This works intends to analyse the elements of symbolism in Nissim Ezekiel’s poem ”In the country cottage”. Ezekiel is considered as a master in the use of symbols and images. Symbolism is the literary device that uses symbols, like words, locations and abstract ideas to represent something beyond literal meaning. Thus the use of symbolism add emotion, imagery, themes and sometimes it defines characters present in a literary work. Nissim Ezekiel is a poet who use highly evocative and suggestive symbols and images in his poetry. The images and symbols usually used by Ezekiel are women, natural elements like hill, river, sky, sun etc. These symbols give pictorial quality to his poems. Even though he uses simple language and less use of words, it makes the work impressive and sharpens the intended meaning.
In the poem In the Country Cottage the speaker talks about a particular night in a cottage when a lizard came out at night.All the other members of the house seemed lazy and decided to go to bed early as the saw the lizard. Then Nissim Ezekiel shows the image of the lizard through his description.The gray coloured stout lizard was laying without any movements. Poets says that the lizard seems to give a lesson of patience. As the poet says, “…he was more alive than us in silent energy..” the lizard was more alive than humans, in it’s silent energy. The lizard gave his full concentration in this act of waiting for the cockroaches. Its only intention was to kill the cockroaches and in silent energy it outed for them. The next morning the other family members woke and found that the lizard completed its job with utmost ‘cleanliness’ and left the place.
Even though the poem presents ordinary things and is shorter with lesser words, the symbol of lizard is significant. The lizard can be considered as the symbol of cleanliness, patience and dutifulness.Thus it shed light on the line of the achieves who both work hard and remains patient for achieving the goal. Thus it is a symbol of perseverance and will power. By the use of this symbol poet urges the people to save their energy for better purpose, instead of wasting time for futile activities. Thus Nissim Ezekiel places the ordinary lizard for superior to lazy humans. It can be said that he is a poet who make use of the ordinary situations and creatures and makes great poems from them. From the ordinariness of human life he emphasizes the philosophy of life. As said earlier, Ezekiel is considered as a master in the use of symbols and images. His major poems like Enterprise, Night of a Scorpion,The Professor, Philosophy and Marriage possess such symbolic and pictorial qualities. Examples from the poem Enterprise is the use of the symbol “pilgrimage”, which stands for life and “sun” stands for hostility between nature and human aspirations.
While analyzing these symbols in his poems it can be concluded that he is a great artist. The symbolism he used in his work had deep meaning which can encourage any reader to think further about the life from a fresh perspective. By the use of images or symbols of primitive simplicity, he shows the world that poetry does not have to deal with great philosophical truths to be impressive, and ordinary situations are more than enough.
The fact. English is not a pure language is accepted by everyone. It has borrowed many words from different foreign languages and it enriched the English vocabulary. The words borrowed from other languages are known as loan words. According to F T Wood a foreign languages influenced English in three ways. First is by the foreign invaders, who settled in England brought in their words like Scandinavian words after Scandinavian invasion. Next is by foreign contacts through trade, voyages, explorations etc. The example of words borrowed by trade are Italian and Spanish words.And the third one is through scholarship, learning and culture like the Latin and Greek words borrowed during Renaissance. Apart from these ways, various reasons like religious and political movements,colonial invasion also influenced English language. This paper deals with the influence of seven languages on English. They are Celtic, French, Latin, Greek, Norman, Dutch and Spanish. Celtic influence is the first one. The Celts are believed to have been arriving in 600 BC.
The Celtic people who invaded Britain are believed to have integrated with the people who previously inhabited the island. The land that remained dominantly Celtic are divided linguistically into two – Gaelic or Goidelic and Brythonic. The Goidelic languages are Irish, Highland Scottish and Manx. Brythonic is made up of Welsh, Cornish and Briton , of these Welsh is the one to survive most strongly in the present day. Words borrowed from Gaelic are “slogan” which was used in Gaelic as “slaugh- gharim” means “battle cry”. “Bog” is another example from Gaelic “bogach” meaning “soft” and “moist”. Some other examples are trousers, beat, clan, smashing, pet etc. Examples of words borrowed from Welsh vocabulary is “Penguin” from welsh “pen guyn” meaning white head. Celtic influence on English is apparent through the place names. The language of Celts was referred to as the British the language of the Brithons the native inhabitants of the land. Surviving names are Thames and Yare names of river and names of Roman town like London, York and Lincoln.
The words borrowed from French constitutes twenty nine percentage of English language. The French influence can be categorized into lexical, morphological, orthographic and miscellaneous. According to Albert c Baugh and Thomas Cable the influence “. . . began slowly and continued with varying tempo for a long time”. The French influence began with the Norman conquest. There are different categories of borrowed words. They are related to Government and social class like “revenue”,”authority”, “duke”, words related to Church like “religion”, “sermon” “prayer” related to Law “justice”, “crime”, “jury”, “pardon” War related “army”, “battle”, Fashion related “gown”, “ frock”, etc Food related “feast” , “plate”, “fry” and Learning related “ paper”, “preface” “logic” etc. Next borrowing is the food pairs. In many cases French word might have existed with a German word. In this the two words use in different senses. In such pairs the first English word is about the living animal in a farm and the French word signifies the meat of the animal, as in the case of cow and beef, sheep and mutton. Next french influence in lexical level is doublets. Doublets are the same word borrowed twice, one from Norman dialect and another from Parisian dialect, like catch v/s chase, warranty v/s guarantee, etc. On a morphological level french influence had a great impact on English. The decline in the use of English singular pronouns like “thou’ and “ thee” and replacement with “ ye” and “you” have been linked to the parallel French use of “vous” in formal settings. The use of “s” to plurals in English is also attributed to French influence. Possessive phrases such as the use of “ ’s ” , constructions that places adjectives after the noun like “attorney general”, and use of certain prefixes and suffix morphemes like pre, -ous, -ily, -tion are also the result of french influence. In orthographic category the used of “qu” instead of “cw”, “gh” instead of “h”, “ou” instead of “u” are examples of french influence. The doubling of vowels tho represent long vowel sounds like “see” , doubling of consonants after short vowels like “sitting” amd more use of ‘k’, ‘z’, ‘y’ are in this category. Normans had a strong influence on English personal names. English names such as Alfred, Harold, Godwin and Athelstan largely fell out of fashion and replaced by names like John, Peter, Simon, William, Richard and Henry.
Latin influence is considered the earliest of all the influence on English. First Latin influence on English language was when England contacted with the Roman Civilization The Latin words borrowed during this phase belongs to agriculture, war and domestic life. The loan words are wine, mint, mill, kitchen, cup, dish, pepper, cheese, butter, milk etc. There are place names came during this phase like places ending with ceaster like Lancaster, Gloucester, Winchester, Manchester etc. Next phase of influence happened with the introduction of Christianity. The introduction of Christianity was on 59AD . The loan words came during this time is related to new conceptions, religion, and faith. Words related to education,plant, domestic life were also borrowed. The words are Angel, anthem, hymn, minister, monk, disciple, silk, pea, pine, poppy, beet, pine, grammar, master,grammar, lobster etc. In the middle English period Latin came through translation of holy bible. Words related to law (conspiracy, custody, legal, prosecute), theology (scripture, incarnate,limbo), literature (allegory, genius,intellect,prosody) and science (mechanical,solar,zenith) came during this phase. In the 15 th century during Renaissance great revival of learning influenced English immensely. The words borrowed during this phase are Nouns,Adjectives and verb. Examples for nouns are radius,allusion, circus, atmosphere, bonus etc, Adjectives are appropriate, domestic, perfect etc and Verbs are assassinate, benefit, affidavit, exit etc. As a result of Latin influence, native nouns had got Latin adjectives like paternal for father, maternal for mother, royal for king etc.
Greek language influenced English immensely. Even before Renaissance English language contained a few Greek words, like geography, theology, logic through Latin. But most of Greek words passed into English during Renaissance period. Revival of Greek learning in Western Europe at the beginning of sixteenth century was the reason for borrowing from Greek. Examples for such words are irony, alphabet, drama, elegy etc. The Greek words borrowed during seventeenth century are orchestra, pandemonium, museum,clinic etc. Bathos and philander are the examples of words borrowed during eighteenth century. During nineteenth and twentieth century scientific and technical terms came from German.Those words are psychology, neurology, oxygen, halogen, telephone, microscope etc.The modern medical science is full of Greek terms because of the works of Hypocrites. Greek also contributed some suffixes and prefixes like anti-, di-, hyper-, poly-.
Norman contribution is one of the major influences on English language. Normans came into England during 1066AD . The words borrowed from Norman French can be grouped into several types like legal terms( adultery, slander), military words( surrender, occupy), names of meats( bacon) royal court ( chivalry, majesty). The use of legal and military terms are because of the influence of William the Conquerors works. Other examples of Norman loan words are accuse, archer, assault, curfew, fashion, judge, marriage etc. Dutch had a great influence in English during renaissance period and through commerce. In the renaissance period many loan words from low German from which we have dutch, Flemish and the dialects of Northern Germany came to England. These regions had close commercial contacts with England ever since the Norman conquest and many of the loan words are related to sea faring and trade. Examples are skipper, clock, cruise, smuggle, trek, smack etc.
During the middle English period quite a number of words borrowed from Spanish. Most of the Spanish words came through trade, commerce and war. Examples for such words are armada, cargo, spade, siesta, cocoa, potato, cafeteria etc. The bulk of Spanish words came into English from the middle of sixteenth century to the middle seventeenth century. These are some examples of words borrowed to English from foreign language and their influences. While analyzing these contributions, it can be concluded that , these words and usages enriched the English vocabulary.
Like Roosevelt before him, Woodrow Wilson regarded himself as the personal representative of the people. “No one but the President,” he said, “seems to be expected … to look out for the general interests of the country.” He developed a program of progressive reform and asserted international leadership in building a new world order. In 1917 he proclaimed American entrance into World War I a crusade to make the world “safe for democracy.”
Wilson had seen the frightfulness of war. He was born in Virginia in 1856, the son of a Presbyterian minister who during the Civil War was a pastor in Augusta, Georgia, and during Reconstruction a professor in the charred city of Columbia, South Carolina.
After graduation from Princeton (then the College of New Jersey) and the University of Virginia Law School, Wilson earned his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University and entered upon an academic career. In 1885 he married Ellen Louise Axson.
Wilson advanced rapidly as a conservative young professor of political science and became president of Princeton in 1902.
His growing national reputation led some conservative Democrats to consider him Presidential timber. First they persuaded him to run for Governor of New Jersey in 1910. In the campaign he asserted his independence of the conservatives and of the machine that had nominated him, endorsing a progressive platform, which he pursued as governor.
He was nominated for President at the 1912 Democratic Convention and campaigned on a program called the New Freedom, which stressed individualism and states’ rights. In the three-way election he received only 42 percent of the popular vote but an overwhelming electoral vote.
Wilson maneuvered through Congress three major pieces of legislation. The first was a lower tariff, the Underwood Act; attached to the measure was a graduated Federal income tax. The passage of the Federal Reserve Act provided the Nation with the more elastic money supply it badly needed. In 1914 antitrust legislation established a Federal Trade Commission to prohibit unfair business practices.
Another burst of legislation followed in 1916. One new law prohibited child labor; another limited railroad workers to an eight-hour day. By virtue of this legislation and the slogan “he kept us out of war,” Wilson narrowly won re-election.
But after the election Wilson concluded that America could not remain neutral in the World War. On April 2,1917, he asked Congress for a declaration of war on Germany.
Massive American effort slowly tipped the balance in favor of the Allies. Wilson went before Congress in January 1918, to enunciate American war aims–the Fourteen Points, the last of which would establish “A general association of nations…affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.”
After the Germans signed the Armistice in November 1918, Wilson went to Paris to try to build an enduring peace. He later presented to the Senate the Versailles Treaty, containing the Covenant of the League of Nations, and asked, “Dare we reject it and break the heart of the world?”
Wilson never doubted the outcome. He mobilized a nation – its manpower, its industry, its commerce, its agriculture. He was himself the chief mover in the propaganda war. His speech to Congress on January 8, 1918, on the «Fourteen Points» was a decisive stroke in winning that war, for people everywhere saw in his peace aims the vision of a world in which freedom, justice, and peace could flourish.
Although at the apogee of his fame when the 1919 Peace Conference assembled in Versailles, Wilson failed to carry his total conception of an ideal peace, but he did secure the adoption of the Covenant of the League of Nations. His major failure, however, was suffered at home when the Senate declined to approve American acceptance of the League of Nations. This stunning defeat resulted from his losing control of Congress after he had made the congressional election of 1918 virtually a vote of confidence, from his failure to appoint to the American peace delegation those who could speak for the Republican Party or for the Senate, from his unwillingness to compromise when some minor compromises might well have carried the day, from his physical incapacity in the days just prior to the vote.
Who Was Karl Marx? Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a philosopher, author, social theorist, and economist. He is famous for his theories about capitalism and communism. Marx, in conjunction with Friedrich Engels, published The Communist Manifesto in 1848; later in life, he wrote Das Kapital (the first volume was published in Berlin in 1867; the second and third volumes were published posthumously in 1885 and 1894, respectively), which discussed the labour theory of value.
Marx’s early writings are dominated by an understanding of alienation, a distinct type of social ill whose diagnosis looks to rest on a controversial account of human nature and its flourishing. He subsequently developed an influential theory of history—often called historical materialism—centred around the idea that forms of society rise and fall as they further and then impede the development of human productive power. Marx increasingly became preoccupied with an attempt to understand the contemporary capitalist mode of production, as driven by a remorseless pursuit of profit, whose origins are found in the extraction of surplus value from the exploited proletariat. The precise role of morality and moral criticism in Marx’s critique of contemporary capitalist society is much discussed, and there is no settled scholarly consensus on these issues. His understanding of morality may be related to his account of ideology, and his reflection on the extent to which certain widely-shared misunderstandings might help explain the stability of class-divided societies. In the context of his radical journalism, Marx also developed his controversial account of the character and role of the modern state, and more generally of the relation between political and economic life. Marx sees the historical process as proceeding through a series of modes of production, characterised by (more or less explicit) class struggle, and driving humankind towards communism.
However, Marx is famously reluctant to say much about the detailed arrangements of the communist alternative that he sought to bring into being, arguing that it would arise through historical processes, and was not the realisation of a pre-determined plan or blueprint.
Between late 1843 and early 1845, Marx lived in Paris, a cosmopolitan city full of émigrés and radical artisans. He was subsequently expelled by the French government following Prussian pressure. In his last months in Germany and during this Paris exile, Marx produced a series of “early writings”, many not intended for publication, which significantly altered interpretations of his thought when they were published collectively in the twentieth century. Papers that actually saw publication during this period include: “On the Jewish Question” (1843) in which Marx defends Jewish Emancipation against Bruno Bauer (1809–1882), but also emphasises the limitations of “political” as against “human” emancipation; and the “Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right: Introduction” (1844) which contains a critical account of religion, together with some prescient remarks about the emancipatory potential of the proletariat. The most significant works that Marx wrote for self-clarification rather than publication in his Paris years are the so-called “1844 Manuscripts” (1844) which provide a suggestive account of alienation, especially of alienation in work; and the “Theses on Feuerbach” (1845), a set of epigrammatic but rich remarks including reflections on the nature of philosophy.
The importance of Public Administration in the modern state can hardly be overemphasised. Its importance and role has been steadily increasing with the expansion of state activity in the modern states. Public Administration is now on all-encompassing factor of the daily life of individual as well as the community, an integral part of the society, which has seen the emergence of what has aptly been called the Administrative State.
Public Administration is the field of service that maintains a civil society and provides for the needs of the public. It is the activities undertaken by the government to look after its people and manage its affairs.
One of the ways people working in public administration use their problem-solving skills is by helping during a crisis. Crisis management is necessary during a crisis and it’s important to limit the way that it impacts people.
Some elements of public administration include planning, organising, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting.
As an activity, it can be traceable to the Almighty God who planned the existence of man as a being. As an academic field of study, it can be largely traceable to Woodrow Wilson.
Woodrow Wilson, the father of Public Administration first recognised it in an article titled “The Study of Administration”. This he published in 1887.
Public administration has a very important place in the life of people. It is that branch of government which concerns more directly and more striking than any other with the lives of the human beings. The individual in the modern society is concerned with Public Administration at every turn of his life from cradle to the grave. It is the part of the social, cultural and economic life of a nation and is a part and parcel of its life.
Public Administration is the basis of government for monarchy, democracy, communist country like China, or in capitalist country. It is the instrument for executing the laws, policies and programmes formulated by the state. It is also an instrument of national integration particularly in the developing countries which are facing the challenges of sub nationalism, secessionism, class wars, and so on. It is a great stabilising force in the society as it provides continuity when government changes either due to revolution or by election or coups.
Let me introduce you all to the definition of law, in other words, what is law?
It is, by definition, the system of rules that a particular country or a community recognizes as regulating the actions of its members which it may enforce by the imposition of penalties.
Or, in the words of eminent Jurist Salmond, law is the body of principles recognised and applied by the state in the administration of justice.
Now why am I stating the facts you may think. Well, I am not giving weight to my part of the writings here, I am giving weight to the situation of the country. How conveniently we twist and turn mere facts in the grab of amendments. Some sure are in our favour but what about the others that are not?
I shall begin with the necessity of amending provisions in the constitution. Provision for amendment in the constitution is made with a view to overcome the difficulties which may encounter in the future in working of the constitution. No generation has the monopoly of wisdom nor has it any right to place fetters on future generations to mould the machinery of government according to their requirements. If no provisions were made for the amendment of the constitution, the people would have recourse to extra constitutional method like revolution to change the constitution, as held in Keshavananda v/s the state of Kerala All India Report 1973 Supreme Court page number 1461. The power of amending the law is exercised by the parliament under Article 368 of the Indian Constitution.
The framers of the Indian Constitution were keen to avoid excessive rigidity. They were anxious to have a document which could grow with a growing nation, adapt itself to the changing need and circumstances of growing people. the nature of the ‘amending process’ envisaged by the framers of the constitution can be best understood by referring the following observation of the late Prime Minister Pandit Nehru – “When we want this constitution to be solid and permanent as we can make it, there is no permanence in the constitution. There should be a certain flexibility. If you make anything rigid and permanent, you stop the nation’s growth.”
In any event, we could not make this constitution so rigid that it cannot be adopted to changing conditions. When the world is in a period of transition, what we may do today may not be wholly applicable tomorrow.
2021 Theme: Yoga for well-being The Day will be marked at a time when COVID-19 pandemic continues to upend lives and livelihoods of people globally.
Beyond its immediate impact on physical health, the COVID-19 pandemic has also exacerbated psychological suffering and mental health problems, including depression and anxiety, as pandemic-related restrictions continue in various forms in many countries. This has highlighted the urgent need to address the mental health dimension of the pandemic, in addition to the physical health aspects.
The message of Yoga in promoting both the physical and mental well-being of humanity has never been more relevant. A growing trend of people around the world embracing Yoga to stay healthy and rejuvenated and to fight social isolation and depression has been witnessed during the pandemic. Yoga is also playing a significant role in the psycho-social care and rehabilitation of COVID-19 patients in quarantine and isolation. It is particularly helpful in allaying their fears and anxiety.
Recognizing this important role of Yoga, this year’s commemoration of the International Day of Yoga focuses on “Yoga for well-being” – how the practice of Yoga can promote the holistic health of every individual.
The United Nations offers yoga resources to its personnel and others on the COVID-19 portal’s section on Wellness.
The World Health Organization mentions yoga as a means to improve health in its Global action plan on physical activity 2018–2030: more active people for a healthier world.
UNICEF says kids can practice many yoga poses without any risk and get the same benefits that adults do. These benefits include increased flexibility and fitness, mindfulness and relaxation.
2021 virtual event The Permanent Mission of India to the United Nations invites you to an online celebration of the 7th annual International Yoga Day on 21 June 2021, from 8:30 to 10:00 am EST, broadcast live on UN WebTV.
The event opened with messages from the President of the United Nations General Assembly and the Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations, which was followed by demonstrations of Yoga exercises (asanas) to improve physical, mental, emotional and spiritual health and an interactive panel discussion on “Yoga for well-being.”
What is Yoga and why do we celebrate it? Yoga is an ancient physical, mental and spiritual practice that originated in India. The word ‘yoga’ derives from Sanskrit and means to join or to unite, symbolizing the union of body and consciousness.
Today it is practiced in various forms around the world and continues to grow in popularity.
Recognizing its universal appeal, on 11 December 2014, the United Nations proclaimed 21 June as the International Day of Yoga by resolution 69/131.
The International Day of Yoga aims to raise awareness worldwide of the many benefits of practicing yoga.
The draft resolution establishing the International Day of Yoga was proposed by India and endorsed by a record 175 member states. The proposal was first introduced by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in his address during the opening of the 69th session of the General Assembly, in which he said: “Yoga is an invaluable gift from our ancient tradition. Yoga embodies unity of mind and body, thought and action … a holistic approach [that] is valuable to our health and our well-being. Yoga is not just about exercise; it is a way to discover the sense of oneness with yourself, the world and the nature.”
The resolution notes “the importance of individuals and populations making healthier choices and following lifestyle patterns that foster good health.” In this regard, the World Health Organization has also urged its member states to help their citizens reduce physical inactivity, which is among the top ten leading causes of death worldwide, and a key risk factor for non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes.
But yoga is more than a physical activity. In the words of one of its most famous practitioners, the late B. K. S. Iyengar, “Yoga cultivates the ways of maintaining a balanced attitude in day-to-day life and endows skill in the performance of one’s actions.”
The United Nations is the symbol of hope for mankind. This hope, as former UN Secretary-General Dag Hammerskjold said, is the hope that peace is possible. The United Nations is an organization of 193 sovereign states. It was set up in 1945 to replace the ill-fated League of Nations. The Allies, who were fighting the Axis Powers in the Second World War to destroy dictatorship and secure the ‘world for democracy, resolved to establish a new world organization rather than revive the League of Nations. It was in the London Declaration of 12 June 1941 that all nations then fighting against Hitler’s Germany announced their intention of working together, with other free peoples, to establish ‘a world in which, relieved of the menace of aggression, all may enjoy economic and social security.’ Earlier, President Roosevelt of the United States in a message to the Congress in January 1941, had spelt out four freedoms as being of universal importance.
These were: (a) Freedom of speech and expression; (b) Freedom to worship God in one’s own way; (c) Freedom from want; and (d) Freedom from fear.
At that time the United States was not at war. She was observing neutrality. As explained earlier, the United states joined the Second World War only in December 1941 when Japan bombarded Pearl Harbour. The Soviet Union had joined the Allies in June 1941 after Germany’s attack. Thus the Four Freedoms and the London Declaration were expressions of the desire of mankind to be free from ‘war’ and free from ‘want’. On 14 August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill issued the famous Atlantic Charter which spoke of the establishment of a ‘peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries,’ of freedom from ear and want, and the creation of ‘a wider and permanent system of general security.’
The principles spelt out in the Atlantic Charter, and the London Declaration, were endorsed by the 26 countries who were then Allies, on 1 January 1942 in what came to be known as the United Nations Declaration. This declaration signed in Washington was mainly concerned with war, not peace. It was to emphasize cooperation in an all-out struggle against Axis and to give an assurance to each other not to make peace individually.
Objectives And Principles
Objectives:
(i) to maintain international peace and security based on respect for the principle of equal human rights and self-determination of peoples.
(ii) to develop friendly relations among nations.
(iii) to cooperate in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character.
(iv) to be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in achieving these ends.
(v) to protect environment & to justify use of natural resource.
The United Nations act in accordance with the following Principals.
All member states are sovereign and equal.
All are pledged to fulfil their obligations under the Charter in good faith.
All are pledged to settle their international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering international peace, security and justice.
They are to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against any other state.
They are to give the UN every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the Charter.
The United Nations shall not intervene in matters which are essentially domestic ones of any state except when it is acting to enforce international peace.
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru was born in Allahabad on November 14, 1889. He received his early education at home under private tutors. At the age of fifteen, he went to England and after two years at Harrow, joined Cambridge University where he took his tripos in Natural Sciences. He was later called to the Bar from Inner Temple. He returned to India in 1912 and plunged straight into politics. Even as a student, he had been interested in the struggle of all nations who suffered under foreign domination. He took keen interest in the Sinn Fein Movement in Ireland. In India, he was inevitably drawn into the struggle for independence.
In 1912, he attended the Bankipore Congress as a delegate, and became Secretary of the Home Rule League, Allahabad in 1919. In 1916 he had his first meeting with Mahatma Gandhi and felt immensely inspired by him. He organised the first Kisan March in Pratapgarh District of Uttar Pradesh in 1920. He was twice imprisoned in connection with the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920-22.
Pt. Nehru became the General Secretary of the All India Congress Committee in September 1923. He toured Italy, Switzerland, England, Belgium, Germany and Russia in 1926. In Belgium, he attended the Congress of Oppressed Nationalities in Brussels as an official delegate of the Indian National Congress. He also attended the tenth anniversary celebrations of the October Socialist Revolution in Moscow in 1927. Earlier, in 1926, at the Madras Congress, Nehru had been instrumental in committing the Congress to the goal of Independence. While leading a procession against the Simon commission, he was lathi-charged in Lucknow in 1928. On August 29, 1928 he attended the All-Party Congress and was one of the signatories to the Nehru Report on Indian Constitutional Reform, named after his father Shri Motilal Nehru. The same year, he also founded the ‘Independence for India League’, which advocated complete severance of the British connection with India, and became its General Secretary.
In 1929, Pt. Nehru was elected President of the Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress, where complete independence for the country was adopted as the goal. He was imprisoned several times during 1930-35 in connection with the Salt Satyagraha and other movements launched by the Congress. He completed his ‘Autobiography’ in Almora Jail on February 14, 1935. After release, he flew to Switzerland to see his ailing wife and visited London in February-March, 1936. He also visited Spain in July 1938, when the country was in the throws of Civil War. Just before the court-break of the Second World War, he visited China too.
On October 31, 1940 Pt. Nehru was arrested for offering individual Satyagraha to protest against India’s forced participation in war. He was released along with the other leaders in December 1941. On August 7, 1942 Pt. Nehru moved the historic ‘Quit India’ resolution at the A.I.C.C. session in Bombay. On August 8,1942 he was arrested along with other leaders and taken to Ahmednagar Fort. This was his longest and also his last detention. In all, he suffered imprisonment nine times. After his release in January 1945, he organized legal defence for those officers and men of the INA charged with treason. In March 1946, Pt. Nehru toured South East Asia. He was elected President of the Congress for the fourth time on July 6, 1946 and again for three more terms from 1951 to 1954.
History And Early Life
Nehru was born on Nov. 14, 1889, at Allahabad, India. His name Jawaharlal mea»s “red jewel,” a name he once said he found “odious.” His father, Motilal Nehru, was a wealthy lawyer from the state of Kashmir. Both he and Nehru’s mother, Swarup Bani Nehru, were Brahmans, the highest caste in India. Jawaharlal had two younger sisters: Swarup, born in 1900, and Krishna, born in 1907. They grew up in a palatial home called Anand Bhawan, meaning Abode of Happiness.
India was a part of the British Empire, and many of Motilal’s friends were English. Until Nehru was 15, he was educated at home by British tutors. He also studied the Hindi and Sanskrit languages with a Brahman teacher who, according to Nehru, managed to impart “extraordinarily little.” The only one of his tutors who impressed the boy was a French-Irish philosopher named Ferdinand T. Brooks. Brooks imbued Jawaharlal with an enthusiasm for reading and for science.
He introduced the youth to theosophy, a mystical system of thought that claims to explain the universe on the basis of direct revelations. The doctrine fascinated Nehru, and at the age of 13 he joined the theosophical society. But his interest in theosophy soon waned.
Student in England. In 1905, Nehru’s father took him to England to enroll at Harrow, a leading English public school. Nehru’s housemaster, the Bev. Edgar Stogdon, remembered him later as “a very nice boy, quiet and very refined. He was not demonstrative but one felt there was great strength of character. I should doubt if he told many boys what his opinions were. . . .”
Jawaharlal entered Trinity College at Cambridge University in 1907. There he studied chemistry, geology, and botany. He displayed little intellectual interest or ambition. He attended meetings of a debating society, but seldom found courage to speak himself. Nonetheless, the society’s political discussions stirred his interest in the growing Indian nationalist movement. He also became sensitive to discrimination against Indians. After completing his studies at Cambridge University, Nehru studied law in London, where he passed his bar examination in 1912.
In the previous chapter a reference was made to pretensions of peace and friendship on part of Hitler in the early years of the Third Reich. We have seen that realignment of powers had taken place during 1934-35. Meanwhile, Germany had pulled itself out of the Disarmament Conference and withdrawn from the League of Nations in October 1933 on the ground that other powers had failed to reduce their armaments although they had promised to do so, when they had signed the Covenant of the League of Nations in 1919. Hitler was vigorously but secretly carrying on rearmament of Germany, but did not want to disclose it before Saar was returned to Germany. As provided for in the Versailles Treaty, a plebiscite was held in Saar in January 1935 and about 90 per cent of the people voted for reunion with Germany.
Hitler personally went to Saar to see the reunification of Saar with the Reich on 1 March 1935. As analysis of Hitler’s approach to foreign policy shows that he was always pragmatic. According to Paul Johnson, ‘Like Lenin, he was a superb opportunist, always ready to seize openings and modify his theory accordingly.’ While some historians conclude that he had no master programme, others like Johnson feel that he was always adjusting his tactics to suit the moment. He was never tempted to relax by a surfeit of autocratic power.
Actually he was ‘always raising the stakes on the table and seeking to hasten the force of history.’ Hitler was now free to unfold his true foreign policy based on Mein Kampf, i.e. anti-Communism, anti-Semitism, and promotion of German imperialism. During 1935-37 Hitler evolved and acted upon the strategy of befriending not only fellow dictator Mussolini, but also a militant Japan and even Britain who wanted ‘peace almost at any price.’ During this period, Hitler unilaterally repudiated not only the dictated Treaty of Versailles but also freely negotiated Treaty of Locarno. This period also witnessed another repudiation of international commitment-Italian aggression on Abyssinia and eventual annexation of that country into Italian Empire. These developments led to the formations of Rome-Berlin-Tokyo-Axis.
Repudiation Of Treaties
In February 1935 (after the Saar plebiscite, but before its reunion with Germany) England and France made certain proposals to Germany. These included signing of Central Pact and Eastern Pact. The former, to ensure non-interference in each other’s internal affairs and to be signed by Austria and her neighbours and the latter to be signed by France, Germany and the Soviet Union, each assuring the other against aggression by the third country. It was also proposed that the seven Locarno powers, including Germany, should promise that in case of air attack upon any of them, the others would provide assistance to the victim of attack. These proposals came to be known as ‘Air Locarno’. Germany showed willingness only for Air Locarno as that would permit her to establish an Air Force. The other two pacts were to be discussed by Hitler with British representatives, but before British ministers could go to Germany, the British government announced a programme of strengthening its armed might, a move that annoyed Hitler.
Hitler suggested that he was willing to sign a fresh treaty with France and Belgium, whereby there could be demilitarization of equal distance on both sides of the border. This was, as expected, rejected by France. Now, therefore, Rhineland was once again remilitarized and German troops firmly based themselves in the region. Hitler ha achieved one more success.
REFERENCES : International relations by V.N. KHANNA
Most of the peace treaties signed before the First World War imposed ‘war indemnity’ on the defeated states. It was a fine imposed by the victor on the vanquished by way of penalty. The theory was that the victor must recover practically the entire cost of a war from the defeated enemy. The defeated powers used to indemnify the losses suffered by the victors during the wars. During the First World War, it was argued in many countries that in view of heavy losses involved in the war, it would be impossible for the victors to recover the entire cost. Purely from an economic viewpoint, as Gathorne-Hardy says, ‘…the immense scale of the war of 1914-18 rendered it obvious at the outset that a claim of this description would be beyond the power of any nation to satisfy…’ Besides, there was a moral aspect also. President Woodrow Wilson was against the imposition of war indemnity on the ground of such a fine being undemocratic. As Carr also admits, ‘…democratic opinion in many countries had expressed itself against the practice…’ of imposing war indemnity. Wilson personally was not in favour of any prize for the victors and any punishment for the vanquished. However, the US President had to yield to the pressure put upon him by his European allies, and he had to agree to the imposition of a limited amount of fine to be called reparation.
The Treaty of Versailles provided for payment of an unspecified amount of reparation by Germany to the victors of the Fist World War. The demands made on Germany were to be limited to the ‘compensation for all damage done to the civilian population for the Allied and Associated Powers and to their property.’ This was supposed to be a concession, as Germany was not required to pay to recover the ‘entire cost’ of the war. Unlike in previous wars, the civilian population and their properties were not spread. Heavy damages were caused to the civilians and their properties as a result of indiscriminate attacks by the German army, navy and army force. The Allies decided not to claim military losses. Nevertheless, their greed was reflected in the fact that reparation was to cover, besides civilian losses, the separation allowances and pensions to be paid to the widows and dependents of the officers and men killed in action. The concession, therefor, was not of much practical consequence.
Germany, as we have seen, was made to admit her sole responsibility for the war and and the consequent liability for payment of reparation. Article 231 of the Treaty said: ‘The Allied and Associated Powers affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected to as a consequence of the war imposed on them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.’ Germany was called upon by the Allies to pay to them such amount of money as would be determined by a Commission to be appointed for this purpose. This money was required to enable the Allies to ‘repair’ the losses suffered by them as a result of the war ‘imposed’ upon them by Germany.
Spa Conference (1920)
Contrary to German expectations the conference did not focus on the issue of war reparations but was initially dominated by the topic of disarmament, also part of the Treaty of Versailles. Due to current events the coal negotiations then moved to centre stage.
The issue of coal pertained to shipments from Germany to France, Belgium and Italy according to Art. 236 of Part VIII of the Versailles Treaty. In a protocol signed on 19 August 1919 Germany had agreed on these deliveries, but due to the uprisings of spring 1920 (Kapp Putsch, Red Ruhr Army) and associated strikes in the coal industry had been unable to comply.
Discussion of the coal issue, which began on 9 July, soon showed that the Allied side was unwilling to compromise. At the very beginning threats about sanctions were issued, with Millerand acting as the spokesman on the Allied side. After days of tough negotiations, the talks almost broke down on 14 July. On 16 July, Fehrenbach and foreign minister Walter Simons signed the Spa coal protocol as drawn up by the Allies. Germany promised to deliver 2 million tons of coal per month for six months. In exchange for the Allied right to insist on the delivery of specifics types or quality of coal, Germany was granted 5 Goldmark per ton to purchase food for the miners. In addition, the Allies agreed to monthly advance payments for the coal. The German side did not sign up to the Allied threat that missed deliveries would be answered by military occupation of the Ruhr or other German territories.
Despite Allied financial concessions the coal agreement dealt a heavy blow to the German economy. Supply of coal had been adequate before the conference, but now domestic bottlenecks emerged that damaged output of the iron and steel industry, the railways and coal conversion industry.
Plastic waste management is a collective term for various approaches and strategies used to recycle plastic materials that would otherwise be dumped into landfills, or bodies of water, or otherwise contaminate the environment. The idea behind this type of waste management is to utilize those discarded materials to manufacture new plastic products without the need to actually generate additional plastic materials. Doing so can help lower production costs as well as protect the environment.
Many different types of industries participate in some type of plastic waste management process. Some are specifically geared toward collecting plastic items for recycling. For example, many supermarkets encourage customers to contribute unwanted plastic bags into a recycling container located near the front of the store. The collected bags are then forwarded to recycling centres where the material is processed for use in the production of new products made from the recycled plastic.
Businesses that produce plastic products also engage in the task of plastic waste management. This often focuses on finding ways to recycle or reuse excess plastic that is discarded as units of different goods are produced. These plastic remnants can often be collected and ran through an internal recycling process to create additional products for sale. Not only does this approach prevent the disposal of the used materials into a landfill, it also allows the company to lower the actual cost associated with manufacturing each unit of its product line.
In some cases, businesses outsource the process of plastic waste management. Contracting with a waste management company makes it possible for unwanted plastic items to be collected and removed from the premises without expending additional company resources. Municipalities sometimes work with a waste management disposal company in creating plastic recycling programs that allow households to conveniently dispose of plastic milk jugs, broken plastic toys, and other plastic items without placing them into the trash. Depending on the nature of the arrangement with the plastic waste management company, the municipality may actually earn a small amount from the arrangement, creating another stream of revenue for the city or town that can be used to fund services offered to residents.
Any type of plastic waste management must be conducted in compliance with regulations set by local, state, and federal governments. This includes using recycling methods that are considered to be environmentally friendly, and that are not likely to create health risks for individuals living and working in the community. Since regulations regarding recycling vary somewhat from one jurisdiction to another, it is important to determine what is and is not allowed before establishing any type of ongoing program to deal with plastic waste.
Climate change is a long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns. Often climate change refers specifically to the rise in global temperatures from the mid-20th century to present.
Climate is sometimes mistaken for weather. But climate is different from weather because it is measured over a long period of time, whereas weather can change from day to day, or from year to year. The climate of an area includes seasonal temperature and rainfall averages, and wind patterns. Different places have different climates. A desert, for example, is referred to as an arid climate because little water falls, as rain or snow, during the year. Other types of climate include tropical climates, which are hot and humid, and temperate climates, which have warm summers and cooler winters.
Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns in a place. Climate change could refer to a particular location or the planet as a whole. Climate change may cause weather patterns to be less predictable. These unexpected weather patterns can make it difficult to maintain and grow crops in regions that rely on farming because expected temperature and rainfall levels can no longer be relied on. Climate change has also been connected with other damaging weather events such as more frequent and more intense hurricanes, floods, downpours, and winter storms.
In polar regions, the warming global temperatures associated with climate change have meant ice sheets and glaciers are melting at an accelerated rate from season to season. This contributes to sea levels rising in different regions of the planet. Together with expanding ocean waters due to rising temperatures, the resulting rise in sea level has begun to damage coastlines as a result of increased flooding and erosion.
The cause of current climate change is largely human activity, like burning fossil fuels, like natural gas, oil, and coal. Burning these materials releases what are called greenhouse gases into Earth’ atmosphere. There, these gases trap heat from the sun’s rays inside the atmosphere causing Earth’s average temperature to rise. This rise in the planet’s temperature is called global warming. The warming of the planet impacts local and regional climates. Throughout Earth’s history, climate has continually changed. When occurring naturally, this is a slow process that has taken place over hundreds and thousands of years. The human influenced climate change that is happening now is occurring at a much faster rate.
Climate change is impacting human lives and health in a variety of ways. It threatens the essential ingredients of good health – clean air, safe drinking water, nutritious food supply, and safe shelter – and has the potential to undermine decades of progress in global health. Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause approximately 250 000 additional deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat stress alone. The direct damage costs to health is estimated to be between USD 2-4 billion per year by 2030. Areas with weak health infrastructure – mostly in developing countries – will be the least able to cope without assistance to prepare and respond. WHO supports countries in building climate-resilient health systems and tracking national progress in protecting health from climate change. Reducing emissions of greenhouse gases through better transport, food and energy-use choices results in improved health, particularly through reduced air pollution. The Paris Agreement on climate change is therefore potentially the strongest health agreement of this century. WHO supports countries in assessing the health gains that would result from the implementation of the existing Nationally Determined Contributions to the Paris Agreement, and the potential for larger gains from more ambitious climate action.
The First World War broke out with the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary upon Serbia on 28 July 1914. Many other countries joined the war within the next few days on one side or the other. The war was fought between the Allied and Associated powers (Allies) on one side and the Central Powers on the other. The principal allies were France, the British Empire and Russia. Italy joined them in 1915. There were many other smaller Allies also. The United States remained neutral for three years but was compelled to enter the war on the side of the Allies in April 1917.
Japan had joined earlier. Russia withdrew from the war after the Bolshevik Revolution in November 1917 (October, according to the old calendar followed in Russia). The Central Powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Turkish Empire. The war ended in November 1918 with the unconditional surrender of Germany. Formal peace treaties were signed after several months.
Events Leading To The First World War
The war between France and Prussia (the future German Empire) that lasted from 1870 to 1871 ended with a humiliating defeat for France. It lost the regions of Alsace and Lorraine, and was forced to pay a huge indemnity to Prussia. The Franco-Prussian War led to creation of a powerful German Empire with a military and industrial potential to further disrupt the European balance of power on the one hand and widespread resentment and desire for revenge among the French (revanchism) on the other.
With the accession of Wilhelm II to the German throne in 1888, the German foreign policy became more bellicose. The new German Emperor dismissed the skillful Otto von Bismarck as Chancellor. He also refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia that maintained the fragile peace between Russia and Austria-Hungary as well as kept France isolated. That way Wilhelm II helped create an alliance between France and Russia (formed in 1892) that became the basis for the future Triple Entente.
Russo-Japanese rivalry over Manchuria and Korea reached its height with the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The outcome of the war against the Japanese was a major blow for the Russians who lost almost entire Baltic and Pacific fleet. The defeat also provoked a serious political crisis that led to the Russian Revolution of 1905. But the Russo-Japanese War also made an end to the Russian ambitions in the Far East and as a result, the Tsarist government focused its attention to Europe, in the first place to the Balkans. This intensified the old rivalry with Austria-Hungary that also had a great interest in the Balkans.
German militarism and especially the build up of naval power convinced Great Britain that Germany may soon establish itself as a dominant power on the Continent. In order to create a counterweight to the German Empire, the British decided to enter into an alliance with France that came to be known as Entente Cordiale. In 1907, Britain also entered into an alliance with Russia that was already in alliance with France. This formed the Triple Entente which in turn became the core of the Allies during World War I.
The Moroccan Crises – the Tangler Crisis (1905-1906) and Agadir Crisis (1911) – brought the European powers on the brink of war. Both crises were provoked by the Germans with an aim to cause tensions between France and Britain that just concluded an alliance. The result, however, was right the opposite. Instead of ‘softening’ Britain and bring it closer to the Central Powers, the Moroccan Crises further reinforced the Entente Cordiale and increased the British hostility towards Germany.
In 1908, Austria-Hungary decided to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina that was formally an integral part of the Ottoman Empire. The annexation of the provinces that were occupied by the Dual Monarchy since 1878 was bitterly opposed by Serbia that was closely related to the provinces both ethically and geographically. Serbia was supported by the Tsarist government and the crisis persisted into 1909. Russia failed to win as firm support from France or Britain as Vienna enjoyed from Germany and accepted the annexation of the provinces. Serbia was forced to back down and the crisis ended. But it permanently damaged the relationship between Russia and Serbia on the one hand and Austria-Hungary on the other. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina caused embitteredness in Serbia, while the way it was carried out humiliated the Russian government that could not afford a similar humiliation during the 1914 July Crisis.
The Italo-Turkish War that took place between 1911 and 1912 did not pose any major threat to peace in Europe. But the Turkish defeat revealed the weakness of the Ottoman army and disagreement between the European powers about the so-called Eastern Questions – the fate of the decaying Ottoman Empire. The war between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire was also a strong incentive for the Balkan League which would capture the Balkan peninsula from the Turks independently from the great powers.
In 1912, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria formed the Balkan League, a military alliance against the Ottoman Empire. Within a few months, the Balkan allies stripped the Ottoman Empire of its possessions in the Balkans and divided the conquered territory among themselves. In June, Bulgaria turned against its allies of Serbia and Greece due to a dispute over partition of Macedonia. But the Bulgarians were defeated within a month and forced to give up their claims in Macedonia. The success of the Balkan League shocked most European powers including the Russian allies of France and Great Britain. But it especially disturbed Austria-Hungary that strongly opposed a strong Serbian state. Vienna saw Serbia both as a rival in the Balkans and as a direct threat because it feared that its small Balkan neighbor may become the core of a future South-Slavic state. The Balkan Wars made Austro-Hungarian statesmen even more determined to take concrete action to prevent further strengthening of Serbia.
On June 28, 1914, a group of conspirators from the revolutionary movement called Mlada Bosna (‘Young Bosnia’) carried out the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian heir presumptive, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife while they were visiting Sarajevo. Since the assassin, Gavrilo Princip and his 5 accomplices were Bosnian Serbs, the Dual Monarchy accused Serbia to stand behind the assassination. The event triggered the course of events that directly led to the outbreak of World War I but it did not cause it. Austria-Hungary was determined to eliminate the ‘Serbian threat’ before the assassination of its heir presumptive and it only needed an excuse to declare war on its Balkan neighbour.
On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia. Vienna, however, intentionally imposed impossible demands to Serbia in order to be able to declare war on its neighbour for ‘orchestrating’ the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. A few days later, the Austro-Hungarian troops invaded Serbia and started the devastating World War I.
The most keenly debated issue in international relations has been the pessimistic view of realism and the optimistic view of liberalism. Realism is regarded as the dominant theory of international relations, while liberalism has a strong claim to being the historic alternative. Comparing the two to the main political parties in a democracy, Timothy Dunne wrote, ‘Rather like political parties, realism is the natural party of the government, and the liberalism is the leader of the opposition.’
The liberal tradition in international relations in its is closely connected with the emergence of the modern liberal state. The focus of liberalism has been on freedom, cooperation, peace and progress. It has often been identified with individualism, as it insists on freedom of the individual, his rights and property. It is also closely associated, mainly by its critics, with capitalism. Liberalism is sometimes associated with the views of Mo Ti, who was a contemporary of realist Chinese scholar Sun Tzu. Both gave their opposing views more than 2,000 years ago.
Basic Assumptions Of Liberalism
Liberalism assumes instead portraying lust of power as the international conflict liberalism fights for the basic rights of the people. It insists on pursuing the political reforms establish democracies. It emphasizes on the value of the free trade on the basis that it will help in preventing the conflicts between nations as it reduces the national selfishness and enhances the communication.
Liberalism advocated the formation of the global institutions such as the United Nations which sees any threat to any individual nation as a threat to everyone. The institutions help in resolving the conflicts by mediating the conflicts in the event of any misunderstanding.
Basically liberals assume that states will act in a rational manner and they are a unitary actor.
The liberalists fell into three different groups as classified by the realists: The first group advocated league of the nations was formed with the objective to consider the attack on the nation as an attack on all. The second group formed the Permanent Court of International Justice that would lead to formation of judicial body capable of issuing justices to the disputes. The third group sort to avoid war by advocating “Disarmament“ in order to reduce the international tension.
Neoliberalism
Neoliberalism is a policy model that encompasses both politics and economics and seeks to transfer the control of economic factors from the public sector to the private sector. Many neoliberalism policies enhance the workings of free market capitalism and attempt to place limits on government spending, government regulation, and public ownership.https://a6c140989941be06481216af16f29a9b.safeframe.googlesyndication.com/safeframe/1-0-38/html/container.html
Neoliberalism is often associated with the leadership of Margaret Thatcher–the prime minister of the U.K. from 1979 to 1990 and leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990–and Ronald Reagan, the 40th president of the U.S. (from 1981 to 1989). More recently, neoliberalism has been associated with policies of austerity and attempts to cut government spending on social programs.
Liberalism VS Neoliberalism
At its core, liberalism is a broad political philosophy; it holds liberty to a high standard and defines all social, economic, and political aspects of society, including–but not limited to–the role of government. The policies of neoliberalism, on the other hand, are more narrowly focused. They are primarily concerned with markets and the policies and measures that influence the economy.
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