The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act or Black Act, was a legislative council act passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in Delhi on 18 March 1919, indefinitely extending the emergency steps of preventive indefinite detention, imprisonment without trial and judicial review introduced in the Protection of India Act 1915 during the First World War. It was enacted in light of a perceived threat from revolutionary nationalists to organisations of re-engaging in similar conspiracies as during the war which the Government felt the lapse of the Defence of India Act would allow.

It was the Rowlatt Act which led Gandhi into the Indian independence struggle and into Indian politics in the Gandhi period.

The British administration passed the Rowlatt Act , which gave the police power without any excuse to prosecute anybody. The Act aimed at curbing the country ‘s rising nationalist turmoil. Gandhi called on the people to combat the oppressive “act” of Satyagraha.

According to the recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee and named after its Chairman, UK Judge Sir Sidney Rowlat, this act effectively allowed the government to prison for up to two years, and gave imperial authorities the power to deal with all revolutionary activities, any alleged terrorists residing in British India.

The controversial law allowed for tighter press control, arrests without warrant, prolonged incarceration without trial and without a jury in camera hearings for forbidden political activities. The defendants were refused the right to know the defendants and proofs used in the trials. Those convicted had to deposit securities upon release and had to take part in all political , educational or religious activities prohibited. Two bills were presented in the central legislative term in February 1919, on the recommendation of the commission, headed by Justice Rowlatt. The bills were labelled “black bills.” They gave the police massive powers to search for a place and arrest any person without warrant they disapproved of. The Rowlatt Act was enacted in March 1919, amid a great deal of opposition. The act was intended to rein in the country ‘s increasing nationalist rise.

Mahatma Gandhi was very critical of the Act among other Indian leaders and claimed that not all should be prosecuted for isolated political crimes. The Imperial legislature resigned, in protest against the act, from Ms Mohan Malaviya and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a member of the All-Indian Muslim League. The law was also angered by the government’s persecution of many other Indian leaders and the general public. Gandhi and others found the step to be fruitless, and a hartal took place on 6 April. This was an incident where Indians were suspending companies and went on strike and were provided against the law easily, praying and holding public meetings in response to the “Black Act.” Mahatma Gandhi was bathing in Mumbai at the sea and speaking before a temple procession. The case was part of the campaign for non-cooperation.

But Delhi’s hartal ‘s performance on 30 March was overshadowed by high tensions leading to riots in Punjab and elsewhere. Gandhi suspended resistance because he had determined that the Indians were not ready for the idea of nonviolence.

On 20 March 1919, the Rowlatt Act came into force. On 10 April two of its founders, Dr Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested and secretly taken to Dharamsala. In Punjab the protest movement was very strong.

On 13 April, people from nearby villages met for Baisakhi Day and protested against two major Indian leaders’ deportation in Amritsar, leading to the notorious 1919 massacre of Jallianwala Bagh.

In March of 1922, the government of India approved the report of the Oppressive Laws Committee and abrogated the Rowlatt Act, the Press Act and 22 other laws.

Java is an object-oriented programming language developed by Sun Microsystems in 1991 and first released in 1995. Its development was led by the “Green Team”, managed by the flagship programmer James Gosling. In the beginning was to be called “Oak”, and there are many theories of why this name, being the most accepted the fact that there was an oak tree (Oak in English) against the Green Team office. That name turned out to be little commercial locations, apart from already having been registered. Finally, at the offices of Sun, it was decided to call it Java.

Java does not take long to reach the hearts of desktop programmers, providing a platform multiplatform and robust for developers. In its beginnings left much to be desired in the graphical interface, because the original graphics library, AWT (Abstract Window Toolkit), was much attached to the operating system and engaged in targeted bugs, that is to say, bugs specific to each operating system.

However, the biggest market of Java now is aimed at server applications, offering in the platform J2EE a wide range of tools to develop secure systems, scalable and robust.

Java, rather than a programming language, was developed considering a technology or framework. 

J2ME: Java Micro Edition, destined for develop mobile applications. It is developed considering the limited resources that have a mobile device.

J2SE: Java Standard Edition, for the world of desktop applications. It is the core of the language; containing the base of the API (Application Programming Interface) this offers us.

J2EE: Java Enterprise Edition, for the systems business. It is built on J2SE, but with the addition of a large security API, giving the developer all the tools necessary.

Java, like any programming language object-oriented, depends on Classes and Objects. A class is nothing more than a template from which an object is created. But once again, this can only be understood by a technical user. In plain words, a class is a blueprint from which it is possible to construct a building.

Java can be used to create two types of programs

Applications: An application is a program that runs on our Computer under the operating system of that computer. It is more or less like one creating using C or C++. Java’s ability to create Applets makes it important.

Applet: An Applet is an application designed to be transmitted over the Internet and executed by a Java compatible web browser. An applet is actually a tiny Java program, dynamically downloaded across the network, just like an image. But the difference is it is an intelligent program, not just a media file. It can react to the user input and dynamically change.

Every time you that you download a program you are risking a viral infection. Prior to Java, most users did not download executable programs frequently and most users were worried about the possibility of infecting their systems with a virus. Java answers both these concerns by providing a “firewall” between a network application and your computer. When you use a Java-compatible Web browser, you can safely download Java applets without fear of virus infection.

For programs to be dynamically downloaded to all the various types of platforms connected to the Internet, some means of generating portable executable code is needed .As you will see, the same mechanism that helps ensure security also helps create portability. Indeed Java’s solution to these two problems is both elegant and efficient.

Beyond the language there is the Java virtual machine. The Java virtual machine is an important element of the Java technology. The virtual machine can be embedded within a web browser or an operating system. Once a piece of Java code is loaded onto a machine, it is verified. As part of the loading process, a class loader is invoked and does byte code verification makes sure that the code that’s has been generated by the compiler will not corrupt the machine that it’s loaded on. Byte code verification takes place at the end of the compilation process to make sure that is all accurate and correct.

When you compile the code, the Java compiler creates machine code (called byte code) for a hypothetical machine called Java Virtual Machine (JVM). The JVM is supposed to execute the byte code. The JVM is created for overcoming the issue of portability. The code is written and compiled for one machine and interpreted on all machines. This machine is called Java Virtual Machine.

Servlets provide a Java-based solution used to address the problems currently associated with doing server-side programming, including inextensible scripting solutions, platform-specific APIs, and incomplete interfaces.

Servlets are objects that conform to a specific interface that can be plugged into a Java-based server. Servlets are to the server-side what applets are to the client-side – object byte codes that can be dynamically loaded off the net. They differ from applets in that they are faceless objects (without graphics or a GUI component). They serve as platform independent, dynamically loadable, pluggable helper byte code objects on the server side that can be used to dynamically extend server-side functionality.

JDBC is a Java API for executing SQL statements. (As a point of interest, JDBC is a trademarked name and is not an acronym; nevertheless, JDBC is often thought of as standing for Java Database Connectivity. It consists of a set of classes and interfaces written in the Java programming language. JDBC provides a standard API for tool/database developers and makes it possible to write database applications using a pure Java API.

Like human languages, programming languages have different levels of writing difficulty; some are easy to write, while others require extensive computer knowledge to understand. In programming, high-level languages are easier to understand, learn and write because of the use of natural language. But, as the use of natural language decreases and more words and computer statements are added, the difficulty level of language increases. This process eventually stops when we get to the lowest level of programming languages, machine language or Assembly language. This language strictly deals with solving problems using hardware, thus, requiring extensive knowledge of hardware and well as software to effectively write programs.

Since Java is so widely used in the world, its impact on the economy is large for a software language. “Sun estimates the total Java Economy to be more than (USD) $100 billion in sales annually driving an additional $110 billion in related IT spending” (Sun). Adding that up, Java’s economic impact compares to about 1.4% of the U.S. $14 trillion economy. Splitting the total value up, “The Java economy includes 2.5 billion smart cards, 800 million PCs shipped with Java, 1.85 billion Java Powered phones (source: Ovum), and over 180 telecom providers who deploy Java technology based content/services” (Sun).

At this point, Microsoft’s ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) API is that probably the most widely used programming interface for accessing relational databases. It offers the ability to connect to almost all databases on almost all platforms.

So why not just use ODBC from Java? The answer is that you can use ODBC from Java, but this is best done with the help of JDBC in the form of the JDBC-ODBC Bridge, which we will cover shortly. The question now becomes “Why do you need JDBC?” There are several answers to this question:

ODBC is not appropriate for direct use from Java because it uses a C interface. Calls from Java to native C code have a number of drawbacks in the security, implementation, robustness, and automatic portability of applications.

A literal translation of the ODBC C API into a Java API would not be desirable. For example, Java has no pointers, and ODBC makes copious use of them, including the notoriously error-prone generic pointer “void *”. You can think of JDBC as ODBC translated into an object-oriented interface that is natural for Java programmers.

ODBC is hard to learn. It mixes simple and advanced features together, and it has complex options even for simple queries. JDBC, on the other hand, was designed to keep simple things simple while allowing more advanced capabilities where required.

A Java API like JDBC is needed in order to enable a “pure Java” solution. When ODBC is used, the ODBC driver manager and drivers must be manually installed on every client machine. When the JDBC driver is written completely in Java, however, JDBC code is automatically installable, portable, and secure on all Java platforms from network computers to mainframes.

Two-tier and three-tier Models

The JDBC API supports both two-tier and three-tier models for database access.

In the two-tier model, a Java applet or application talks directly to the database. This requires a JDBC driver that can communicate with the particular database management system being accessed. A user’s SQL statements are delivered to the database, and the results of those statements are sent back to the user. The database may be located on another machine to which the user is connected via a network. This is referred to as a client/server configuration, with the user’s machine as the client, and the machine housing the database as the server. The network can be an Intranet, which, for example, connects employees within a corporation, or it can be the Internet.

Overpopulation is defined as the number of people exceeding the capacity of the environment in terms of resources to sustain them. Presently, overpopulation poses as one of the gravest problems at the global level. The population of the world has increased seven-folds, from 1 billion to 7.7 billion, in just the last 200 years. The mammoth number indicates the seriousness of the situation which should be attended by all the governments collectively and by international organisations on a priority basis. The burden on our planet Earth should be reduced in order to prevent any harm to its inhabitants or the planet itself. 

This issue has been attributed to several factors such as:

-Low death rate

Due to advancement in the medical field, the death rates have lowered drastically. This technological advancement is seen as a leap in science but it has also largely contributed to the increase in population. 

-High birth rate

With an increase in the success of fertility treatments, the birth rate has also risen. 

-Lack of family planning

In most of the countries, family planning is not given much importance. There is a dire need to realise the benefits of planning before increasing the mouths to feed. As the number of people rises, more forest or rural areas are being urbanised. 

-Poverty

Many people believe that the more hands they have, the more they’ll earn and get out of the cycle of poverty. They fail to see other consequences of having many children, like more mouths to feed, overcrowding in their homes, parenting problems, further distribution of their income, et cetera. 

-The taboo on sex education 

Lack of sex education in school or by parents is a major factor contributing to overpopulation. Many teenagers and adults do not have sufficient information about contraceptives that can be used to prevent early or unwanted pregnancies.

-Agricultural advancement 

Villages and cities came into existence wherever they could find food to sustain them or land well-suited for practicing agriculture. Even today, if there’s a famine, a downfall in the population is observed whereas if there is a surplus, the opposite is observed. Thus, advancement in agriculture has led to overpopulation. 

Apart from these, there are still many reasons due to which this problem is being amplified. 

India is the second-most populous country in the world. Its population alone accounts for 17.7% of the world as per the statistics of 2018. India needs to introduce policies for population control which are effective while avoiding any extreme measures. One such extreme measure was forceful sterilisation of 6.2 million men during the 1976 emergency under the former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s son, Sanjay Gandhi. 

Some of the measures that can be introduced are tax and employment benefits for small families, compulsory sex education classes in schools, awareness about family planning, promoting adoption, removing taboo from female or male sterilisation surgeries, normalising and allowing easy abortion (which should be gender-neutral and only after consent is taken from the pregnant woman) and other steps. 

Overpopulation threatens the future availability of resources. It has led to deforestation, global warming, unemployment, and has affected all natural phenomena. We need to practice population control and raise awareness about it. 

It’s the matter of 1914, a question was raised in Madras Legislative Council about the Communal ratio of total number of registered graduates in Madras University. Then it had come to know that among 650 seats, 452 were Brahmins, 12 were Non-Brahmin Hindus and 74 belong to other communities. This the whole reason for the reservation policy in India to be active. Let us now know origin, causes of caste based reservation policy in India.

Introduction

The system of reservations in India comprises of affirmative action measures, taken up by the government to uplift the weaker sections of the society by getting them into government jobs and higher educational institutions. There are basically three categories of class of citizens which are recognised by the Constitution for the reservation. Those are Scheduled Caste (SC), Scheduled Tribe (ST) and Other Backward Classes (OBC). This reservation system is unique because India is a multi religious, multi linguistic country. That is why these reservations were needed to bring all communities to the same level.

Historical Background

In 1918, the Maharaja of Mysore have received a petition from the depressed class of people. To investigate that Maharaja appointed Miller Committee to know whether Non-Brahmin community has proper representation in his state services. This is where a positive thing had started to happen about depressed class and minorities.

In 1914 also, when 1st world War started, Britain was completely focusing on the war and they wanted Indians to help them in the war. So, as they wanted Indians to participate in war, they accepted long pending request of self governing institutions i.e. provincial assemblies and Central Legislative Assembly. This self governing institutions can also be states as Montague- Chelmsford Reform. This was added in The Government of India act in 1919 and on the other side, the discussion of minority communities was also going and there was a question about how to identify depressed class of citizen. For this, British Government appointed Simon Commission to assess the Indian society and suggest reforms. One of their recommendation was the need to safeguard the minorities and other socially, politically depressed class of people. The depressed classes demanded for a seperate electorate of election. But the commission did not accept that. Commission said that, seperate electorate is not possible but they would reserve them seats.

In 1923, government decided not to give grants to those aided schools that refused the admission of depressed class students. The depressed class under the leadership of Dr. Ambedkar demanded reserved seats for Untouchables in legislative bodies, special education concessions, and recruitment to government posts. To resolve these demands, the British government made a Round Table Conference in November 1930. But the first and second Round Table Conference was failed. McDonald, Prime Minister of British government, announced the communal award where the seperate representations were to be provided to Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans and Dalits Depressed Classes. Mahatma Gandhi was completely against for these reservations as those are are Britishers idea of divide and rule policy. But Ambedkar somehow wanted that as they have minimum benefits. So, after some agreements between Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi. According to this historic agreement the depressed class would get 147 seats in provincial councils instead of 71 promises in the Ramsay McDonald’s award and they would get 18% of the seats in Central Assembly also. The Poona Pact was finally stamped when the Government of India act 1935 where reservation of seats for depressed class was alloted. The Government of India act 1935 replaced the term ‘depressed class’ with Scheduled Class.

Even though seats in the legislature were reserved both for the ‘minority communities and for the depressed classes’, reservation in the public service was denied to the ‘depressed classes’, whereas the minority communities enjoyed reservation in the public services. Ambedkar became a member of Viceroy’s Executive Council as a minister for labour. He used his position in the Government to further the interests of the Depressed Classes. He demanded reservations not only in legislative seats but also in education and Government employment. His demand was accepted and this became the basis for the policy of India when it was framing the Constitution.

Debates in Constitutional Assembly

Constituent assembly came to existence in December 1946. Framers want to set up a welfare society where government not just protects from outside threats but also helps in social, economic development and they also wanted to give special protection for backward classes because of their past atrocities. Constituent Assembly had different committees for different areas.

According to Minority committee Report – Representation in the Legislature and the representation in proportion to their population, reservation in higher education institution and government jobs. A joint electorate was accepted. Reservation of seats for minorities based on religion was also not accepted by the Constituent Assembly. All these provisions were only temporary and if after ten years their position happens to be the same, then it is open to the Parliament either to renew it or abolish it.

But nothing like this happened even for today.

After Independence, there were several provisions made to abolish Untouchability, Titles, and also to protect educational and economic interests of the weak sections and in particular Schedules Casts and Schedules Tribes.

Representation in Services

Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in Lok Sabha and State legislatures for ten years was agreed upon. But the period has been extended from time to time. Three categories of people who deserved the benefits of Protective Discrimination: the backward class, the Scheduled castes and the Scheduled Tribes. Schedule caste and Scheduled tribes are already been defined in constitution. But the problem is that constitution does not have a proper explanation for Backward Class.

Article 15(4) & (5) talks about socially and educationally backward classes where as Article 16(4) talks about other backward classes.

Indira Sawhney V. Union of India

Supreme court in Indira Sawhney & Ors V. Union of India(1993) upheld the implementation of seperate reservation of other backward classes in Central government jobs, Ordered to exclude the creamy layer of other backward classes from enjoying reservation facilities, Ordered to restrict reservation within 50% limit, Declared seperate reservations for economically poor among forward classes as invalid.

This is how caste based reservations started in India. However, it has been clearly stated to abolish this reservation policy after 10 years. But it seems it not going to happen because these reservations became good topic for today’s politicians to gain votes.

Communication is a process of transferring information from one person to another. But is that the sole purpose of communication? Basically, NO. Communication has a broader concept. Communication helps you to grow as a person, to speak your heart out, to express what you feel, to persuade others, to heal. Just like the picture says that even if it is uncomfortable or uneasy one should communicate in order to find peace in your mind because if you keep things inside you all you it will only eat your soul and turn ugly or rather leave you overthinking. It helps you come out of your comfort zones.

Communication helps you solve so many things. In a fight between two people if they chose not to talk to each other and remain enemies they will remain that. But, on the contrary if they think of communicating their point of views with peace, they can end up retaining their friendship again. In a class if you choose to stay quiet and not ask a question because you feel you will sound dumb, maybe that doubt will remain with you forever and your decision to stay shut later proves to be the dumb one. If you keep things in your heart that will bother you continously thus causing stress. As mature adults we should not bring in our ego and not solve a conflict that is of no use instead talk our mind and solve things that can save a relationship.

Communication does not help us in human lives but also in the business life . In order to establish a good organisation one has to build a solid communication system, both Formal and Informal. A formal communication is the one that passes through well definite channels of communication throughout the organisation. An informal communication is the one which moves freely i.e. in all directions. If a leader or a manager has to lead it’s followers or subordinates he has to be confident enough to deliver his orders or requirements so that his followers listen to his orders and not take him for granted. On the other hand the informal communication builds up unity, integrity and solidarity among them and boosts up their morale. Grapevine is the name of the informal communication. And  managers can get feedback from their subordinates quickly on the plan and policies through grapevine.\

Not only verbal communication but non verbal communication is also useful and important. The power of expressions is irreplaceable. Gestures while communicating shows that you are confident enough to prove and state your point. The happy or a sad face of your loved one gives you a hint of their mood. A confused face of a student tells the teacher that he is in doubt even though he spoke nothing. The annoying face of a person tells that he is not liking something or a frowning face tells you that the person is tensed.

Finally, it is important for a person to communicate. Your mind is the most powerful speaker,your tongue just expresses it. If you see somebody struggling with their lives ask them to talk about it .Be a listener maybe you can help them in any way. Maybe you can make them smile.

A beautiful thing happens when we start paying attention to each other. It is by participating more in your relationship that you breathe life into it.”
― Steve Maraboli

The rural sector is the heart and soul of the Indian economy. And the development of Rural India is the development of India. To enhance and make the rural economy progressive the Government of India has launched various schemes in favor of them.

The main aim of rural ministries is not to make profit out of them but for the welfare of the societies out there.These schemes are :

1. Deen Dayal Upadhyay Grameen Kaushal Yojna: This is a placement linked skill development scheme for rural poor youth It was launched by on 25 September 2014 by Union Ministers Nitin Gadkari and Venkaiah Naidu on the occasion of 98th birth anniversary of Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya.  It aims to target youth, under the age group of 15–35 years.. A total of 52000 candidates have been skilled under this programme till 2014-15.

2. Roshni: Skill Development Scheme for Tribals: The Ministry of Rural Development on 7 June 2013 launched a new skill development scheme designed to offer employment to tribal youth in 24 Naxal -affected districts. The scheme, which is named Roshni is supposed to provide training and employment to an anticipated 50000 youth in the 10-35 years age group, for a period of three years.  As per the Ministry 50 per cent of the beneficiaries of the scheme will be women only.The scheme is designed in light of the Himayat project model, which was launched in Jammu and Kashmir has been implemented in Sukma, Chhattisgarh, and West Singhbhum, Jharkand, on a pilot basis over the last 18 months.

3. Swachchh Bharat Mission : The Prime Minister launched Swachh Bharat Mission on the birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi on 2nd October, 2014. The concept of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is to pave access for every person to sanitation facilities including toilets, solid and liquid waste disposal systems, village cleanliness and safe and adequate drinking water supply. The programme is to be implemented by Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation.  An action plan has been drawn up for Swachh Bharat to become a reality by 2019, the 150th birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi.  The Mission aims to triple the growth percentage of toilet from present 3% to 10% by 2019.

4. Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojna: This programme was launched by the Prime Minister Narendra Modi on the birth anniversary of Lok Nayak Jai Prakash Narayan on 11 October 2014. Ministry of Rural Development will be the supervising authority for this programme.  Under this programme each Member of Parliament will take the responsibility for developing physical and institutional infrastructure in three villages by 2019.

5. Heritage Development and Augmentation Yojna (HRIDAY):
This scheme was launched on the 21 January 2015 under the care of The Union Ministry of Urban Development.  Its aim is to preserve and rejuvenate the rich cultural heritage of the country.  In the initial phase of HRIDAY, 12 heritage cities have been identified which will be rejuvenated and developed. Union Government will provide 500 crore rupees to these 12 cities.

6. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS): National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005, was launched on the 2nd Feb.2006. Now the new name of this scheme is “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act” (or, MGNREGA). This scheme is an Indian labour law and social security measure that aims to provide ‘right to work’ to the people falling Below Poverty Line. It guarantees 100 days employment in a year to the village people.

7. Aam Aadmi Bima Yojna: It was launched on october2, 2007.  It’s a social security scheme for rural households.  Under this scheme one member of the family is covered. The premium of Rs. 200 per person per annum is shared by the state and central government. V. The insured person need not to pay any premium if his/her age is between the 18 years to 59 years.