestic vehicles. For instance, the 2003 Honda Inspire featured the first application of Honda’s Variable Cylinder Management.
In 1988, JDM cars were limited by voluntary self-restraints among manufacturers to 280 horsepower (PS) (276 hp) and a top speed of 180 km/h (111.8 mph), limits imposed by the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association (JAMA) for safety. The horsepower limit was lifted in 2004 but the speed limit of 180 km/h (111.8 mph) remains in effect. Many JDM cars have speedometers that register up to 180 km/h (111.8 mph) (certain Nissans go up to 190 km/h, and the GT-R has a mechanism that removes the speed limiter on a track) but all have speed limiters.
Popular brands include Honda, Subaru, Toyota, Mazda, Suzuki, Lexus, Mitsubishi Motors and Nissan.
IMPORT TAX
There are 3 main ports in India where you can receive your car via ship, 1.Mumbai port, 2.Banglore port, 3.Chennai port. You cannot get to choose where the car is shipped or coming, you will be notified where car is being shipped or coming. After the car come to the port, you have to go to the port pay the “180%” of the import duty. My guesstimate, looking at other Toyota imports, will be somewhere around Rs 85 lakh to 95 lakh, depending on the kit and varient. That is the price of the vehicle, now added to that is the import duty of 180 percent. If taken that the selling price of the car is 90 lakh, import duty on it would be 1.62 crore. The total amount you need to spend is around 2.5 crore. Which discourages the buyer from going for a JDM car because, with the same 2.5 crore he/she can afford to buy luxurious cars without paying any import duty. After al,l this wont matter to a JDM car enthusiast.
After all this process, you must have to go to your respective city RTO with car and register your car to your name. When the registration is done, now you can legally drive your car on Indian roads.
Bad Roads
As we all know, the condition of roads in most places of India is pathetic. On these pathetic roads, a sweet devil such as a Toyota Supra cant be enjoyed. Roads are not often noticed in india, but what are noticed is pot holes, shoulder drop off’s , construction work zones, slick roads cause a major threat to these super costly and beautiful machines.
Loud Exhausts
Aftermarket exhausts in India are illegal unless approved by the RTO. This means that only those aftermarket exhausts that are sold by automakers as an authorized accessory are legal in the country as they are in compliance with the rules mentioned in the Motor Vehicles Act. According to automotive norms, vehicles should adhere to the noise norm of a maximum 80 decibel, but modifications takes the noise level to 100 decibel and above, which is illegal in india
While the stock exhaust emits up to 97.8 decibels, the FI Exhaust with the valves closed goes up to 119 dB. That’s loud enough on its own, but you can also open the valves and the peak noise level rises to about 131 decibels. Which will most certainly be considered illegal.
The Mauryan Empire was the first largest empire in India.Chandragupta Maurya established the empire in Magadha. Bhadrabahu,a Jain monk,took Chandragupta Maurya to the southern India Chandragupta performed Sallekhana(Jaina ritulas in which a person fasts unto his death) in Sravanbelgola (Karnataka).
Bindusara
Real name of Bindusara was Simhasena.He was the son of Chandragupta Maurya.Greeks called Bindusara as Amitragatha, meaning`slayer of enemies ′.During Bindusara’s reign Mauryan Empire spread over large parts of India.He appointed his son Ashoka as a governor of Ujjain.After his death , Ashoka ascended the throne of Magadha.
Ashoka
Ashoka was the most famous of the Mauryan kings.He was known as ‘Devanam piya’ meaning’beloved of the gods’.
Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC (BCE).He won the war and captured Kalinga. The horror of war was described by the king himself in the Rock Edict XIII.
Lion capital of Ashoka
The Emblem of the Indian Republic has been adopted from the Lion capital of one of Ashokas pillars located at Sarnath.The wheel from the circular base,the Ashoka chakra is a part of the National Flag.
Chandasoka (Ashoka,the wicked) to Dhammasoka (Ashoka the ringteous)
After the battle of Kalinga,Ashoka became a Buddhist.He undertook tours ( Dharmayatras) to different parts of the country instructing people on policy of Dhamma.The meaning of Dhamma is explained in Ashoka’s – pillar Edict II It contained the noblest ideas of humanism,forming the essence of all religions.He laid stress on
Compassion
Charity
Purity
Saintliness
Self-control
Truthfulness
Obedience and respect for parents, preceptors and elders.
Ashoka sent his son Mahinda and Sanghamitta to Srilanka to propagate Buddhism.He also sent missionaries to west Asia, Egypt and Eastern Europe to spread the message of Dhamma.The Dhamma – mahamattas were a new cadre of officials created by Ashoka.Their job was to spread dhamma all over the empire.Ashoka held the third Buddhist council at his capital Pataliputra.
Edicts of Ashoka
The 33 Edicts on the pillars as well as boulders and cave walls made by the Emperor Ashoka, describe in detail Ashoka’s belief in peace, righteousness, justice and his concern for the welfare of his people.The Rock Edicts II and XIII of Ashoka refer to the names of the three dynasties namely Pandyas,Cholas ,the Keralaputras and the Sathyaputras.
Mauryan Administration
Centralized administration King
The king was the supreme and sovereign authority of the Mauryan Empire.
Council of ministers known as mantriparishad assisted the King.Assembly of ministers included a Purohit,a senapathi,a Maha mantri and the Yuvaraja.
King had an excellent spy system.
Revenue system
The land was the most important source of revenue for the state.Ashokan inscription at Lumbini mentions bali and bagha as taxes collected from people.The land tax(bhaga) collected was 1/6 of the total produce.
Revenue from taxes on forests,mines,salt and irrigation provided additional revenue to the government.
Much of the state revenue was spent on paying the army,the officials of the royal government,on charities and on different public,road construction etc.
Judical system
The king was the head of the Judiciary.He was the highest court of appeal.
King appointed many judges subordinate to him.The punishments were harsh.
Military Administration
The king was the supreme commander of the army.A board of 30 members divided into six committees with five members on each,monitored
Navy
Armoury (transport and supply)
Infantry
Cavalry
The war chariots
The war elephants
Municipal Administration (cities and Towns)
Board of 30 members divided into six committees.Each had 5 members to manage the administration of the city.
Town administration was under Nagarika.He was assisted by Sthanika and Gopa.
Currency
Money was not only used for trade; even the government paid its officers in cash. The punch marked silver coins (panas) which carry the symbols of the peacock,and the hill and crescent copper coins called Mashakas formed the imperial currency.
Trade and Urbanization
Trade flourished particularly with Greece (Hellenic) Malaya, Ceylon and Burma.The Arthashastra refers to the regions producing specialized textiles-kasi (Benares), Vanga(Bengal),Kamarupa (Assam) and Madurai in Tamilnadu
Mauryan coins
Mauryan Art and Architecture
Mauryan Art can be divided into two
Indigenous Art – statues of Yakshas and Yakshis Royal Art. – palaces and public buildings – Monolithic pillars – Rock cut Architecture – Stupas
Stupas
Sanchi near Bhopal, MP
A stupa is a semi- spherical dome like structure constructed on brick or stone.The Buddha’s relics were placed in the centre of the dome.
Monolithic pillar – Sarnath
The crowning element in this pillar is Dharma Chakra.
Monolithic pillar – Sarnath
Beginning of Rock cut Architecture
Rock – cut caves of Barabar and Nagarjuna Hills.
Lomas Rishi cave, Barabar
There are several caves to the north of Both Gaya.Three caves in Barabar hills have dedicative inscription of Ashoka. and three in Nagarjuna hills have inscriptions of Dasharaths Maurya ( grand son of Ashoka)
Reasons for the Decline of the Mauryan Empire
Ashoka’s successors were very weak
Continuous revolts in different parts of the empire.
Invasion by the Bactrian Greeks weakened the empire.
Invasion by the Bactrian Greeks weakened the empire.
Last Maurya ruler Brihadratha was killed by his commander Pushyamitra Sungha who established Sungha dynasty.
Eduindex 
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