by Sangeeta Shrivastava
Abstract:
As the biggest west-flowing river in Madhya Pradesh, the Narmada (also spelt Rewa) is also one of India’s three holiest rivers. In the Maikal hillocks, which are located in the eastern highlands of the Vidhyas Mountains, the river’s source is said to be at a height of 1051 metres, according to the Gazetteer of Hoshangabad (1979). In the Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh, it is close to Amarkantak. When thinking about fish farming, it’s important to examine the water’s physical, chemical, and biological properties. To effectively manage fish populations, one must have a thorough grasp of water quality. Researchers in the Narmada River took water samples from four different locations and analysed them for physicochemical characteristics and heavy metal content. The following variables were recorded: thermal, pH, salinity, electrical conductivity, chemical oxygen demand, and biological oxygen demand. In every one of the locations tested, Mn and Zn were found. Interestingly, levels were much higher in three of these places compared to the World Health Organization’s advised limit of less than 0.500 mg/L for manganese. The amounts of Cr and Cd were greater than the norms in two of the three samples. All of the samples tested negative for lead, and in two of the locations, the copper levels were also below the acceptable range. The following categories were used to categorise the physicochemical properties that were studied: Various factors that make up environmental conditions include temperature (C), pH (ranging from 5.8 to 8.2), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (0.3-20 mg/L), total dissolved solids (TDS) (37-249) (26-29 mg/L), electrical conductivity (EC) (73.67-498 µS/cm), total hardness (0.8-5.7 mg/L), salinity (0.03-0.22 psu), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (2.9-9.7 mg/L). Most of these metrics were within what the World Health Organisation considers to be acceptable ranges. The results imply that high metal loads in water may impact people and fish in the long term, hence it is critical to regularly assess water quality.
Keywords: Heavy metals, Physicochemical analysis, Chemical oxygen demand, Biochemical oxygen demand, Narmada River, Bioaccumulation
· INTRODUCTION
The Narmada River valley has been home to humans for aeons. Several texts from ancient India describe the Narmada as a sacred river. This river is mentioned in a number of folktales and musical works. Along the banks of the Narmada River have developed a wide variety of cultures and lifestyles, from those of the independent Aadivasi people who live in the forests to those of non-tribal rural groups. Several human-caused activities are leading to a steady decline in the aquatic biodiversity of the Narmada River. The danger that freshwater biodiversity presents to all of Earth’s ecosystems is a typical argument against it.
At 9 billion strong, human countries were struggling to fulfil even the most fundamental demands by mid-century (FAO, 2018). Since fisheries and aquaculture are closely linked to several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), prioritising them is essential in any effort to address this worldwide problem. Sustainable Development Agenda Goal 14 focuses on taking care of the world’s oceans and seas in an eco-friendly way. Director general Jose Graziano da Silva of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) asserts that the fishing and aquaculture sector is crucial to realising the FAO’s goal of a world free of hunger and malnutrition (2018). Since 1961, the global population has not kept pace with the increase in fish consumption. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) projects a more than 20% surge in fish consumption by the year 2030. Regardless of the global fish supply, Asia’s food supply would be jeopardised since fewer people would consume fish per person. An increase in interest in aquaculture is being seen throughout the country, including in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. Across the country, this trend is more apparent in the north and south. According to Amenyogbe et al. (2018), subsistence fishermen often use semiintensive and extensive techniques to raise fish in artificial settings such reservoirs, rivers, dugouts, and earthen dams. Some farmers keep their cattle in floating cages, while others use concrete tanks or clay rivers. Fish rely on the readily available grain bran. Bran is a component that is found in many grains, such as maize, wheat, and rice. Sandre et al. (2017) and M’balaka et al. (2012) state that the main factors influencing the production of fish in aquaculture include biotic factors such as sex, age, and genetic variation, and abiotic factors such as water chemistry, temperature, photoperiod, and oxygen level. Abiotic factors that affect water quality include things like temperature, biological oxygen demand (BOD), dissolved oxygen (DO), colour, clarity, turbidity, carbon dioxide (CO2), pH, alkalinity, hardness, unionised ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, and plankton population. Understanding these factors is critical for the efficient administration of the Narmada River. Since water is the natural environment of farmed fish, keeping it clean is crucial to their health and production (Mandal et al., 2017; Oluyemi et al., 2010). Water quality is the biggest issue with fish farming, according to Boyd (1990). Keeping tabs on various water quality indicators is crucial for fish welfare (Jaeger and Aubin 2018; Sehar et al. 2014). Heat, acidity, pH, CO2, ammonia, hardness, nitrites, total solids in solution, and oxygen in solution are some of the many factors that have a role. Any of these characteristics might have an impact on farmed fish health in certain contexts (James, 2000). While alkalinity and hardness tend to remain relatively constant, dissolved oxygen and pH tend to change more. Changing one set of circumstances may influence the emergence of another. For example, alkalinity and hardness are two factors that impact pH (Klontz, 1993). Fish populations might be negatively impacted by human-introduced contaminants such as metals and pesticides (Biney, 1986). Heavy metals in sediments, water, and food may be absorbed by fish, according to recent studies (Adeeye, 1996). At safe levels, certain heavy metals have practical use, while others pose serious health risks to humans and aquatic organisms. Consider how zinc is fundamental to the cytoplasm’s proper operation. In low zinc concentrations, fish develop and grow more slowly, while in high zinc concentrations, they die. Sehar et al. (2014) found that zinc overdose may lead to skin irritation, nausea, vomiting, pancreatic injury, and alterations in protein metabolism. The great majority of aquaculturists rely on water from natural sources such springs, rivers, and lakes, however a small number use artificial techniques. In an ideal setting, most farms use river management methods to breed zoo fish, according to Eze and Ogbaran (2010). In order to identify the best water quality criteria for fish farming, the researchers compared the results of investigations on heavy metal pollution on the Narmada River with other companies’ findings.
· MATERIAL AND METHODS STUDY AREA
As the biggest west-flowing river in Madhya Pradesh, the Narmada (also spelt Rewa) is also one of India’s three holiest rivers. In the Maikal hillocks, which are located in the eastern highlands of the Vidhyas mountains, the river’s source is said to be at a height of 1051 metres, according to the Gazetteer of Hoshangabad (1979). In the Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh, it is close to Amarkantak. The basin encompasses a considerable amount of land, including a large portion of Gujarat (12%), a tiny portion of Maharashtra (2%), and 86% of Madhya Pradesh. Gujarat is where the Narmada River meets the Gulf of Cambay. Though Gujarat receives the lion’s share of the residual flow, over 90% of it flows to M. P. It passes into Maharashtra for a short distance. Because of the abundance of nutrients in this soil, staple crops such as corn, yams and cocoyams grow well.
· SAMPLING
We took water samples at random from four different locations and analysed the results over three weeks. Two or three samples were collected from each site. We took the readings in a controlled lab environment as well as out in the field.
· PHYSICOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS
At the location, we used a Hanna HI 9829 multiparameter metre to measure the total dissolved solids (DDS), pH, conductivity, salinity, and temperature of each sample. When measuring each parameter, we adhered according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Turbidity, biological oxygen demand, and chemical oxygen demand were determined in accordance with the methods published by APHA (1992).
· HEAVY METAL ANALYSIS
Following the standard procedures described in previous studies (Sehar et al., 2014; Mensah et al., 2016), the materials were digested. Finally, the concentrations of manganese, cadmium, copper, chromium, lead, and zinc were determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The proportion of HNO3 to water in a 250 mL beaker is 5 mL to 100 mL according to the conventional formula. By heating the combination, the volume was reduced to around 20 ml. The digestion process was extended by heating and adding HNO3 to guarantee a clear solution. Chilling and filtering the solution was followed by a cautious transfer to a 50 ml volumetric flask. In cases where the sample could not be located, a blank solution was prepared by following the same procedure. The atomic absorption spectrometer NovAA 400 P from Analytik Jena was used for a repeat measurement to determine the concentrations and standard deviations of lead, cadmium, manganese, copper, and zinc.
· RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Harmful metals According to Sehar et al. (2014), there are a variety of natural and human-induced processes that discharge metals into water bodies. Some metals are necessary for life, yet they are also harmful to the environment. Because of their toxicity and bioaccumulation potential in water sources, these metals are of utmost concern (Soylak and Erdogan, 2006). Omega-3 fatty acids and other polyunsaturated fats, as well as copper, iron, and zinc, are just a few of the important elements found in fish, which is why it is so popular (Sehar et al., 2014). It is very important to ensure that fish is safe for human consumption. Each of the eight rivers tested positive for six different heavy metals. Table 1 summarises the findings.
Table 1: Heavy metal Concentrations in waters of three ecosystems (mg/I)
|
Pre-monsoon
|
Li
|
Be
|
AI
|
V
|
Cr
|
Mn
|
Fe
|
Co
|
Ni
|
Cu
|
Zn
|
Ga
|
|
|
0.09±01
|
BDL
|
1.43±0.19
|
0.003±0
|
0.003±0
|
0.03±0
|
0.12±001
|
BDL
|
0.002±0
|
0.01±0
|
0.02±0
|
BDL
|
|
|
0.02±0.005
|
BDL
|
1.18±0.27
|
0.002±0.0001
|
0.001±0.0001
|
0.05±0.004
|
0.12±0006
|
0.002±0
|
0.001±0
|
0.01±0
|
0.02±0.002
|
BDL
|
|
|
BDL
|
BDL
|
4.32±0.27
|
0.01±0
|
0.004±0
|
0.18±0.04
|
0.65±06
|
0.01±0
|
0.01±0
|
0.13±0.02
|
0.07±0.01
|
0.001±0
|
|
Monsoon
|
|
|
0.08±0
|
BDL
|
4.19±0.34
|
0.005±0
|
0.001±0
|
0.07±0
|
0.18±002
|
BDL
|
0.002±0
|
0.02±0.002
|
0.04±0.006
|
BDL
|
|
|
0.09±0.02
|
BDL
|
2.89±0.19
|
0.004±0
|
0.001±0
|
0.05±0.01
|
0.18±0009
|
BDL
|
0.001±0
|
0.02±0.004
|
0.03±0.006
|
BDL
|
|
|
0.009±0
|
BDL
|
12.05±0.63
|
0.02±0
|
0.007±0
|
0.43±0.02
|
10.02±1.5
|
0.001±0
|
0.01±0
|
0.12±0.01
|
0.10±0.01
|
0.002±0
|
|
Post Monsoon
|
|
|
0.03±0.007
|
BDL
|
0.05±0.003
|
0.003±0
|
0.002±0
|
BDL
|
0.003±0
|
0.001±0
|
0.003±0
|
0.01±0.002
|
BDL
|
BDL
|
|
|
0.03±0.003
|
BDL
|
0.06±0.01
|
0.003±0
|
0.001±0
|
0.04±0.004
|
0.001±0
|
0.001±0
|
0.001±0
|
0.01±0
|
BDL
|
BDL
|
|
|
0.002±0
|
BDL
|
0.07±0.007
|
0.003±0.001
|
0.003±0
|
0.03±0.01
|
0.004±0
|
0.0003±0
|
0.004±0
|
0.06±0.01
|
BDL
|
BDL
|
There was a detectable amount of zinc and manganese present in each and every one of the sample locations. During the monsoon season, the concentrations of zinc were at their greatest, measuring 0.04 mg/L, while the concentrations of manganese were at their lowest, measuring 0.03 mg/L. If you look in Table 1, you will see these statistics. Previous research (Adeyemi and Ugah, 2017; Onuoha, 2017) has shown that this particular study did, in fact, discover a number of locations that have higher amounts of manganese, cadmium, and chromium.
In light of the increased levels of carcinogens, it is imperative that concerns be expressed. Copper was found in other areas, although at levels that were far below than the permissible threshold established by the World Health Organisation (0.0233 mg/L and 0.0108 mg/L, respectively). Lead was not found in any of the tests that were conducted. With a higher position in the food chain, these elements have the potential to biomagnify, even in little quantities, and to bioaccumulate. Among these chemicals is the element lead. There is also a trace amount of copper and zinc present in the materials. Rahman et al. (2012) state that both benthic and pelagic fish have the potential to accumulate cadmium, lead, copper, and zinc in their gills, liver, and meat inside their bodies. According to the findings of Sehar et al. (2014), zinc has the potential to bioaccumulate in gills and to become more concentrated as it travels down the food chain.
According to the findings of Abumourad et al. (2013) and Healey (2009), hazardous metals like lead, cadmium, and mercury may accumulate more quickly in the tissues and bodies of aquatic animals than they do in the water itself. As a consequence of this, individuals experience signs and symptoms of serious health concerns. According to the findings of study conducted by Sarty and Gupta (1979), cadmium may decrease the kidneys’ capacity to filter waste. Cyanide and chromium are two examples of pollutants that may be identified in some water samples. These toxins pose a threat to aquatic life as well as to people. Given that these metals are often found in pesticides and fertilisers, it is not out of the question that runoff from farms that are next to the water source might potentially pollute the water supply.
Table-2: Physico-chemical characteristics of fresh water.
|
Parameters
|
Pre monsoon
|
Monsoon
|
Post monsoon
|
|
pH
|
7.6 ± 1.87
|
6.62 ± 1.61
|
6.81 ± 1.23
|
|
Temp (⁰C)
|
27.5 ± 2.59
|
25.6 ± 4.94
|
23.6 ± 1.84
|
|
Ec (µs/cm)
|
660 ± 36.96
|
500 ± 101.50
|
724 ± 121.63
|
|
Salinity (ppt)
|
0.3078 ± 0.01
|
0.2332 ± 0.06
|
0.337 ± 0.03
|
|
DO (mg/l)
|
7.9 ± 0.69
|
8.8 ± 2.22
|
7.6 ± 1.23
|
|
BOD (mg/l)
|
3.2 ± 0.22
|
1.95 ± 0.48
|
2.29 ± 0.36
|
|
TS (mg/l)
|
1004.45 ± 213.95
|
868.61 ± 81.65
|
882.4 ± 80.30
|
|
TDS (mg/l)
|
960 ± 220.80
|
850 ± 214.20
|
816 ± 187.68
|
|
TSS (mg/l)
|
44.45 ± 6.36
|
18.61 ± 4.58
|
21.4 ± 3.06
|
|
Cl– ( mg/l)
|
186 ± 21.84
|
122 ± 11.47
|
116 ± 13.92
|
|
TH (mg/l)
|
182 ± 32.76
|
204 ± 15.91
|
210 ± 37.80
|
|
Ca H (mg/l)
|
24.5 ± 4.46
|
19.7 ± 3.31
|
23.86 ± 1.86
|
|
Mg H (mg/l)
|
157.5 ± 38.27
|
184.3 ±18.06
|
186.14 ± 31.27
|
|
TA (mg/l)
|
204 ± 39.37
|
163 ± 26.41
|
182 ± 17.84
|
· TEMPERATURE
Many amphibians and reptiles have core temperatures that are quite close to those of the water they inhabit. This is also true of fish. Fish may die from the consequences of rapid temperature fluctuations. Fish metabolism and respiration are influenced by temperature, which in turn influences the amount of oxygen that is dissolved in the water. Boyd (1990), Chang et al. (2019), and Devi et al. (2017) are among the research that have shown this to be a cause of mental anguish and mortality. According to Table 2, the water temperature of the Narmada River ranged from 26 to 29 degrees Celsius. Studies support the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommendation that the optimal temperature range is fifteen to thirty degrees (Zanatta et al., 2010).
pH
It is the hydrogen ion activity of water that is indicated by its pH. Changing the pH level by one unit indicates a tenfold change in the concentration of hydrogen ions. The pH of surface water systems is found to fluctuate during the day, reaching a minimum just before dawn and a high in the middle, as reported by Kestemont et al. (2015). Table 2 shows that across the three weeks of the experiment, the pH values of the Narmada River varied between 5.80 and 8.20. At the start of the day, the ideal pH range for fish culture is between 6.62 to 7.6, according to Swingle (1967) and Hepher and Pruginin (1981). Even if fish can survive in environments with pH values as low as 4 or as high as 11, the productivity of fish would still be significantly reduced, according to Devi et al. (2017). The river’s pH was below the ideal range for fish production during the third week of sampling. There may be a high rate of fish mortality because of garbage that has accumulated in the river, such as organic matter that has decomposed.
· ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
The measureable attribute of water’s conductivity is its capacity to convey electrical current. In their 2004 study, Stone and Thomforde found that electrical conductivity levels ranging from 30-500 μS/cm are suitable for the culture of river fish. This is so even though there are currently no recommendations for EC in rivers from the World Health Organisation. All along the river, the results showed an EC that was well within the allowed limits. Increasing the amount of dissolved salts and inorganic elements in water, such chlorides, sulphate, and carbonate compounds, would raise the electrical conductivity of the water since conductivity is directly related to the concentration of conductive ions in it. Electrical conductivity is useful for identifying early changes in the water system and also provides the basis for calculating total dissolved solids (TDS) and salinity (Langland and Cronin, 2003).
· SALINITY
It is said by Jamabo (2008) that salinity influences the quantity and pace of population increase of aquatic species. The term “salinity” refers to the overall concentration of ions in water that have electric charges. The electrical conductivity of water is therefore significantly altered by the presence of salt. According to the World Health Organisation, the typical range is 0 to 1 psu, and the results from the Narmada River were within this range.
· TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
Each river had a different total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration, with values ranging from 37 to 249 mg/L (Table 2). The TDS concentrations differed from river to river. Both River A1 and River A2 have a relatively low level of chemical contamination in their water. There is a correlation between this discovery with the low EC values that were reported for the River. These values were much lower when compared to what is considered to be safe for the Narmada River.
· HARDNESS
Only the concentrations of calcium and magnesium are taken into account when attempting to determine the overall hardness of water. A material’s hardness might be enhanced by the presence of additional divalent and trivalent ions; however, these ions are often present in negligible amounts. A significant drop in total hardness was seen during the third week of sampling. It was shown by the data. Research found levels below the World Health Organization-recommended limit of 50-100 mg/L for aquaculture. For aquaculture purposes, this range is suitable. The water must be very smooth if this is correct. Research has shown that fish may experience stress and a decrease in mineral content when the overall hardness value falls below 20 mg/L (Dinesh et al., 2017). The reason for this is because stress might have a greater impact on fish. However, liming the river might be a solution to this problem.
· BOD & COD
Under aerobic conditions, at a specific temperature and for a specific amount of time, the amount of dissolved oxygen that organisms need to digest the organic matter in a specific water sample is determined by the biological oxygen demand (BOD). The majority of freshwater species typically need a biological oxygen demand (BOD) range of 3 to 20 mg/L, according to Boyd and Thunjai (2003). The BOD of the different samples ranged from 0.3 to 2.0, as shown in Table 2. All of the reported values were under the lower bound of the specified range. If there are too many fish in the river, oxygen levels would drop, which might explain the phenomenon. Aquaculture animals are more likely to experience stress, loss of appetite, slow growth, vulnerability to disease, and mortality when the concentration of dissolved oxygen is low (Makori et al., 2017). However, mechanical aeration may increase the river’s biological oxygen demand (BOD) (Warish et al., 2017). Results showing COD levels between 2.9 to 9.7 mg/L were within the range of what the World Health Organisation (WHO) considers to be acceptable. Levels of COD in the Narmada River have been shown to be below 20 mg/l in previous investigations (Warish et al., 2017).
· CONCLUSIONS
There have been a few Narmada Rivers in the state of Madhya Pradesh that have been tested for their water quality, and it has been decided that these rivers have been reviewed. At each of the four sample sites, it was discovered that the levels of temperature, salinity, COD, and TDS were all within the optimal range that is suggested for the development of fish. After doing an analysis of the data, the researchers came to this conclusion of their findings. On the other hand, it was found that both the overall hardness and the BOD were lower than the normal range that is considered to be acceptable. This was a discovery that was made. There is a possible threat to the health of species that live in the water as well as people as a consequence of the presence of heavy metals such as chromium and cadmium in some sections of the river. people are also at risk of experiencing adverse health effects. Therefore, it is recommended that appropriate actions be taken at the river that was researched in order to maintain and improve the water quality for fish culture at regular intervals and to monitor the impact that these changes have on the development of the fish. The findings of the current research indicate that this recommendation is supported by the fact that it is recommended that appropriate actions be taken. This advice is based on the results of the study that was already mentioned previously in the discussion. Not only would this have a beneficial effect on the health of the aquatic biome, but it would also have a favourable influence on the health of people and the environment as a single entity.
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