Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) was a British biologist, born on 12th February 1809 in Shrewberg, England.
He presented his theory of evolution in the book On the Origin of Species by means of natural selection in 1859. Darwin argued that new species had evolved from older species, and he described the mechanism behind the transformation process. Darwin’s theory of evolution is based on the following five principles:
Organisms produce more offspring than can possibly survive.
Organisms face a constant struggle to survive.
Organisms within a species vary.
Organisms best suited to their environment survive.
Those organisms which survive will reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generation.
Over-production: All species have a tendency to produce more and more offspring in order to increase the population. For example, a salmon produces 28,000,000 eggs in a single season; a single spawning of an Oyster may yield as many as 114,000,000 eggs; a common roundworm lays about 70,000,000 eggs in a day. This huge production is to ensure the survival of the species. Even though species are produced in larger numbers, the population of a particular organism remains more or less constant.
Struggle for Existence: Darwin claimed that there was a continual ‘struggle for existence in nature, in which only the fittest would survive. As a result of overproduction, there is a struggle for existence among organisms. Since the number of is persons is large, there is competition for food, shelter, mates etc.
struggle for existence may be of different types as follows:
a. Intra-specific (Intra-species) struggle: The members of the same species struggle among themselves for food, shelter and mates.
b. Inter-specific (Inter-species) struggle: The members of different species may go on fighting for survival. A member from one species may hunt other members of other species for food.
c. Environmental struggle: Organisms of different species struggle against the environmental hazards like earthquake, flood, drought etc. Only those species with better adjustment with the environment will survive.
Variations: Variation is the tendency of an organism to deviate from the parental generation. These variations play a very important role for adaptations in the environment. Some variations are considered as favourable and others are unfavourable. Organisms with unfavourable variations easily get defeated in the struggle for survival. Variations that are useful to adapt to the pressures of the environment survive long. The new trait of advantageous characteristics is passed on to the future generations.
Survival of the Fittest: The struggle for existence leads to the survival of the fittest. When there are too many of an organism in an area, they compete for resources such as food and perhaps shelter, for example trees and caves.The surviving species will reproduce more offspring than those who are less adaptive.
Natural Selection: The surviving individuals will give rise to the next generation. The successful variations are transmitted to the succeeding generations. The accumulation of advantageous traits in future generations gradually brings changes in species. Successive generations in this way tend to become better adapted to their environment. Eventually, a new species may evolve.
Furthermore, certain members of a population with one group of variations may become adapted to the environment in one way, while others, with a different set of variations, become adapted in a different way or become adapted to different environments. In this way, two or more species may arise from a single ancestral stock.
Examples of Natural Selection
1. The finches of Galapagos : Some species of finches have short thick beaks. They are used to eating seeds, fruits and buds. Some others have long straight beaks. They subsist primarily on nectar from flowers. If environmental condition suddenly changes some characteristics may be more favoured than others.
2. Industrial melanism in moth : Before Industrialisation, the tree trunks were lighter and light coloured moths were predominant. Dark coloured moths were also present but they were limited in number. As a result of industrialisation, the pollution resulted in the darkening of tree trunks. So the light coloured moths become more visible to birds and were therefore eaten by their predators. As a result of this at the end of 19th century the common light coloured moths were almost completely replaced by the black variety.
The theory of origin of species by natural selection is regarded as a major advancement in evolutionary thought. Darwin contributed to the modern understanding of biological evolution by documenting the variation of living forms and identifying the key process of natural selection.
Like most 19th century scientists, however, he did not understand heredity or how specific traits are passed from one generation to the next. His theory lacked the knowledge of modern genetics. However, mutation theory explained the causes of variations among organisms.
India is a land of rich heritage, culture, history, and geography. Indian culture is a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs and belief systems, artifacts, political systems, and technologies that originated in the Indian subcontinent. India is a part of Asia and forms a peninsula which means it is surrounded by 3 water bodies that are ‘The Arabian Sea’, ‘ bay of Bengal’, and ‘Indian Ocean ’. Over the years, numerous styles of art, architecture, painting, music, dance, festivals and customs have developed in India and this wide variety has made the Indian culture unparalleled to which the entire world still looks up to. The cultural heritage of India still flourishes maintaining its original features together along with changes ,a key indicator of its strength.
Salient Aspects of Indian art forms, literature, and architecture from ancient to modern times
There are 3 types of Indian Arts. ‘Performing Arts’ include different types of classical dances that are ‘kathak’, ‘Bharatnatyam’, ‘Manipuri’, etc., music, theatre, and puppets. ‘Visual arts’ include ‘historical architecture’, ‘sculpture’, and ‘paintings’. Literary Arts have a mission to engage readers, support writers, and inspire the next generation with great literature.
In ancient times, art was produced to promote religious activity. From the 2nd century BC, the Ajanta caves in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra are the ancient and magnificent caves where we can find the arts of Buddha and other gods and goddesses. Mughal paintings and Rajputana paintings and arts from the 14-16th century are the most beautiful works done by Indian artists.
Literature engages people with writings in different languages of India like Tamil, Sanskrit, Hindi, etc., expressing shared tradition, cultural experiences, and Indian heritage.
Indian architecture is the greatest artistic glory. Indus valley civilization is the oldest Indian architectural civilization.
AJANTA CAVESINDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATIONMUGHALRAJPUTANA
Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present
After the death of the most popular Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal authority weakened. They were unable to rule India as other emperors ruled. The last emperor of the Mughal Empire, Bahadur Shah Zafar (Emperor from 1837-57) was known to be the weakest. He was the son of Akbar shah II.
The history of modern India begins in the middle of the eighteenth century with the beginning of the freedom struggle, which finally concluded in the form of an independent India.
BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR [1837-1847]
REVOLT OF 1857
The revolt of 1857 was the conscious beginning of the Independence struggle against the colonial tyranny of the British. There are various names for the revolt of 1857 – India’s First War of Independence, Sepoy Mutiny, etc. The revolt began on May 10, 1857, at Meerut as a sepoy mutiny. It was initiated by sepoys in the Bengal Presidency against the British officers. This war of Independence marked the end of rule by the British East India company. Post this, India was directly ruled by the British government through representatives known as Governor-General. Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Sepoy Mangal Pandey and many other fighters fought for the India’s first freedom movement.
Formation of Indian National Congress ‘Indian National Congress’, byname ‘Congress Party‘, broadly based political party of India. Formed in 1885, the Indian National Congress dominated the Indian movement for independence from Great Britain.
Formation of Indian National Army ‘Indian National Army’ was formed by Netaji Subhash Bose in 1942.
INA TRIALSINC
The Freedom Struggle — its various stages and important contributors/contributions from different parts of the country.
PARTITION OF BENGAL [1905]
Indian nationalism was gaining in strength and Bengal was the nerve centre of Indian nationalism in the early 1900s. Lord Curzon, the Viceroy (1899-1905), attempted to ‘dethrone Calcutta’ from its position as the centre from which the Congress Party manipulated throughout Bengal, and indeed, the whole of India. The decision to partition Bengal into two was in the air from December 1903.
Congress party – from 1903 to mid-1905 – tried moderate techniques of petitions, memoranda, speeches, public meetings and press campaigns. The objective was to turn to public opinion in India and England against the partition.
However, Viceroy Curzon 1905 formally announced the British Government’s decision for the partition of Bengal on 19 July 1905. The partition took effect on 16 October 1905.
THE SWADESHI MOVEMENT [1905-1908]
The movement popularised the use and consumption of indigenous products. Indians started ditching British goods for Indian products.
Women, students, and a large section of the urban and rural population of Bengal and other parts of India became actively involved in politics for the first time with Swadeshi Movement.
The message of Swadeshi and the boycott of foreign goods soon spread to the rest of the country.
The militant nationalists led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lajpat Rai and Aurobindo Ghosh were in favour of extending the movement to the rest of India and carrying it beyond the programme of just Swadeshi and boycott to a full-fledged political mass struggle. For them, the aim was Swaraj.
In 1906, the Indian National Congress at its Calcutta Session presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, declared that the goal of the Indian National Congress was ‘self-government or Swaraj like that of the United Kingdom or the Colonies.
There were differences in the ideologies with the congressmen who were popularly known by the names Moderates and the Extremists. They had differences of opinion regarding the pace of the movement and the techniques of struggle to be adopted. This came to a head in the 1907 Surat session of the Congress where the party split (the two factions re-joined later).
This period also saw a breakthrough in Indian art, literature, music, science and industry.
It was, perhaps, in the cultural sphere that the impact of the Swadeshi Movement was most marked. The songs composed at that time by Rabindranath Tagore, Rajani Kanta Sen etc became the moving spirit for nationalists of all hues.
In art, this was the period when Abanindranath Tagore broke the domination of Victorian naturalism over Indian art and sought inspiration from the rich indigenous traditions of Mughal, Rajput and Ajanta paintings.
In science, Jagdish Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chandra Ray, and others pioneered original research that was praised the world over.
The Swadeshi period also saw the creative use of traditional popular festivals and melas as a means of reaching out to the masses. The Ganapati and Shivaji festivals, popularized by Tilak, became a medium for Swadeshi propaganda not only in Western India but also in Bengal.
Another important aspect of the Swadeshi Movement was the great emphasis given to self-reliance or ‘Atmasakti’in various fields meant the re-asserting of national dignity, honour and confidence.
Self-reliance also meant an effort to set up Swadeshi or indigenous enterprises. The period saw a mushrooming of Swadeshi textile mills, soap and match factories etc.
One of the major features of the programme of self-reliance was Swadeshi or National Education. In 1906, the National Council of Education was established. The vernacular medium was given stress from primary to university level.
Corps of volunteers (or samitis as they were called) were another major form of mass mobilization widely used by the Swadeshi Movement. The Swadesh Bandhab Samiti set up by Ashwini Kumar Dutt was the most well-known volunteer organization of them all.
SPLIT IN CONGRESS [1907]
The main public leaders of the two wings, Tilak (of the Extremists) and Gokhale (of the Moderates) were aware of the dangers of disunity in the nationalist ranks.
A split was avoided in 1906 by choosing Dadabhai Naoroji as presidentship of INC in the Calcutta session. Also, four compromise resolutions on the Swadeshi, Boycott, National Education, and Self-Government demands were passed. However, the hope of a united Congress was short-lived.
The Extremists wanted to extend the Swadeshi and the Boycott Movement from Bengal to the rest of the country but Moderators opposed.
The Extremists were fumed by the rumours that the Moderates wanted to scuttle the four Calcutta resolutions. This created friction among them which led to the split at the Congress session was held on 26 December 1907 at Surat, on the banks of the river Tapti. The Indian National Congress split in December 1907. By 1907, the Moderate nationalists had exhausted their historical role. They failed to meet the demands of the new stage of the national movement, even failed to attract the younger generation.
Post-independence consolidation and reorganization within the country.
When the British decided to quit India, the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League did not come to any conclusion and was unable to make a united front for independence.
For creating a consensus, Britain sent the Cabinet Mission to India. Muslim League did not agree on the proposals of Cabinet Mission, and Jinnah proclaimed “Direct Action Day” on 16th August 1946.
Violence erupted on both sides of the borders. To stop the violence and to avoid a civil war situation, Congress accepted the partition plan. On 14th August 1947, India got divided into the dominions of India and Pakistan. Later, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was further divided, and a new dominion of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh was created in 1975.
The Indian Independence Act 1947 made the necessary provision for the independence of India and Pakistan. India chose to become a secular country, whereas Pakistan decided to become an Islamic County. The actual geographic demarcation of the areas between India and Pakistan was entrusted upon by Sir Cyril Radcliffe.
POST-PARTITION OF INDIA AFTER 1947
After independence, the world saw one of the most abrupt and haphazard transfers of people in human history. There were brutal killings, rapes, atrocities in the name of religion on both sides of the border.
In an estimate, about 80 lakh people were forced to migrate across the border to a new place. Also, around 10 lakh people were killed during Partition in religious violence.
India created a department of rehabilitation for the resettlement of refugee in various refugee camps.
PRINCELY STATES ISSUE
The Sardar Patel assumed additional charge of the newly created states department in Jun 1947 with V.P. Menon as its Secretary.
In its first step, Patel appealed to the princes whose territories fell inside India to join the Indian Union in at least three subjects which can affect the common interests of the country, namely, defence, foreign affairs and communications.
There were 565 princely states at that time. Integration of the princely states of Hyderabad, Junagadh, Jammu & Kashmir and Manipur proved more difficult than the rest.
History of the world
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The Industrial Revolution was a period of major industrialization and innovation during the late 1700s and early 1800s. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and quickly spread throughout the world.
The era saw new changes in chemical manufacturing, iron production, textile production, as well as across many other industries. The rapid development of steam power and water power were two of the core driving factors of the industrial revolution. It was a turning point in human history, changing how products were produced and the overall standard of living for a vast majority of the population.
WORLD WAR I AND II
World war I started in 1914 and ended in 1919. World war II started in 1939 and ended in 1945. Both wars became the major attack for humanity.
The world war II was the most deadliest war of all time. In 1945, US dropped Atom bombs on the two trading centers i.e. Hiroshima and Nagasaki of Japan. This led to the loss of lakhs of civilians and soldiers.
COLONIZATION AND DECOLONIZATION
Colonialism is a political-economic fact whereby different nations discovered, conquered, settled, and exploited large zones of the world. Decolonization is about “cultural, psychological, and economic freedom” for Indigenous people with the goal of achieving Indigenous sovereignty — the right and ability of Indigenous people to practice self-determination over their land, cultures, and political and economic systems.
Capitalism, Socialism and Communism
‘Capitalism’ is defined as a system of governance where the government has to play various roles including administrative functionalities, and the facilitator of capitalism and the private players own and control the assets for private gain based on the laws of the country. It treats labors as human capital that is free to work for income and may further invest his money to generate more capital.
Effects of capitalism on society: 1. Capitalism ensures economic growth as it empowers both manufacturers and consumers and keeps money in rotation. 2. It ensures the accessibility of goods and services on a competitive price and helps to improve the standard of living in the country. 3. Capitalism paved the wave for LPG reforms in the world and provided opportunities for the labour force to opt for global employment opportunities, which have further shrunk the global boundaries.
‘Socialism’ is a politico-economic ideology which beliefs in the public ownership of means of production and distribution based on a plan formulated by a central authority. Effects of socialism in society 1. Helps in creating a welfare society where all the basic needs of people (food, clothes and shelter) are fulfilled by the State on very affordable prices. 2. Providing employment is the State’s responsibility. Thus, everyone gets a job based on his/her capabilities, education and skills. 3. Establishes the supremacy of the State, thus, making them arbitrary. 4. Lack of check and balance on the bureaucracy leads to increased corruption in society.
‘Communism’ can be defined as the ideology which leads to a classless society based on the equal rights for everyone, irrespective of the class they belong to (the labour or the bourgeoisie), on the means of production. Effects of communism in society 1. The ideology of communism supports a society without rulers, but until it is achieved all the power will lie with the dictator government so formed, which will further lead to their oppression. For example, the Rule of Hitler and the event of the holocaust. 2. In communist nations, the difference between the official claims and societal realities is vast. The dictator government controls the flow of information and every sort of communication channel which cut-offs the society with the outer world.
Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India
Indian society is a pluralistic society with a complex social order characterized by a multitude of ethnic, linguistic, religious, and caste divisions. National unity and integrity have been maintained even through sharp economic and social inequalities have obstructed the emergence of egalitarian social relations. It is this synthesis which has made India a unique mosque of cultures. Thus, India present seemingly multicultural situation within in the framework of a single integrated cultural whole.
The following are the features: 1. The multi-ethnic Indian society A society with the co-existence of a wide variety of racial groups is a Multi-ethnic society. India is home to almost multiple racial profiles like Nordic, Dinaric, Proto-Australoid, Mongolian, etc. 2. Multilingualism- salient feature of Indian society India is home to many native languages, and it is also common that people to speak and understand more than one language or dialect, which can entail the use of different scripts as well. India’s 2011 census documents that 121 languages are spoken as mother tongues, which is defined as the first language a person learns and uses. 3. Multi-religious society India is a cradle of world religions whose ancestors have preached and practiced almost all major religions of the world giving rise to worldly beliefs, practices, rites, rituals, ceremonies, and institutions. In India, hindus, muslims, sikhs and christians live. 4. Caste system in Indian society The social division of society in India is peculiar. Unlike many other civilizations in the world where the society was divided into race, ethnicity, or clans, Indian society is broadly divided into a hierarchy of caste.
Salient features of Diversity in India
India as a nation is a classic example of it as despite having multiple geographical, religious, linguistic, cultural, and racial diversities, India has always stood up as an integrated nation.
Role of women and women’s organization, population and associated issues, poverty and developmental issues, urbanization, their problems and their remedies.
Women in India have played a major role in various spheres of life over the past many centuries, but their acceptance in these spheres has been a crucial issue. Thus, the involvement of women in social, political and economic scenarios has brought in a major change in the terms of equality.
Gender Equality: With equal opportunities for all genders, multiple women have been an inspiration for young girls to dream and aspire to become big. Women in political spheres: Several women leaders have actively participated in the Indian freedom struggle, occupied important positions in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, state legislatures; women also have acquired the position of the Prime Minister and President of the country. Indira Gandhi was the first women prime minister of India. Economic roles: The neglect of women’s economic roles results in the exploitation of women workers, unequal wages, higher employment, etc., though are a cause of concern. Social Issues: A National Commission for women (NCW) has been set up with an intention to establish an equal and just livelihood for women by making legal and constitutional amendments for women in India
Population
The current population of India is 1,342,528,871 (1.34 billion) people and it is the second most populous country in the world, while China is on the top with over 1,415,489,506 (1.41 billion) people. Out of the world’s 7 billion people, India represents almost 17.85% of the world’s population.
Poverty and development issues
Development deals with the alleviation (or the eradication) of poverty. Poverty is inter-related to other problems of underdevelopment. Types of poverty 1. Absolute poverty 2. Relative poverty 3. Situational Poverty 4. Generational poverty 5. Rural Poverty 6. Urban Poverty Remedies of poverty in India 1. Population control 2. Increase in employment 3. Equal distribution of income 4. Regional poverty 5. Problem of distribution 6. Fulfillment of minimum needs of poor 7. Development of Agriculture
Urbanization
The population residing in urban areas in India, according to the 1901 census, was 11.4%, increasing to 28.53% by the 2001 census, and is now currently 34% in 2017 according to The World Bank. According to a survey by UN, in 2030 40.76% of country’s population is expected to reside in urban areas. Remedies of urbanization
Rapid Mass Transport (RMT) for better transportation system.
Reform of the urban water sector.
Efficient use of urban land – Scientific town planning & Sustainable development of urban planning needed.
Long term strategic urban planning with the overall regional planning perspective.
The environmental sustainability of urban development.
Investment in new urban infrastructure assets and maintenance of assets.
Need to strengthen urban governance
To strengthen the ‘soft infrastructure’
Improvements of urban utilities such as water and sewerage NUHM (National Urban Health Mission) for better urban public health.
Need to fulfill the basic needs of the urban poor.
Migration needs to be regulated
Smart city concept if implemented effectively
Provision of Urban Amenities to Rural Areas (PURA)
Population control
Innovation needed to control pollution and waste handling
Rurbanization: Provide like urban facilities in rural areas or make rural areas smart is called rurbanization.
Effects of globalization on Indian society.
Globalization is a process of increasing interdependence, interconnectedness and integration of economies and societies to such an extent that an event in one part of the globe affects people in other parts of the world.
Impact of Globalization on Indian Culture a. Homogenization versus Glocalization of culture b. Revival of culture
Impact of Globalization on Women in India a. Positive impact of Globalization on women b. Negative impact of Globalization on women
Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism.
Social empowerment is understood as the process of developing a sense of autonomy and self-confidence. It also involves acting individually and collectively to change social relationships and the institutions and discourses that exclude poor people and leads to an increase in poverty.
Communalism is a philosophical notion and causes competition, ferocity, and tension among different communities. It manifests as an expression of the superiority of one’s community combined with intolerance of different communities.
Regionalism is a psychic phenomenon. It is built around an expression of group identity, as well as loyalty to the region. It presupposes the concept of development of one’s region without taking into consideration the interest of other regions. It prohibits people from other regions to be benefitted from a particular region.
Salient features of world’s physical geography.
Geomorphology (the study of the earth’s surface features)
Glaciology (the study of glaciers)
Coastal Geography (the study of the coastal regions)
Climatology (the study of climates and climate change)
Biogeography (the study of the geographic patterns of species distribution)
Distribution of key natural resources across the world; factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries in various parts of the world (including India).
Natural resources are material and constituent formed within environment or any matter or energy that are resulting from environment, used by living things that humans use for food, fuel, clothing, and shelter.
Factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector industries
Raw material: Availability of natural resource that can be used as raw material.
Technology: To turn the resource into an asset with value.
Power: To utilize the technology.
Labour: Human resource in the area who can function as labor to run the processes.
Transport : Road/rail connectivity.
Storage and warehousing.
Marketing feasibility.
Characteristics of land and soil.
Climate.
Precipitation and water resources.
Vulnerability to natural resources.
Important Geophysical phenomena
In our natural environment, various forms of disasters occur in severe intensity. All disasters threaten the humans or societies and had their impact from one decade to another.
Disasters can be categorized as
1.Natural Disasters such as Volcano, Tsunami, Earthquake; landslides 2.Human Made Disasters 3.Human Induced Disaster 4.Natural Disasters
Earthquake Earthquake is a vicious tremor, rolling or hasty shock on surface of earth’s crust, sending out a sequence of shock waves in all directions from its place of source which is known as epicenter.
Tsunami
Tsunami is devastating natural disaster and immensely affects the economic and living conditions of region where it hits.
Volcano
A volcano is type of vent or smokestack which transmits molten rocks called as Magma from depth to earth surface.
Cyclones
A Cyclone is described as geophysical phenomenon on the surface of planet and atmospheric system of low barometric pressure accompanied by strong winds that revolve counter-clockwise in northern hemisphere and clockwise direction in southern hemisphere.
The Portuguese State of India was a Portuguese colonial state on the Indian Subcontinent. Vasco De Gama was the first Portuguese to set foot in India in 1498. However, Portuguese control in India is considered to have lasted from 1505 until 1961. Although Portuguese colonialism outlasted its English counterpart, it had little influence outside of its territories. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India and the last to go.
Portugal’s Early Years in India When Vasco da Gama arrived in Calicut on the Malabar Coast on May 20, 1498, Portuguese colonialism began in earnest. He met with the ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin, and received permission to trade in Calicut. But Vasco da Gama was unable to pay the customs duties and the cost of his merchandise. The Zamorin’s officials detained some of Vasco da Gama’s soldiers when the duties were not paid. This enraged him so much that he kidnapped some Indians and fisherman. However, the voyage was a success in the eyes of the Portuguese authorities in Lisbon. A sea path around the Ottoman Empire was discovered, and the expedition made a profit well in excess of its initial cost.
Expansion of Portuguese Colonialism Vasco da Gama established a base of operations on the Malabar coast after further conflict with the Zamorin Kingdom. Francisco de Almeida, the first viceroy, placed his headquarters in what is now Cochin. Alfonso de Albuquerque, the second governer of the Portuguese territories in the East, was appointed in 1509. Off the coast of Calicut, a Portuguese fleet led by Marshal Fernão Coutinho arrives. Their orders were quite clear: destroy the Zamorin. The city was levelled and the palace of the Zamorins was taken, but the local soldiers rallied and attacked the invading Portuguese, forcing them to retreat and wounded Albuquerque. In 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the Sultanate of Bijapur, establishing Goa as a permanent settlement. It would later become the viceroy’s seat and the headquarters of the Portuguese colonial conquests in India. Modern-day Mumbai was likewise a colonial possession until 1661, when it was handed over to the British. From 1799 until 1813, the British conquered Goa for a brief while, eradicating the final vestiges of the inquisition. The capital was moved to Panjim, which was later renamed Nova Goa, in 1843, when it became the administrative center of Portuguese India. For the next century, Portuguese control would be limited to Goa and the enclaves of Diu and Daman.
Cause of Decline of Portugal in India While the British granted independence to most of India, the Portuguese retained colonial colonies in India. Local anti-Portuguese demonstrations in Goa were violently suppressed. Despite repeated pleas from the Indian government, the Portuguese government, led by dictator António de Oliveira Salaza, refused to hand over its colonial holdings, saying that they were an intrinsic part of Portuguese territory. The invasion of Goa by the Indian troops took place in December 1961. The Portuguese attempted to resist against overwhelming odds, but were quickly crushed by the Indian Army. On December 19, 1961, the Governor of Portuguese India signed the Instrument of Surrender, freeing Goa after 450 years of Portuguese domination in India.
The Portuguese State of India was a Portuguese colonial state on the Indian Subcontinent. Vasco De Gama was the first Portuguese to set foot in India in 1498. However, Portuguese control in India is considered to have lasted from 1505 until 1961. Although Portuguese colonialism outlasted its English counterpart, it had little influence outside of its territories. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India and the last to go.
Portugal’s Early Years in India When Vasco da Gama arrived in Calicut on the Malabar Coast on May 20, 1498, Portuguese colonialism began in earnest. He met with the ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin, and received permission to trade in Calicut. But Vasco da Gama was unable to pay the customs duties and the cost of his merchandise. The Zamorin’s officials detained some of Vasco da Gama’s soldiers when the duties were not paid. This enraged him so much that he kidnapped some Indians and fisherman. However, the voyage was a success in the eyes of the Portuguese authorities in Lisbon. A sea path around the Ottoman Empire was discovered, and the expedition made a profit well in excess of its initial cost.
Expansion of Portuguese Colonialism Vasco da Gama established a base of operations on the Malabar coast after further conflict with the Zamorin Kingdom. Francisco de Almeida, the first viceroy, placed his headquarters in what is now Cochin. Alfonso de Albuquerque, the second governer of the Portuguese territories in the East, was appointed in 1509. Off the coast of Calicut, a Portuguese fleet led by Marshal Fernão Coutinho arrives. Their orders were quite clear: destroy the Zamorin. The city was levelled and the palace of the Zamorins was taken, but the local soldiers rallied and attacked the invading Portuguese, forcing them to retreat and wounded Albuquerque. In 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the Sultanate of Bijapur, establishing Goa as a permanent settlement. It would later become the viceroy’s seat and the headquarters of the Portuguese colonial conquests in India. Modern-day Mumbai was likewise a colonial possession until 1661, when it was handed over to the British. From 1799 until 1813, the British conquered Goa for a brief while, eradicating the final vestiges of the inquisition. The capital was moved to Panjim, which was later renamed Nova Goa, in 1843, when it became the administrative center of Portuguese India. For the next century, Portuguese control would be limited to Goa and the enclaves of Diu and Daman.
Cause of Decline of Portugal in India While the British granted independence to most of India, the Portuguese retained colonial colonies in India. Local anti-Portuguese demonstrations in Goa were violently suppressed. Despite repeated pleas from the Indian government, the Portuguese government, led by dictator António de Oliveira Salaza, refused to hand over its colonial holdings, saying that they were an intrinsic part of Portuguese territory. The invasion of Goa by the Indian troops took place in December 1961. The Portuguese attempted to resist against overwhelming odds, but were quickly crushed by the Indian Army. On December 19, 1961, the Governor of Portuguese India signed the Instrument of Surrender, freeing Goa after 450 years of Portuguese domination in India.
Indian history is filled with incredible stories of thriving civilizations, religions and cultures dating all the way back to paleolithic age, Indian civilization is one of the oldest civilization that we know and it has played a part on the world stage for centuries and even still today while it is impossible to truly capture all of Indian history in a one single go.
Remains of Harappan civilization
Harappan civilization also known as Indus valley civilization.
The evidence of cave paintings and stone tools have revealed that the first sign of human activity in India can be traced back to somewhere between 400,000B.C and 200,000B.C , details concerning the civilizations , inhabiting the region back that long ago do not exist. But we do know that the first sophisticated societies to walk the lands of India was the Harappan civilization, who likely existed throughout the first few thousand year Before Christ(B.C), positioned along the Indus river, the Harrapan people had their own writing system, advanced social and economic systems and impressive urban cities and architecture. Everything was perfect and seem like a modernized India. But the reason why the civilization collapsed was unknown. The civilization was collapsed around 1500BC. But some attribute their demise to the common floods and other natural disasters in the region or may be because of potential invaders from the western and central Asia
The next known civilization that left mark on Indian History is the Vedic Aryans.
These people were initially were migrants who spoke an early form of Sanskrit and were determined to stay true to their own tribal identity. The name they have been given- the Vedic people comes from the 4 sacred texts or Vedas that have presented researches with a glimpse into the lives of civilizations and their beliefs. The Vedas are often considered to be the oldest Hindu scripts and the Vedic civilization is believed to have spread their culture across the large portion of India by roughly 1000Bc, with them the Vedic Aryans brought their philosophical beliefs
These ideas represent a theory that happiness and salvation from a persons morals and ethics and one’s path should be based upon their place in life.
The societal system of Vedic Aryans are originally made up of 3 tiers. They are:
Brahman or priest
Kshatriya or warrior.
Vaishya or commoner
The spread their civilization and accordingly both the culture and trade flourished.
A series of 26 individual states have spanned across northern india. This include
Gandhara, kosala, kuru and Magadha and the latter this flourished under the rule of Chandragupta Maurya during the 4th century BC. This extended and formed the Mauryan empire which is believed to be the first Indian imperial power.
Mauryan empire established its capital in Patali-Putra which in modern day is called as Patna.
The entire empire was led by 3 major emperors. They are Chandragupta Maurya(321-298 BCE); Bindusara(298-272BCE); Ashoka(272-232BCE).
In the 2nd century BC Mauryan empire slowly started to dissolve.
The later came SUNGA DYNASTY, but with a small period it fell down.
The other dynasties aroused during this period like Kushan, Satavahana, Cheras, Cholas, Pandya’s sin the south were some of the major authorities during the time
Then came the Gupta empire which became the face of northern India during the classical age and is describe as golden age as everything was united during that time.
Nikhat Zareen young girl of Telangana (born June 1996) has recently won the gold medal in Istanbul, Turkey where World Boxing Championship (2022) was recently held. It is pertinent to mention that on 19 May 2022, Zareen won the gold medal in the 52 kilograms, Flyweight category at the Women’s World Championship defeating Thailand’s Jitpong Jutamas. Zareen became the fifth Indian women’s boxer to win a gold medal at the World Championships, joining Mary Kom, Laishram Sarita Devi, Jenny R. L., and Lekha K. C. (en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikhat_Zareen).
She has shown us the path to success by doing hard labour. I had the opportunity to listen to her interview on India Today TV. According to her, some of her relatives were not happy that she should continue boxing because of socio-cultural reasons and complained also. But her footballer father always supported her in boxing by wearing short dresses and also her mother did. Thus, it is evident that when someone is in good work/mission, a few persons whether friends or relatives or ‘so-called well-wishers’ will try to block the person’s carrier. In this context, I wish to mention one line of a poem from a legendary personality Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore. In 1905 Tagore wrote Jôdi Tor Dak Shune Keu Na Ase Tôbe Ekla Chôlo Re (“If no one responds to your call, then go your own way alone”), which is commonly known as Ekla Chôlo Re. Many people including sportspersons said me about this poem. Anyway, Nikhat Zareen has shown the young Indian girls, to continue sports and games without any botheration. She is also good in study (completed her B.A.). Also, I had the opportunity to listen to her English conversation on TV. She with a wonderful accent with awesome communication skills lucidly presented.
Zareen was born on 14 June 1996 to Mohammad Jameel Ahmed (a football player) and Parveen Sultana in Nizamabad city of Telangana. She completed her primary education at the Nirmala Hrudaya Girls High School in Nizamabad. Zareen was introduced to boxing by her father, who trained her. Later on, Nikhat was inducted into the Sports Authority of India in Vishakhapatnam to train under Dronacharya awardee, I.V. Rao in 2009. A year later, she was declared the ‘golden best boxer’ at the Erode Nationals in 2010.
Many great personalities including our Prime Minister congratulated her. According to her, she was excited when her favourite actor Salman Khan of Bollywood congratulated her. She earlier had won many awards inter alia of which are: Women’s Junior and Youth World Boxing Championships (2011), Youth World Boxing Championships (2014), Nations Cup International Boxing Tournament (2014), 16th Senior Woman National Boxing Championship (2016), Thailand Open International Boxing Tournament (2019), Strandja Memorial Boxing Tournament (2019), Strandja Memorial Boxing Tournament (2022). It glaringly reflects that almost every year she had won an award.
Before conclusion, it may be mentioned here that during the interview on India Today TV she expressed that her dream is to excel in Commonwealth Games (2022) and then the Olympics which will be held in 2024.
All Indians feel proud and happy about her outstanding achievement and performance. My personal salute to her in college and university days I was a player and played hockey at the national level and wish her very good luck.
Nikhat Zareen young girl of Telangana (born June 1996) has recently won the gold medal in Istanbul, Turkey where World Boxing Championship (2022) was recently held. It is pertinent to mention that on 19 May 2022, Zareen won the gold medal in the 52 kilograms, Flyweight category at the Women’s World Championship defeating Thailand’s Jitpong Jutamas. Zareen became the fifth Indian women’s boxer to win a gold medal at the World Championships, joining Mary Kom, Laishram Sarita Devi, Jenny R. L., and Lekha K. C. (en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikhat_Zareen).
She has shown us the path to success by doing hard labour. I had the opportunity to listen to her interview on India Today TV. According to her, some of her relatives were not happy that she should continue boxing because of socio-cultural reasons and complained also. But her footballer father always supported her in boxing by wearing short dresses and also her mother did. Thus, it is evident that when someone is in good work/mission, a few persons whether friends or relatives or ‘so-called well-wishers’ will try to block the person’s carrier. In this context, I wish to mention one line of a poem from a legendary personality Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore. In 1905 Tagore wrote Jôdi Tor Dak Shune Keu Na Ase Tôbe Ekla Chôlo Re (“If no one responds to your call, then go your own way alone”), which is commonly known as Ekla Chôlo Re. Many people including sportspersons said me about this poem. Anyway, Nikhat Zareen has shown the young Indian girls, to continue sports and games without any botheration. She is also good in study (completed her B.A.). Also, I had the opportunity to listen to her English conversation on TV. She with a wonderful accent with awesome communication skills lucidly presented.
Zareen was born on 14 June 1996 to Mohammad Jameel Ahmed (a football player) and Parveen Sultana in Nizamabad city of Telangana. She completed her primary education at the Nirmala Hrudaya Girls High School in Nizamabad. Zareen was introduced to boxing by her father, who trained her. Later on, Nikhat was inducted into the Sports Authority of India in Vishakhapatnam to train under Dronacharya awardee, I.V. Rao in 2009. A year later, she was declared the ‘golden best boxer’ at the Erode Nationals in 2010.
Many great personalities including our Prime Minister congratulated her. According to her, she was excited when her favourite actor Salman Khan of Bollywood congratulated her. She earlier had won many awards inter alia of which are: Women’s Junior and Youth World Boxing Championships (2011), Youth World Boxing Championships (2014), Nations Cup International Boxing Tournament (2014), 16th Senior Woman National Boxing Championship (2016), Thailand Open International Boxing Tournament (2019), Strandja Memorial Boxing Tournament (2019), Strandja Memorial Boxing Tournament (2022). It glaringly reflects that almost every year she had won an award.
Before conclusion, it may be mentioned here that during the interview on India Today TV she expressed that her dream is to excel in Commonwealth Games (2022) and then the Olympics which will be held in 2024.
All Indians feel proud and happy about her outstanding achievement and performance. My personal salute to her in college and university days I was a player and played hockey at the national level and wish her very good luck.
The most important question that has always been exciting to human mind is about human origin and destination. Where did we come from and where are we heading to?
To understand the human origin and evolution, we have to first look in to the emergence of life on the earth. It is believed that life is originated from inorganic matters due to many physical-chemical conditions
Theories of Organic Evolution
The term evolution was first applied by the English philosopher Herbert Spencer, to mean the historic development in life. Evolution is a process that results inheritable changes in a population spread over many generations.
Lamarckism
Jean Baptist de Lamarck (1744-1829) was a French biologist. He spent the early part of his life as a botanist. Then at the age of 50, he turned his attention to zoology, particularly to the study of invertebrates. His extensive studies on invertebrates formed a base in zoological classification. As a result of his systematic studies, he became convinced that species were not constant but rather were derived from pre-existing ones. By consolidating all these ideas, he proposed his theory of evolution in his book Philosophie Zoologique 1809 which is known as Lamarckism.
Lamarck believed that organic changes seen in animals resulted from the influence of environment. According to him, when the environment changes, animals need to change their body structure as well. He proposed his ideas as two different laws as the following-
i) The law of use and disuse: A living body is influenced by environmental factors, and ultimately this phenomenon initiates an adaptation of organisms to their surroundings. As per the necessity, some parts of the body may be used more and more. Therefore, those parts tend to show more development or changes in the course of time, while the other parts of the body, which may not be required much, will become weak or degenerate due to constant disuse.
ii) Inheritance of acquired characters: Modifications produced during the lifetime of organisms become hereditary and will be inherited by the offspring. All the modifications that the organism acquires during its lifetime in adaptation to the environment are automatically transmitted to the next generation and so become a part of heredity
To support his theory, Lamarck presented several examples. The most remarkable one is associated with the long neck and tall front legs of giraffes. According to Lamarck, the ancestors of giraffe were normal animals with reasonably long neck and forelimbs. They depended on grass and bushy vegetation for their survival. But a sudden scarcity of leafy vegetation due to some environmental factors, forced the giraffe to depend on leaves of tall trees and for that they had to stretch their neck and forelimbs. The continuous stretching of these organs resulted in the long neck and long forelimbs of present day giraffe.
In another example, he mentioned that the ducks are unable to fly because their wings became weak, when they stopped flying. Again, the birds that started to live in an aquatic environment, gradually acquired webbed feet through the conquest of survival.
Criticism of Lamarckism
Lamarck’s theory has been criticised from many angles. The German scientist August Weismann criticised the essence of Lamarck’s theory of inheritance acquired characters by his experiments, which involved cutting off the tails of mice for over twenty-one generations. All tailless mice in all generations produced their offspring with tails. Therefore, he reached to the conclusion that the environmental factors might influence the body cells, but it is not enough to profess a change of reproductive cells. Characters of an organism would not be inherited unless the change could occur in the reproductive cells.
Characters of an organism would not be inherited unless the change could occur in the reproductive cells. According to Weismann the body of an animal is composed of two parts viz. germ plasm (germ cells) and somato plasm (body cells). Only those characters which are located in the germ plasm will be inherited.
As a result of these experiments, Lamarckian law of inheritance of acquired characters lost its evolutionary ground. But the effort towards finding facts related to organic evolution continued. Charles Darwin’s interest in this field gave birth to new findings (Darwinism).
Hyperloop is a high-speed transportation system(even faster than the bullet trains), having a low operating cost.
IIT Madras Avishkar Hyperloop Team(Image Source- Twitter)
The Indian Railways has collaborated with IIT Madras to develop a hyperloop technology based transport system and extended a financial support of Rs. 8.34 crores to IIT Madras for this project.
The Hyperloop project was also mentioned in the Union Budget 2022-2023. According to that, the railways was exploring possibilities of acquiring hyperloop technology for a demonstrative project to showcase its capabilities in the rail sector.
Union Minister of Railways Shri Ashwini Vaishnaw approved a financial assistance of Rs. 8.34 crores to IIT Madras for the development on hyperloop technology during his visit on Thursday.
— Avishkar Hyperloop (@avishkar_loop) May 19, 2022
A recent tweet on the official twitter handle of Avishkar Hyperloop
The above tweet was posted on the official twitter handle of Avishkar Hyperloop team, declaring Ashwini Vaishnaw sir as their 72nd member.
Ashwini Vaishnaw sir watching the demonstration on Hyperloop pod model
The minister saw the demonstration on the Hyperloop pod model at the New Academy Complex. Also, he also tested 5G at the Research Park.
Aatmanirbhar 5G 🇮🇳
Successfully tested 5G call at IIT Madras. Entire end to end network is designed and developed in India. pic.twitter.com/FGdzkD4LN0
— Ashwini Vaishnaw (@AshwiniVaishnaw) May 19, 2022
His tweet regarding testing of 5G at the IIT-M Campus
The Hyperloop pod is a futuristic high-speed long distance public transport. The design aims at a speed of 1200 km/hr. The institution is also developing a 500m long tube, inside which the hyperloop pod will travel. Below is a visual demonstration of the Hyperloop Pod.
Strengthening the Make-in-India initiative & Aatmanirbhar Bharat scheme, Railways in collaboration with @IITMadras will provide assistance in manufacturing, formulation of safety regulations & electrical testing facilities to IIT Madras for development of Hyperloop technology. pic.twitter.com/MDV0oVvBbx
— Ministry of Railways (@RailMinIndia) May 20, 2022
Fortification is the addition of key vitamins and minerals such as iron, iodine, zinc, Vitamin A & D to staple foods such as rice, milk and salt to improve their nutritional content.
Fortification of rice is a cost-effective and complementary strategy to increase vitamin and mineral content in diets.
According to FSSAI norms, 1 kg fortified rice will contain iron (28 mg-42.5 mg), folic acid (75-125 microgram) and Vitamin B-12 (0.75-1.25 microgram). In addition micronutrients can also be added, singly or in combination, with zinc, Vitamin A, Vitamin B1, Vitamin B2, Vitamin B3 and Vitamin B6.
Need of Food Fortification?
There is high level of malnutrition among children and women in India. A/c to Food Ministry, every second woman in the country is anemic and every third child is stunted.
India ranks 101 among 116 countries in the Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2021. In 2020 it was positioned 94th.
Rice is one of India’s staple foods, consumed by about two-thirds of the population. Therefore, fortifying rice with micronutrients is an option to supplement the diet of the poor.
Issues with the Fortification of Rice
Inconclusive Evidence:
Evidence supporting fortification is inconclusive and certainly not adequate before major national policies are rolled out.
Hypervitaminosis:
According to some studies published in the medical journal Lancet and in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition which show that both anaemia and Vitamin A deficiencies are overdiagnosed, meaning that mandatory fortification could lead to hypervitaminosis ( a condition of abnormally high storage levels of vitamins, which can lead to various symptoms such as over excitement, irritability, or even toxicity ).
Toxicity:
Adding one or two synthetic chemical vitamins and minerals will not solve the larger problem, and in undernourished populations can lead to toxicity.
A2010 study that showed iron fortification causing gut inflammation and pathogenic gut microbiota profile in undernourished children.
Cartelisation:
Mandatory fortification would harm the vast informal economy of Indian farmers and food processors including local oil and rice mills, and instead benefit a small group of multinational corporations.
Decrease Value of Natural Food:
Once iron-fortified rice is sold as the remedy to anaemia, the value and the choice of naturally iron-rich foods like millets, varieties of green leafy vegetables, flesh foods, liver, to name a few, will have been suppressed.
There are different methods to make rice more nutritious post-harvest: Dusting, Coating, Hot or Warm extrusion.
To have a positive health impact, fortified rice needs to have good:
Stability during transport and storage
Retention during cooking & preparation
Consumer acceptability
Absorption by the body of the used micronutrients
Benefits of fortification –
Ease of use – this is one of the biggest benefits. As a widely used staple food, it is simple to replace standard rice with fortified rice to boost the nutritional profile of a simple diet.
Cost – the specific costs of fortified rice depend on several factors, such as the scale of the operation and the blending ratio of fortified to non-fortified kernels.
Consistency for consumers – it looks, cooks, and tastes the same as non-fortified rice.
Market differentiation for brands – fortified rice can also be customized for specific needs. It presents a solution for health-conscious consumers looking for new ways to reach specific health benefits.
Reducing micronutrient deficiencies for governments and schools
Racial discrimination is one of the social evils which had took the lives of a whole lot of innocent people. This evil has not only killed people, it has also made life miserable for many. Even the so called “most civilized society” in the world could not free itself from this social evil and in fact it has been stage for the most alarming cases we had ever heard. There were a whole lot of legislations implemented aiming to prevent this, and it has helped at least for developing a public opinion against racial discrimination.
People around the world have raised their voice against this evil in whatever ways possible and one such strong means was through literature. Several authors have shared either their experiences or some strong stories which had acted as an eye opener for many people. The realistic stories have created an empathetic attitude among general public. Some books are:
The help
The Help is a historical fiction novel by American author Kathryn Stockett. The story is about African Americans working in white households in Jackson, Mississippi, during the early 1960s. The thrust of the book is the collaborative project between the white Skeeter and the struggling, exploited “colored” help, who together are writing a book of true stories about their experiences as the ‘help’ to the white women of Jackson. Not all the stories are negative, and some describe beautiful and generous, loving and kind events; while others are cruel and even brutal. The book, entitled “Help” is finally published, and the final chapters of “The Help” describes the aftermath of the book’s success.
To kill a mocking bird
o Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by the American author Harper Lee. The plot and characters are loosely based on Lee’s observations of her family, her neighbors and an event that occurred near her hometown of Monroeville, Alabama, in 1936, when she was ten. The historian Joseph Crespino explains, “In the twentieth century, To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America, and its main character, Atticus Finch, the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism.” However, reaction to the novel varied widely upon publication.
Uncle tom’s cabin
Uncle Tom’s Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly is an anti-slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in two volumes in 1852, the novel had a profound effect on attitudes toward African Americans and slavery in the U.S., and is said to have “helped lay the groundwork for the American Civil War”. This is one great book which could not be ignored while we discuss racism.
Roots: The Saga of an American
Roots: The Saga of an American Family is a 1976 novel written by Alex Haley. It tells the story of Kunta Kinte, an 18th-century African, captured as an adolescent, sold into slavery in Africa, and transported to North America; it follows his life and the lives of his descendants in the United States down to Haley. It stimulated interest in African American genealogy and an appreciation for African-American history.
The color purple
The Color Purple is a 1982 epistolary novel by American author Alice Walker which won the 1983 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the National Book Award for Fiction. The story revolves around Celie a young poor, uneducated 14-year-old African-American teenager girl living in the Southern United States in the early 1900s. The novel has been the frequent target of censors and appears on the American Library Association list of the 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 2000–2009 at number seventeenth because of the sometimes-explicit content, particularly in terms of violence.
Beloved
Beloved is a 1987 novel by the American writer Toni Morrison. Set after the American Civil War, it tells the story of a family of formerly enslaved people whose Cincinnati home is haunted by a malevolent spirit. Beloved is inspired by an event that actually happened: Margaret Garner, an enslaved person in Kentucky, who escaped and fled to the free state of Ohio in 1856. She was subject to capture in accordance with the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850; when U.S. marshals burst into the cabin where Garner and her husband had barricaded themselves, she was attempting to kill her children, and had already killed her two-year-old daughter, to spare them from being returned to slavery.
It is of severe concern that even in today’s world where borders merely exist, people are discriminated and even killed on grounds of their color, caste, creed or race. These books could be an eye opener for all those who believe themselves to be superior than others merely on ground of their genetic roots.
Racial discrimination is one of the social evils which had took the lives of a whole lot of innocent people. This evil has not only killed people, it has also made life miserable for many. Even the so called “most civilized society” in the world could not free itself from this social evil and in fact it has been stage for the most alarming cases we had ever heard. There were a whole lot of legislations implemented aiming to prevent this, and it has helped at least for developing a public opinion against racial discrimination.
People around the world have raised their voice against this evil in whatever ways possible and one such strong means was through literature. Several authors have shared either their experiences or some strong stories which had acted as an eye opener for many people. The realistic stories have created an empathetic attitude among general public. Some books are:
The help
The Help is a historical fiction novel by American author Kathryn Stockett. The story is about African Americans working in white households in Jackson, Mississippi, during the early 1960s. The thrust of the book is the collaborative project between the white Skeeter and the struggling, exploited “colored” help, who together are writing a book of true stories about their experiences as the ‘help’ to the white women of Jackson. Not all the stories are negative, and some describe beautiful and generous, loving and kind events; while others are cruel and even brutal. The book, entitled “Help” is finally published, and the final chapters of “The Help” describes the aftermath of the book’s success.
To kill a mocking bird
o Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by the American author Harper Lee. The plot and characters are loosely based on Lee’s observations of her family, her neighbors and an event that occurred near her hometown of Monroeville, Alabama, in 1936, when she was ten. The historian Joseph Crespino explains, “In the twentieth century, To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America, and its main character, Atticus Finch, the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism.” However, reaction to the novel varied widely upon publication.
Uncle tom’s cabin
Uncle Tom’s Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly is an anti-slavery novel by American author Harriet Beecher Stowe. Published in two volumes in 1852, the novel had a profound effect on attitudes toward African Americans and slavery in the U.S., and is said to have “helped lay the groundwork for the American Civil War”. This is one great book which could not be ignored while we discuss racism.
Roots: The Saga of an American
Roots: The Saga of an American Family is a 1976 novel written by Alex Haley. It tells the story of Kunta Kinte, an 18th-century African, captured as an adolescent, sold into slavery in Africa, and transported to North America; it follows his life and the lives of his descendants in the United States down to Haley. It stimulated interest in African American genealogy and an appreciation for African-American history.
The color purple
The Color Purple is a 1982 epistolary novel by American author Alice Walker which won the 1983 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the National Book Award for Fiction. The story revolves around Celie a young poor, uneducated 14-year-old African-American teenager girl living in the Southern United States in the early 1900s. The novel has been the frequent target of censors and appears on the American Library Association list of the 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 2000–2009 at number seventeenth because of the sometimes-explicit content, particularly in terms of violence.
Beloved
Beloved is a 1987 novel by the American writer Toni Morrison. Set after the American Civil War, it tells the story of a family of formerly enslaved people whose Cincinnati home is haunted by a malevolent spirit. Beloved is inspired by an event that actually happened: Margaret Garner, an enslaved person in Kentucky, who escaped and fled to the free state of Ohio in 1856. She was subject to capture in accordance with the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850; when U.S. marshals burst into the cabin where Garner and her husband had barricaded themselves, she was attempting to kill her children, and had already killed her two-year-old daughter, to spare them from being returned to slavery.
It is of severe concern that even in today’s world where borders merely exist, people are discriminated and even killed on grounds of their color, caste, creed or race. These books could be an eye opener for all those who believe themselves to be superior than others merely on ground of their genetic roots.
This book is not only about two young people who fall in love with each other but about the two best friends who help each other to overcome their self doubts and make each other the best of themselves. Pen/ Faulkner winner, Benjamin Alire Sáenz is the writer of this amazing book. This is the story about two boys Aristotle Mendoza and Dante Quintana, the story is surrounded to these boys. It doesn’t have any particular plot, the story is all about these two characters. Ari is reserved kind of person and on the other hand Dante is a happy soul and kind of a showy person. These two different people became friend and for them its not take too much time became best friends. Firstly Ari is bit of shy around Dante because of his nature but no one can be shy around Dante and specially Ari. This story is also about these two’s families, the parents of these two’s are came from a different backgrounds.Dante’s relationship with his father is so open, they shared everything with each other on the other hand Ari’ relationship with his father is not so much like as dante’s it’s different from his, it’s not like ari doesn’t share anything with his father but there is not that openness between them. Ari is a kind of person who have so many self doubts, he is not so good with words, sometimes he don’t know what to say to people and Dante is a kind of person who loves to be around people and always know that what he have to say to people. They are so different from each other but they get along with themselves so well, they shared everything with each other, all the secrets of the universe. This book gonna make you laugh so many times and you are gonna cry so hard too, this is beautifully written book. The dialogue of this book is so warming and wonderful, the words of this book can break your heart in tiny pieces but the words of this book can also joint that tiny little pieces into one and make your soul so happy.This story is about the situation of teenagers, the age when people have so many questions but not have the answer of anything. People struggles with self doubts, their sexuality, their body shape and so many things, the writer situated the story in the teenage era and explained these problems of teenagers so well. The story is so gripping , after finishing every chapter you are gonna want to read the next one, the story is so interesting and you are gonna want to read this book in a one sitting. The development of the character is presented so beautifully in this book, these two characters helps each other to become the best version of themselves. this book is gonna change the way of your thinking you will have so many questions on your mind after finishing this book.This a simple but so heart warming story, its gonna leave a impact on your life.These characters gonna teach you that having self doubts is not a bad thing, i mean we all have self doubts and we all struggles with that, its natural thing nothing is wrong with having self doubt and this story also gonna teach you to how to deal with your self doubts. All i can say is buckle yourself because you are going to feel so many emotions, u r gonna cry so hard and gonna laugh so hard at the same time.
This book is not only about two young people who fall in love with each other but about the two best friends who help each other to overcome their self doubts and make each other the best of themselves. Pen/ Faulkner winner, Benjamin Alire Sáenz is the writer of this amazing book. This is the story about two boys Aristotle Mendoza and Dante Quintana, the story is surrounded to these boys. It doesn’t have any particular plot, the story is all about these two characters. Ari is reserved kind of person and on the other hand Dante is a happy soul and kind of a showy person. These two different people became friend and for them its not take too much time became best friends. Firstly Ari is bit of shy around Dante because of his nature but no one can be shy around Dante and specially Ari. This story is also about these two’s families, the parents of these two’s are came from a different backgrounds.Dante’s relationship with his father is so open, they shared everything with each other on the other hand Ari’ relationship with his father is not so much like as dante’s it’s different from his, it’s not like ari doesn’t share anything with his father but there is not that openness between them. Ari is a kind of person who have so many self doubts, he is not so good with words, sometimes he don’t know what to say to people and Dante is a kind of person who loves to be around people and always know that what he have to say to people. They are so different from each other but they get along with themselves so well, they shared everything with each other, all the secrets of the universe. This book gonna make you laugh so many times and you are gonna cry so hard too, this is beautifully written book. The dialogue of this book is so warming and wonderful, the words of this book can break your heart in tiny pieces but the words of this book can also joint that tiny little pieces into one and make your soul so happy.This story is about the situation of teenagers, the age when people have so many questions but not have the answer of anything. People struggles with self doubts, their sexuality, their body shape and so many things, the writer situated the story in the teenage era and explained these problems of teenagers so well. The story is so gripping , after finishing every chapter you are gonna want to read the next one, the story is so interesting and you are gonna want to read this book in a one sitting. The development of the character is presented so beautifully in this book, these two characters helps each other to become the best version of themselves. this book is gonna change the way of your thinking you will have so many questions on your mind after finishing this book.This a simple but so heart warming story, its gonna leave a impact on your life.These characters gonna teach you that having self doubts is not a bad thing, i mean we all have self doubts and we all struggles with that, its natural thing nothing is wrong with having self doubt and this story also gonna teach you to how to deal with your self doubts. All i can say is buckle yourself because you are going to feel so many emotions, u r gonna cry so hard and gonna laugh so hard at the same time.
Oceanography is one of the largest areas of geography as it deals with the largest form on earth, Ocean. More than half of the earth’s surface is covered with water and it mainly consists of oceans. Even though it looks similar when we look from above, there are deep structures inside the water. Just like the land forms we daily see around us; oceans also have a wide variety of structures. In order to gain a clear idea about those, let us look into it in detail:
Major structures
Continental shelf
A continental shelf is the edge of a continent that lies under the ocean. Continents are the seven main divisions of land on Earth. A continental shelf extends from the coastline of a continent to a drop-off point called the shelf break. From the break, the shelf descends toward the deep ocean floor in what is called the continental slope. Even though they are underwater, continental shelves are part of the continent. The widths of the continental shelves vary.
Continental shelf
Continental slopes are regions of steeply sloping seafloor that lie between continental shelves and the deep ocean basins. Regional gradients are typically 2–5°, but locally slopes may be much steeper. Their large-scale morphology is a consequence of tectonic processes: the different elevations of continental crust and oceanic crust, the details of the original rift tectonics on passive continental margins, and the styles of subduction and accretion on convergent margins.
Continental rise
continental rise, a major depositional regime in oceans made up of thick sequences of continental material that accumulate between the continental slope and the abyssal plain. Continental rises form as a result of three sedimentary processes: mass wasting, the deposition from contour currents, and the vertical settling of clastic and biogenic particles.
Abyssal plane
The term ‘abyssal plain’ refers to a flat region of the ocean floor, usually at the base of a continental rise, where slope is less than 1:1000. It represents the deepest and flat part of the ocean floor lying between 4000 and 6500 m deep
Minor structures
Abyssal hills
An abyssal hill is a small hill that rises from the floor of an abyssal plain. They are the most abundant geomorphic structures on the planet Earth, covering more than 30% of the ocean floors. Abyssal hills have relatively sharply defined edges and climb to heights of no more than a few hundred meters. They can be from a few hundred meters to kilometers in width.
Trenches
Ocean trenches are steep depressions in the deepest parts of the ocean, where old ocean crust from one tectonic plate is pushed beneath another plate, raising mountains, causing earthquakes, and forming volcanoes on the seafloor and on land.
Submarine canyons
A submarine canyon is a steep-sided valley cut into the seabed of the continental slope, sometimes extending well onto the continental shelf, having nearly vertical walls, and occasionally having canyon wall heights of up to 5 km, from canyon floor to canyon rim, as with the Great Bahama Canyon.
Ocean has several other wonders hid under its deep waters. If we go deeper new structures unfold.
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