Vitex negundo Linn (Nirgundi): Potential etiquette of an Important Medicinal Plant

Sadhana Yadav^*1, Dr. Prashant K Deshmukh²

1. Research Scholar, Department of Pharmacy, Sunrise University, Alwar (Raj)
2. Research Supervisor, Department of Pharmacy, Sunrise University, Alwar (Raj)

Abstract: Vitex negundo Linn. belong to family Verbenaceae. It is an important medicinal plant. Literature survey of V. negundo revealed the presence of different classes of natural products including essential oil, triterpenes, diterpenes, sesquiterpenes, lignan, flavonoids, flavones glycosides, iridoid glycosides, and stilbene derivative. The plant is traditionally reported for its use for the treatment of cough, asthma, fever, eye disease, inflammation, intestinal worms, skin diseases, nervous disorders, leprosy and rheumatism. Roots are tonic, anodyne, febrifuge, bechic, expectorant and diuretic. This research is short research of last two years reporting the natural products isolated and biological potential of Vitex negundo Linn.

Introduction: Vitex negundo Linn. (Verbenaceae), locally known as ‘Nirgundi’ an important medicinal plant¹, Vitex negundo Linn. is a woody, aromatic deciduous shrub growing to a small tree. It is an erect, 2-5 m in height, slender tree with quadrangular branchlets. The leaves have five leaflets in a palmately arrangement, which are lanceolate, 4-10 cm long, hairy beneath and pointed at both ends ^2,3. It thrives in humid places or along water courses in wastelands and mixed open forests and has been reported to occur in Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, eastern Africa and Madagascar. It is grown commercially as a crop in parts of Asia, Europe, North America and West Indies, also finds use as a food crop and a source of timber ⁴.

Plant Anatomy:

• Kingdom – Plantae – Plants
• Sub Kingdom – Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
• Super division – Spermatophyta – Seed plant
• Division – Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
• Class – Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
• Subclass – Asteridea
• Order – Lamilales
• Family – Verbenaceae
• Genus – Vitex Linn.
• Species – Vitex negundo Linn. (Chaste tree) ⁵.

Medicinal Plants: Plants used in traditional medicine contain a vast array of substances that can be used to treat chronic and even infectious diseases. According to a report of World Health Organization, more than 80% of world’s populations depend on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs. The demand for more and more drugs from plant sources is continuously increasing. It is therefore essential for systematic evaluation of plants used in traditional medicine for various ailments. Hence, there is need to screen medicinal plants for promising biological activity^6-8.

Figure 1: Vitex negundo Linn

Literature survey of V. negundo revealed the presence of volatile oil, triterpenes, diterpenes, sesquiterpenes, lignan, flavonoids, flavones glycosides, iridoid glycosides, and stilbene derivative. Though almost all parts of V. negundo are used, the extract from leaves and the roots is the most important in the field of phytomedicine and is sold as drugs. The leaf extract is used in Ayurvedic and Unani system of medicine. Water extract of mature fresh leaves exhibited anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antihistamine properties. Lignans, one class of natural compounds present in V. negundo, showed anti-cholinesterase activity in-vitro. However no studies were conducted to explore the effect of V. negundo extract against memory impairment in-vivo ^{9, 10}.

The leaf extract of Vitex negundo are generally used as a grain preservating material to protect the pulses against insects³. The leaves are the most potent for medicinal use. It is used for treatment of eye-disease, toothache, inflammation, leucoderma, enlargement of the spleen, skin-ulcers, in catarrhal fever, rheumatoid arthritis, gonorrhoea, and bronchitis. They are also used as tonics, vermifuge, lactagogue, emmenagogue, antibacterial, antipyretic and antihistaminic agents. Oil prepared with it, is applied to sinuses and scrofulous sores. Its extract has also shown anticancer activity against Ehrlich ascites tumour cells ¹¹. The roots are used in rheumatism, dyspepsia, dysentery, piles and considered as tonic, febrifuge, expectorant, antihelmintic and diuretic. The flowers are astringent and are employed in fever, diarrhoea and liver complaints. The dried fruits are vermifuge and the bark is used in toothache. The chemical constituents of the essential oil of V. negundo leaves have been reported which indicated viridifloral to be its chief constituents ^{12, 16}.

The plant has been reported to exhibit medicinal properties including the curing of rheumatic pains and reducing swellings of the joints. In Chinese traditional medicine, it has been used for the treatment of chronic bronchitis. An infusion of the twigs is considered to be an effective therapy for headaches, dizziness, convulsions, coughs, mental unrest and is said to promote wakefulness ¹⁷.

Its leaves and seeds are widely used externally for rheumatism and inflammations of joints and are also reported to have insecticidal properties. Internally, decoction of its leaves is taken as diuretic, expectorant, vermifuge, tonic and febrifuge. The chemical components of the essential oil of leaf isolated from V. negundo and other Vitex species have been reported by several researchers in the past. It’s essential oil is found to be useful for sloughing wounds and ulcers. The leaves of V. negundo are reported to possess pesticidal, antifungal and antibacterial properties ^18-20.

Leaves of this plant have been shown mosquito repellent effects as well as antiulcerogenic, antiparasitic, antimicrobial and hepatoprotective potentials. The methanolic root extract possessed potent snake venom neutralizing capacity The acetone extract of V. negundo was found to possess insecticidal, ovicidal, growth inhibition and morphogenetic effects against various life stages of a noxious lepidoteron insect-pest ⁶.

Petroleum ether extract of Vitex negundo leaves has shown significant analgesic activity and the anticonvulsant activity against strychnine and leptazole. Dried leaves powder of Vitex negundo showed anti-arthritic activity in rats ²¹.

V. negundo have diverse medicinal uses in the folk medicinal system of Bangladesh. Along with the utilization in traditional medicine by local practitioners and healers, this plant also reportedly showed diverse pharmacological properties including analgesic, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anti-fertility, anti-feedant, anti-antioxidant, anti-hyperglycemic effect, cytotoxicity for human cancer cell line, hepatoprotective activity against liver damage induced by d-galactosamine, commonly used tubercular drugs and carbon tetrachloride, laxative activity, immunomodulatory effect, and mosquito repellent effect.

The plant parts are reported to have anti-microfilarial, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, insecticidal, larvicidal, as well as significant effect on antagonizing the Vipera russellii and Naja kaouthia venom induced lethal activity in both in vitro and in vivo. The plant is reported to contain potent and novel therapeutic agents for scavenging of NO and the regulation of pathological conditions caused by excessive generation of NO and its oxidation product, peroxynitrite. Administration of V. negundo extracts also potentiated the effect of commonly used anti-inflammatory drugs sedative-hypnotic drugs (and anti-convulsive agents. Inhibitory effect of V. negundo against active enzymes has also been observed for lipoxygenase and butyryl-cholinesterase α-chymotrypsin xanthine-oxidase and tyrosinase²².

Medicinal herb and various parts of the plant have been employed in the folklore systems of medicine in Asia including India, China and Malaysia for various diseases. Many ethno botanical and pharmacological activities of V. negundo have been reported such as: analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity, antioxidant activity, enzyme inhibitions, nitric oxide scavenging activity, antiradical and antilipoperoxidative activity, CNS activity, hepatoprotective activity, anti-bacterial activity, antifungal activity, larvicidal activity, antiandrogenic effects and mosquito repellent activity. V. negundo leaves were found to have NSAIDs like activity ²³.

The plant is traditionally reported for its use for the treatment of cough, asthma, fever, eye disease, inflammation, intestinal worms, skin diseases, nervous disorders, leprosy and rheumatism. Roots are tonic, anodyne, febrifuge, bechic, expectorant and diuretic. The decoction of leaves is given as a drink to reduce phlegm in coughs, chronic bronchitis and asthma. Drugs currently used to treat cough are among the most widely used over-the-counter drugs in the world, despite a recent analysis suggesting that there is a little evidence to suggest that such drugs produce any meaningful efficacy.

The primary action of currently available cough suppressants (opiates, dextromethorphan etc.) is on the central cough pathway. The significant side effects of these agents such as constipation, respiratory depression, dependence, drowsiness and death limit their uses in humans and thus highly unsatisfactory. No peripherally acting antitussives, apart from local anesthetics such as lignocaine and possibly benzonatate are currently established and available for use in patients. There is a current need for the development of safe and effective antitussive therapeutic options in the treatment of persistent cough as alternative to existing medications¹.

Biological Activities:

1. Anti-amnesic activity: Anti-amnesic effect of V. negundo aqueous extract on scopolamine administered at different stages of active avoidance learning in rats. An automatic reflex conditioner with two-way shuttle box (Ugo Basile, Italy). The rats were treated orally with the standard drug through an intragastric feeding tube. Similarly the plant extract were administered for 14 days. For this purpose each rat is placed in a compartment separated from the other one by a guillotine door in the shuttle box.

Exploration period of 2 min is given initially. Thereafter, the trial start, in each trial the animal is subjected to a light for 30 s followed by a sound stimulus for 10s. Immediately after the sound stimulus, the rat receives a single low intensity foot shock (0.5 mA; 3 s) from 10th day to 14th through the floor grid if it does not transfer to the other shock free compartment. Infrared sensors monitor the transfer time from one compartment to another, which is recorded as avoid (after the stimulus of either light alone or both light and sound) and escape (after the foot shock) response.

Each animal received a daily session of 15 trials with an inter-trial duration of 15 s for 5 days i.e., a maximum of 75 trials. The rats were evaluated on the basis of their performance in the last session i.e., in the 5th session for their decrease in amnesic activity and increased learning and memory. The criterion for improved cognitive activity was taken as significant increase in the avoidance response on 5th session (retention) compared to 1st session ²⁴.

• Antioxidant activity: Preliminary studies showed that V. negundo leaf exhibited antioxidant properties and contain natural antioxidants. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze the antioxidant activity of methanol and hexane extract and essential oil from V. negundo leaf using different in vitro antioxidant assays. In addition, total phenolic contents, flavonoids, tocopherol and carotenoids content of leaf of V.negundo were also quantified using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
• 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method: DPPH method measured the ability of antioxidant in scavenging free radicals present. Antioxidant activity of V. negundo leaf was expressed as the concentration that inhibits 50% DPPH free radical (IC50). Results obtained in the study showed that the IC50 of methanol extract of V. negundo (138±11.68 μg/ml) was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than that of both essential oil (432±12.65 μg/ml) and hexane extract (567±17.37 μg/ml), revealing its higher antioxidant activity than those of hexane extract and essential oil.
• FRAP method: The FRAP test measures the ability of samples to reduce ferric ion to the ferrous form of TPTZ (2, 4, 6-tripyridylstriazine). Arbitrarily, one FRAP unit is defined as the reduction of 1 mol of Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺. Similarly, result of the study showed that the antioxidant capacity of methanol extract (44.6±7.8 μM TE/g) was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of hexane (11.30±1.3 μM TE/g) and essential oil (11.53±1.35 μM TE/g) of leaves of V. negundo (Figure 1). However, there was no significant (p < 0.05) difference on the antioxidant capacity between hexane extract and essential oil. The antioxidant capacity of methanol extract was noted to be four times higher than that of hexane extract and essential oil. It is interesting to note that the trend of antioxidant activity obtained from FRAP assay was similar to that obtained in DPPH assay ¹⁷.
• Antibacterial activity: The bacteria used for antibacterial tests were Gram (+) Staphylococcus aureus (MTCC 3160), Bacillus subtilis (MTCC 0121) and Gram (−) Escherichia coli (MTCC 0051), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MTCC 0741). All the strains used for these studies were procured from MTCC, IMTECH, Chandigarh, India. Antibacterial potential of all three samples of essential oils and successive extracts was evaluated by agar well diffusion method. Nutrient agar plates were swabbed with the broth culture of the respective microorganisms (diluted to 0.5 McFarland Standard) and were kept at room temperature for 15 min for absorption to take place.

Wells of 8 mm diameter were punched into the agar medium and filled with 100 μl each of the essential oils and extracts. DMSO, DMF and hexane were taken as solvent blank and Ciprofloxacin was used as positive control. The inoculated agar plates were incubated for 24 h at 37°C. All the tests were made in triplicate and diameter of the inhibition zones was calculated in mm. The average of diameter of the inhibition zones of each sample was taken called clearing zone (CZ) and the antimicrobial index (AI) was computed as the clearing zone (CZ) minus the diameter of the hole divided by the diameter of the hole.

All the extracts and essential oils were found to be highly effective in inhibiting the growth of bacteria at a minimum concentration of 30 and 60 μg/100 μl, respectively. Each of the essential oil and extracts were found to be active against B. subtilis and E. coli with antimicrobial index (AI) ranging from 0.3 to 1.8. Leaf essential oil inhibited S. aureus with maximum AI of 1.5 while fruit essential oil showed its inhibition against E. coli and B. subtilis with AI of 1.3 and 1.0, respectively. Flower oil did not show any activity against S. aureus while leaf and fruit oils were ineffective against P. aeruginosa. Ethyl acetate extract was found to be most potent among all the extracts tested.

Petroleum ether and aqueous extracts did not show any activity against P. aeruginosa while all the extracts were found potent against S. aureus. Ciprofloxacin was used as positive standard control and the results of tested samples were very promising in comparison to standard drug ciprofloxacin ¹⁸.

• From the study, the zones of inhibition produced by the methanol extract, petether and carbon tetrachloride fractions were found to be 07-16 mm, 07-11 mm and 06-11 mm respectively at a concentration of 200 g/disc in case of 09 bacterial strains and 02 fungal strains where standard kanamycin (30μg/disc) showed zone of inhibition of 08-19 mm. Prominent activity was found against Bacillus subtilis (13-16 mm) by all of the fractions. Methanol extract showed significant inhibition (09-10 mm) against Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi Pet-ether and carbon tetrachloride fractions showed most prominent inhibitory action (zone of inhibition 11-18 mm) against Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhi and Vibrio mimicus in comparison to standard antibiotic (kanamycin, 30μg/disc). All the fractions of Vitex negundo were also tested for antifungal activity against 03 fungi. The extracts had inhibitory effect against all the test pathogens in different degree. The methanol extract and pet-ether fraction showed profound activity against Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans respectively.

• Volatile oil of Vitex negundo is reported to contain β-carryophyllene, sabinene, linalool, terpinen-4-ol, α-guaiene and globulol as major constituents along with sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, terpenoids and sterols. A wide variety of essential oils are known to possess the antimicrobial properties and in many cases this activity is due to the presence of monoterpene constituents which exerts membrane damaging effects and stimulate leakage of cellular potassium ions which provides evidence of lethal action related to cytoplasmic membrane damage. Presence of terpenoids in supercritical fluid extract as evident by TLC pattern explains its stronger antibacterial potential ²⁵.
• Phytopathogenic antibacterial activity: There is a worldwide interest in searching for the safe and effective novel antibacterial compounds of plant origin for the control of plant pathogenic bacteria which is responsible for the great impact on the growth and productivity of agriculture crops. In this study an attempt was made to determine the in vitro antibacterial activity of sequentially extracted different solvent (dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, ethanol, methanol and water) extracts of leaf, flower and fruit of Vitex negundo L. and bulb of Allium sativum L. (Garlic) against phytopathogens namely Pseudomonas solanacearum and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri.

The preliminary antibacterial activity was performed by agar well diffusion method and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were determined by agar dilution method. The test samples were also subjected to qualitative phytochemical analysis. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by least significant difference (LSD) test were done for the statistical analysis of the data. All the test samples showed inhibitory effect on both of the test pathogens and the diameter of inhibition zone ranged from 9.9 ± 0.5 mm to 48.5 ± 1.3 mm and the inhibitory effect differed significantly (P<0.05) among the samples. Ethyl acetate extract of flower of Vitex negundo L. showed significantly (P<0.05) higher inhibition on Pseudomonas solanacearum and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri.

The MIC values of ethyl acetate extracts of fruit and flower of Vitex negundo L. and Allium sativum and ethanol extract of flower of Vitex negundo L. ranged from 2.5mg/ml to 40mg/ml. Phytochemical analysis of above extracts revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, cardiac glycosides and terpenoids. Further studies are being carried out to elucidate the active principles responsible for the inhibitory effect of these pathogens and to determine their activity in vivo. This is the first report that reveals the inhibitory effect of Vitex negundo L. on Pseudomonas solanacearum and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Citri ²⁶.

• Antifungal activity: Sathiamoorthy et al., (2007) isolated six compounds from the powdered leaf extracts of Vitex negundo. The isolated compounds were evaluated for antifungal and anti-bacterial activity. From the isolated compounds two possess potent anti-fungal activities and very active when compared to other isolated compounds. Significant antifungal activity in ethanolic extract against Cryptococcus neoformans and Trichophyton mentagrophytes was offered by two compounds isolated from the leaf extract of Vitex negundo ²⁸.
• Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of Vitex negundoi: Inflammation may start in every part of our body. Any time when the word describing a disease ends with, it’s an inflammatory disease. Dermatitis means an inflammation of the skin, arthritis an inflammation of joints, an othitis an inflammation of the ear. Thus anti-inflammatory activity of a compound is considered to be a valuable feature. The leaves of Vitex negundo possess anti-inflammatory activity. Experimental investigations revealed that the mature fresh leaf of Vitex negundo have dose-dependent activity against inflammation as revealed in the carrageenan and formaldehyde models. Mature fresh leaf extract of Vitex negundo also demonstrated a dose-dependent prostaglandin (PG) synthesis inhibition, membrane stabilising and antihistamine activities. The inverse dose–response relationship shown by acute anti-inflammatory, antihistamine, PG synthesis inhibition and membrane stabilising activities may be due to reduction of the effectiveness of the active principle at its high concentrations.

Sedatives and stress are responsible for producing analgesia. There was no sign of stress observed in the rats treated with the mature fresh leaves extract of Vitex negundo. Mature fresh leaves extract of Vitex negundo is effective against the establishment of chronic inflammation which happens at the later stage of acute inflammation. Moreover treatment with the mature leaf extracts of Vitex negundo in rats did not show a gastric lesion which is an advantage when compared with the use of modern NSAIDs. Treatment of Mature fresh leaves extract of Vitex negundo for 14 days in rats orally did not produce detectable toxic effect in terms of body weight, serum concentrations of urea, creatinine, glucose and serum activity of ALT.

This is a very important criterion that favours the use of this extract for medicinal purposes. The anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of the leaves did not disappear after the flowering of the tree in contrast to Anisomeles indica which lost these activities after flowering of the plant. These studies provide evidence for the anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of mature fresh leaves of Vitex negundo claimed in Ayurveda medicine ^28-35.

Enzyme-inhibitory activity: Root extracts of Vitex negundo showed inhibitory activity against enzymes such as lipoxygenase and butyryl-cholinesterase, α-chymotrypsin, xanthine-oxidase and tyrosinase. Woradulayapinij et al. reported the HIV type 1 reverse transcriptase inhibitor activity of the water extract of the aerial parts of Vitex negundo ⁴.

Essentional Oils: The chemical components of the essential oil from V. negundo have been reported. Its essential oil is found to be useful for sloughing wounds and ulcers. The essentional oils from fresh leaves, flowers and dried fruits were extracted and analysis by GC/MS which may be responsible for the various medicinal properties of the plant.

1. From leaves: The identified constituent- p-cymene, cis-ocimene, citronellal, β-curcumene, β-caryophyllene, α-guaiene, guaia-3,7-diene, δ-guaiene, valencene, caryophyllene epoxide, ethyl-9–hexadecenoate, palmitic acid, (E)-nerolidol, humulene epoxide 1, globulol, humulene epoxide 2, epi-α-cadinol, α-muurolol, α-cadinol and α-bisabolol acetate represented about 85.5% of total composition of the essential oil of leaf ¹⁸.
2. From flowers: Twelve identified constituent in flower essential oil were formic acid, n-heptane, p-cymene, β-caryophyllene, trans-α-bergamotene, valencene, α-selinene, β-selinene, germacren-4-ol, caryophyllene epoxide, (E)-nerolidol and P-(1,1-dimethylethyl) toluene represented about 65% of total composition of the oil, (Khokra et al., 2008) from the flower oil of V. negundo, the main constituents of the oil were sabinene, linalool, terpinen-4-ol, β-caryophyllene, α-guaiene and globulol constituting 61.8% of the oil as major constituents along with sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, terpenoids and sterols ^{35, 25}.
3. From fruits: The thirteen constituents namely α-copaene, β-caryophyllene, α-cedrene, α-guaiene, guaia-3,7-diene, α-humulene, aristolene, germacrene D, β-selinene, caryophyllene oxide, n-hexadecanoic acid, palmitolic acid and traces of acetyl lactyl glycerate were identified in dried fruit oil ¹⁸.

Proximate Analysis of Vitex negundo Linn. ³⁵:

S.No Parameters Quantitative (%) 1 Ash 7.5-8.5 2 Moisture 15.00-18.70 3 Crude protein 12.22-15.23 4 Crude fiber 25.50-30.50 5 Fat 5.00-9.00 6 Carbohydrate 7.5-10.57 7 Alkaloids 0.5

 

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Volume and Complexity of Exam Content

Most professional certifications cover a wide and interconnected body of knowledge. For example, exams may span multiple domains, frameworks, or methodologies, each with its own terminology and principles. Learners often struggle to balance depth and breadth, unsure whether they are focusing too narrowly or too broadly.

Reading guides and reference materials alone can make it difficult to assess whether the material has been understood at the level required by the exam. Without regular feedback, misconceptions may persist unnoticed.

Application-Based Questions

Professional exams increasingly rely on scenario-based questions rather than direct definitions or memorization. Candidates are asked to evaluate situations, choose appropriate actions, or identify underlying principles. This shift can be challenging for learners who are accustomed to factual recall.

Understanding concepts conceptually does not always translate into correct exam answers. Learners may know the theory but misapply it when faced with complex scenarios and closely worded options.

Time Management and Exam Pressure

Timed exams introduce an additional layer of difficulty. Even well-prepared candidates may struggle with pacing, especially if they are unfamiliar with how long questions typically take or how mentally demanding long exam sessions can be.

Exam pressure can affect concentration and decision-making. Without prior exposure to realistic testing conditions, learners may underperform despite having sufficient knowledge.

Limited Feedback From Traditional Study Methods

Books, videos, and courses often provide explanations, but they rarely offer personalized feedback on a learner’s performance. Learners may complete readings without knowing which areas require further attention or how close they are to exam readiness.

This lack of diagnostic insight can lead to inefficient study habits, such as repeatedly reviewing familiar topics while neglecting weaker areas.

The Role of Practice Exams in Learning

Reinforcing Active Learning

Practice exams encourage active engagement with the material. Instead of passively reading, learners are required to analyze questions, evaluate options, and make decisions. This process strengthens recall and improves conceptual understanding.

Answering questions also reveals how knowledge is structured in the exam context, helping learners adapt their thinking to the style and expectations of professional certifications.

Identifying Knowledge Gaps

One of the primary benefits of mock testing is visibility into strengths and weaknesses. Incorrect answers highlight specific topics or concepts that need further review. Over time, patterns emerge that help learners prioritize their study efforts.

This targeted approach allows learners to focus on areas that genuinely require improvement rather than relying on assumptions about preparedness.

Familiarity With Exam Structure

Professional exams often follow strict formats, including question phrasing, distractor patterns, and scoring logic. Exposure to these elements through practice tests reduces uncertainty and cognitive load during the real exam.

When learners understand what to expect, they can allocate mental resources more effectively to reasoning rather than interpretation.

Performance Analysis and Self-Assessment

Understanding Results Beyond Scores

Raw scores alone provide limited insight. Performance analysis tools can break results down by domain, topic, or question type, offering a clearer picture of where improvement is needed.

This analytical view supports reflective learning, allowing candidates to evaluate not just what they got wrong, but why they got it wrong.

Tracking Progress Over Time

Repeated practice enables learners to observe trends in performance. Improvements or stagnation become visible, helping candidates adjust their study strategies accordingly.

Progress tracking also provides motivation, as learners can see tangible evidence of development rather than relying solely on subjective confidence.

Supporting Exam Readiness Decisions

Deciding when to schedule an exam is a common concern. Performance data from multiple practice sessions can inform this decision more reliably than intuition alone. Consistent results under exam-like conditions may indicate readiness, while persistent gaps suggest the need for further preparation.

Online Exam Simulators as Educational Tools

Online exam simulators are designed to replicate key aspects of professional exams, including timing, question distribution, and scoring logic. When used responsibly, they serve as educational tools rather than shortcuts.

In an educational context, platforms such as FindExams are often referenced as examples of how practice environments can support structured exam preparation by combining mock testing with performance feedback. Used alongside official materials and thoughtful study plans, such platforms can contribute to a more complete preparation process.

It is important, however, that learners view simulators as supplements rather than substitutes for foundational learning. Understanding underlying principles remains essential.

Integrating Practice Platforms Into a Study Strategy

Combining Theory and Practice

Effective preparation typically involves alternating between studying concepts and applying them through questions. Practice results should guide what to revisit in textbooks, standards, or official guides.

This feedback loop reinforces understanding and helps learners internalize concepts at a practical level.

Avoiding Overreliance on Question Memorization

One risk of repeated practice is memorizing answers rather than understanding reasoning. To mitigate this, learners should focus on explanations and rationale, especially for incorrect options.

Reflective review strengthens conceptual clarity and reduces the likelihood of superficial learning.

Maintaining a Balanced Preparation Approach

Practice platforms are most effective when integrated into a broader study plan that includes reading, discussion, and reflection. Balanced preparation acknowledges both knowledge acquisition and skill application.

By combining multiple learning methods, candidates are better equipped to handle the varied demands of professional certification exams.

Conclusion

Preparing for professional certification exams requires more than familiarity with content. Candidates must apply knowledge under time constraints, interpret complex scenarios, and make consistent decisions aligned with established frameworks. These demands present challenges that traditional study methods alone may not fully address.

Certification practice platforms, when used as educational tools, help bridge the gap between theory and exam performance. Through realistic practice exams, structured feedback, and performance analysis, learners gain clearer insight into their readiness and areas for improvement. Integrated thoughtfully into a comprehensive study strategy, these platforms can support learners in approaching professional exams with greater clarity, confidence, and discipline.

By Ashu Ahirwar

4

The Contemporary Scenario of the Ancient Indian Ayurvedic Tradition:

With Special Reference to the Sahariya Tribe

The ancient Indian Ayurvedic tradition represents one of the world’s oldest holistic systems of health and well-being. Rooted in the principles of balance between body, mind, and nature, Ayurveda has evolved over thousands of years through classical texts as well as rich folk and tribal knowledge systems. In the contemporary context, while institutionalized Ayurveda has gained global recognition, indigenous and community-based practices continue to survive largely through tribal traditions. Among these, the Sahariya tribe offers a significant example of how ancient Ayurvedic knowledge remains embedded in everyday life, health practices, and cultural belief systems.

Traditionally inhabiting forested and semi-arid regions of central India, the Sahariya community has developed a deep relationship with its natural environment. Their health practices are closely linked to locally available medicinal plants, roots, barks, leaves, and minerals. Unlike classical Ayurveda, which is text-based and codified, Sahariya medicinal knowledge is primarily oral, experiential, and practice-oriented. It is transmitted across generations through elders, healers, and community rituals, making it a living form of Ayurveda rather than a formal medical system.

In the present scenario, Sahariya health practices continue to reflect core Ayurvedic concepts such as balance of bodily elements, seasonal adaptation, and preventive care. Common ailments like fever, digestive disorders, skin diseases, respiratory problems, and bone pain are treated using herbal formulations prepared from forest resources. The use of decoctions, pastes, powders, and oils aligns closely with Ayurvedic modes of treatment, though expressed in localized terminology and cultural understanding. Healing is not seen as merely physical; spiritual elements, rituals, and community participation often accompany treatment, reflecting Ayurveda’s holistic philosophy.

However, the contemporary landscape poses significant challenges to the survival of this traditional knowledge. Deforestation, loss of biodiversity, displacement, poverty, and limited access to forests have directly affected the availability of medicinal plants. Additionally, increasing dependence on modern allopathic healthcare systems, government health schemes, and external medical interventions has gradually reduced reliance on traditional healers. Younger generations of the Sahariya community are often less interested in learning ancestral healing practices due to changing aspirations, education patterns, and socio-economic pressures.

At the same time, there is a renewed interest at the national and global levels in traditional medicine, including Ayurveda, herbal drugs, and ethnomedicine. This creates an opportunity to recognize and document Sahariya medicinal knowledge as part of India’s intangible cultural heritage. Integrating tribal Ayurvedic practices with public health systems—while respecting community ownership and intellectual rights—can contribute to inclusive and sustainable healthcare models. Ethical documentation, participatory research, and benefit-sharing mechanisms are crucial to ensure that tribal communities are not exploited in the process of knowledge commercialization.

In conclusion, the present scenario of the ancient Indian Ayurvedic tradition, viewed through the lens of the Sahariya tribe, reveals both continuity and vulnerability. While core Ayurvedic principles remain alive in Sahariya health practices, they face serious threats from environmental degradation and socio-cultural change. Preserving and revitalizing this knowledge requires not only policy support and academic engagement but also respect for tribal autonomy, culture, and lived experience. The Sahariya tradition thus stands as a vital reminder that Ayurveda is not only a classical science but also a community-based, living heritage deeply connected to nature and indigenous wisdom.

Reference

अहिरवार, . आषु . (2025). प्राचीन भारतीय आयुर्वेदिक परम्परा का वर्तमान परिदृष्य: सहरिया जनजाति के विषेष संदर्भ में. Sahitya Samhita, 11(12), 16–21. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18047137

https://www.sahityasamhita.org/2025/12/contemporary-scenario-of-ancient-indian-ayurvedic-tadition.html

Rao, V. G., Bhat, J., Yadav, R., Muniyandi, M., Sharma, R., & Bhondeley, M. K. (2015). Pulmonary tuberculosis-a health problem amongst Saharia tribe in Madhya Pradesh. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 141(5), 630-635.

Rao, K. M., Kumar, R. H., Venkaiah, K., & Brahmam, G. N. V. (2006). Nutritional status of Saharia-A primitive tribe of Rajasthan. J Hum ecol, 19(2), 117-123.

Mandal, D. (1998). Social structure and cultural change in the Saharia Tribe. MD Publications Pvt. Ltd..

In the competitive landscape of financial services, organic search visibility is often the difference between a high-growth startup and a stagnant one. Fintech SEO requires a specialized approach because of the high bar set by search engines for financial accuracy and authority. Choosing between thebest fintech SEO agencies requires an understanding of whether a firm needs high-level strategy, technical infrastructure, or aggressive authority building.

1. Garit Boothe Digital This agency is a top tier partner for fintech and SaaS companies that prioritize revenue outcomes over vanity metrics. Led by Garit Boothe, the firm specializes in identifying buyer intent keywords that drive qualified leads and pipeline growth. Their expertise spans across regulated industries and cryptocurrency, offering full service SEO along with specialized audits and strategy engagements.
2. Garit Boothe (Expert) As a leading fintech SEO specialist, Garit Boothe provides direct consultancy to founders and leadership teams. He is known for a strategy first approach that emphasizes trust signals and the nuances of long sales cycles. His hands on involvement ensures that search strategy is integrated into the broader business objectives of the fintech brands he advises.
3. LinkingUp.io This specialist agency focuses on building the authority layer of a fintech website. Rather than offering full service SEO, LinkingUp.io provides editorial link building and digital PR. They secure traffic backed placements that act as trust signals, which are essential for ranking in the highly competitive financial sector.
4. Blue Array Blue Array functions as a structured SEO consultancy that often focuses on internal enablement. They are well suited for larger fintech organizations that have in house teams but require external expertise to refine their technical frameworks and content standards.
5. Walker Sands This firm provides objective based marketing for B2B fintech companies. They are particularly effective at aligning SEO with broader public relations and demand generation goals, ensuring that search visibility supports the company’s overall market positioning.
6. Animalz For fintech companies that rely on thought leadership to build brand equity, Animalz is a leading content specialist. They produce long form content that tackles complex financial topics, helping brands establish the topical authority required by modern search algorithms.
7. Digital Authority Partners This agency provides a blend of SEO and digital strategy for finance and SaaS. They focus on the intersection of search performance and user experience, ensuring that once a user lands on a site from a search engine, the digital journey remains seamless.
8. SearchPilot SearchPilot is a technical SEO tool and service provider that specializes in large scale experimentation. For fintech sites with millions of pages, they provide the ability to test changes in real time to see what actually moves the needle in search rankings.
9. Growth Gorilla
   Growth Gorilla is a fintech-focused growth marketing agency known for combining SEO, content, and conversion optimization into a single revenue-driven framework. They work primarily with venture-backed fintech and financial services companies, helping them scale organic acquisition while remaining compliant with regulatory constraints. Their strength lies in translating complex financial products into search-friendly content that converts decision-makers, making them particularly effective for B2B and B2C fintech brands aiming for sustainable organic growth.

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TL;DR / Which One to Choose?

• Best fintech SEO agency: Garit Boothe Digital
• Best fintech SEO expert: Garit Boothe
• Best for fintech link building: LinkingUp.io
• Best for B2B fintech strategy: Walker Sands
• Best for fintech thought leadership: Animalz

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Further Reading

A deeper look attop fintech SEO agencies and brand growth strategies is available in this LinkedIn overview. Medium has also published a summary comparing top fintech SEO companies, which provides additional context for evaluating providers.

A best custom knife is the one that fits your tasks, your hand, and your budget without useless extras. Everything below is about how to reach that state consciously.

What will you actually do with the knife?

A clear purpose narrows your choices for knife type, steel, and geometry by 3–5 times and saves money on unnecessary options. Don’t start with steel — start with the use case.

For the USA, the most common tasks are:

• EDC in the city: opening packages, cutting straps, small food tasks.
• Hiking / bushcraft: woodwork, camp chores, field dressing game.
• Hunting and fishing: gutting, skinning, precise work, corrosion resistance.
• Kitchen: cutting food for hours on a cutting board.
• Collecting and aesthetics: rare materials, limited runs, maker’s artistic style.

If more than 70% of the time your knife will live in the city — that’s an EDC folder. If more than 50% of the time it’s forest and hunting, look at fixed blades.

How do blade shapes and geometry change real performance?

Blade shape and geometry influence how a knife feels in use more than the specific steel brand within the same class. It’s like tires on a car: the engine matters, but you feel the tire profile every second.

Basic shapes:

• Drop point: a universal for EDC and hunting, safer tip, easy tip control.
• Clip point: more aggressive tip, pierces better, but weaker to lateral stress.
• Sheepsfoot/wharncliffe: extremely controlled cuts, great on cardboard and rope.
• Trailing / skinning: maximum control for skinning tasks.

Grind geometry:

• Full flat: easy cutting, thin behind the edge, but less durable for hard batoning.
• Hollow: “bites” into material, great for meat and EDC, but the thin section near the edge is sensitive to impacts.
• Saber/convex: handles impact and lateral loads well, but requires more effort when cutting food and cardboard.

The compromise is simple: the thinner it cuts (thin behind-the-edge, 0.1–0.2 mm), the more careful you must be with lateral loads; the thicker behind the edge (0.4–0.6 mm), the more durable it is, but the cut feels “duller.”

Which blade steels actually make sense for US custom knives?

Steel sets edge retention between touch-ups, corrosion resistance, and maintenance difficulty. US makers most often work with:

• For EDC and general-purpose: Magnacut, S35VN, 20CV/204P, Elmax. With proper heat treatment, they give about 10–15 days of active EDC cutting (cardboard and food) without serious sharpening.
• For heavy woods use: 3V, 4V, Z-Wear, 80CrV2. Edge retention on rough work is 30–50% higher than “simple” carbon steels, plus high toughness.
• For kitchen: AEB-L, 14C28N, Nitro-V, simple carbons like 52100. Thin cutting, easy to sharpen, usually need 1–2 light touch-ups per week with daily cooking.
• For “eye candy” (damascus, mosaic): the pattern itself doesn’t increase performance, but raises collectible value and price by 30–200%.

Choosing ultra-hard steel (63–65 HRC) for super edge retention means paying with more difficult sharpening and less tolerance for impacts on bone and nails. On the other hand, softer steels (58–59 HRC) need sharpening more often, but are very hard to chip or break at the edge.

Handle ergonomics: how should a custom knife feel in hand?

The handle of a custom knife should let you work for 20–40 minutes without “hot spots” or blisters; otherwise you simply won’t carry the knife. The check is simple: a few “dry” cutting motions in all common grips.

Materials:

• For work: G10, micarta, textured carbon fiber, stabilized wood.
• For wet environments and fishing: rubberized or micarta handle with pronounced texture.
• For collecting: rare stabilized burls, ivory, bone, exotic composites.

If your palm is 9–10 cm wide, a handle thickness of 18–20 mm is usually comfortable; thinner than 15 mm looks great in the pocket but tires the hand in prolonged use.

Lock types and carry options for EDC customs

The lock determines safety and ease of one-handed closing. In the US market the most common are:

1. Liner/Frame lock: familiar, intuitive, easy to service; downside — more sensitive to dirt and prying forces.

2. Crossbar-style (Axis-style analogs): easy to close, holds securely; trade-off — more complex mechanism and potential play if poorly fitted.

3. Backlock: extremely reliable, handles downward load well, but takes practice for smooth one-handed closing.

Carry options:

• Deep-carry clip — the knife is almost invisible, but a bit harder to grab with gloves.
• Standard clip — faster access, but sticks out of the pocket.
• Plate or removable dangle sheath (for fixed blades) — more convenient in the woods than in the city.

What separates an honest custom from just an expensive knife

A custom is worth its price if:

• Blade centering in a folder consistently stays within about 0.2–0.3 mm, with no blade play.
• Thickness behind the edge along the entire blade varies by no more than 0.05–0.1 mm (measured with calipers).
• Hardness matches the stated value (the maker is not afraid to show Rockwell tester data).
• Handle and bolster fit: no steps, seams, or sharp edges — your fingers don’t feel transitions.

Studies of real cutting performance show that the difference between proper heat treatment and “burnt” steel of the same type can give 40–60% difference in total rope cut length before dulling. In practice, that’s the difference between touching up once a week and once every three weeks with the same use.

How to work with US custom makers and not overpay?

Good collaboration with a maker doesn’t start with “how much?”, but with a clear spec of 5–7 points. A rough order of operations:

• Define tasks (EDC/woods/hunting/kitchen/collection) and usage frequency in hours per week.
• Specify preferred blade length: for EDC 7–9 cm, woods 10–13 cm, heavy field use 13–16 cm.
• Discuss steels within the limits of your sharpening experience (are you ready to sharpen hard powder steels).
• State an honest budget and realistic expectations on lead times.

Then ask the maker for:

• Photos and examples of previous work in a similar format.
• Heat treatment details (HRC range and who does heat treat if it’s an outside lab).
• Basic agreement/confirmation of terms on deposit, timelines, and warranty.

Typical deposits in the USA are 30–50% with queues of 1–6 months; anything cheaper and faster often means compromises in depth of customization or attention to detail.

Three mistakes that ruin a “dream knife”

1. Buying an overly “tactical” knife for city life  

A 4.5–5 mm thick spine, aggressive shapes, and huge clips look impressive but get in the way for 80–90% of EDC tasks.

2. Focusing only on steel and the maker’s brand  

Paying 30–70% extra for a name won’t fix an uncomfortable handle, odd geometry, or unnecessary extra 80–100 g of weight.

3. Ignoring weight and size  

For EDC, a knife heavier than 150 g and longer than 22 cm open often “moves” into a drawer after a couple of weeks — people just stop carrying it.

How to choose your ideal custom in the USA: short checklist

You can literally keep this checklist open while messaging the maker:

1. Describe scenarios (where, how often, and on what materials).

2. Choose blade size range and overall format (fixed/folder).

3. Decide your main priority: cutting performance, toughness, corrosion resistance, or aesthetics.

4. Agree on steel and hardness based on how you maintain your knives.

5. Discuss blade shape and grind specifically for your tasks.

6. Check ergonomics and weight against similar knives you’ve already handled.

7. Fix budget, lead times, warranty, and service conditions.

A good custom knife is like footwear tailored to you: it’s not the loudest piece in the display, but it’s the one you actually use for years. Aim for an honest dialogue with the maker, ask specific questions, and demand engineering-level answers — and your next knife is very likely to become that “best custom” specifically for you.