IMMUNOLOGY SERIES-PART 5- INTRODUCTION TO THE IMMUNE CELLS

The previous article was about the acquired immunity. This article is all about the immune cells, the warriors of the human body.

These cells play a major role in protecting the body from infections. Some of them contribute directly and some contribute indirectly. Despite the methods, all of them are required in optimum amounts so as to live a healthy life.

All of these cells are derived from a specific type of cell found in the blood. The blood is a freely flowing interstitial fluid that transports oxygen, nutrients, etc. to the cells of the body. There are two components in the blood in which the first one is called plasma. The plasma is the liquid carrying water, salts, enzymes, and proteins. There are three specialized proteins in the plasma-

Albumin- to maintain water balance

Globulin- for immunity (it is a part of immunoglobulin)

Fibrinogen- for clotting

Hence the plasma also contributes to immunity. This plasma constitutes about 55% of the blood. The rest 45% of the blood is constituted by the formed elements or corpuscles. There are three elements in it namely-

Erythrocyte or Red Blood Corpuscle- transport of oxygen

Leucocyte or White Blood Corpuscle- fight infections

Thrombocyte or platelets- for clotting

Out of these, the WBC is the one primarily contributing to immunity. A healthy person must have a WBC count from 4000-11000. Count less than 4000 means leukopenia meaning that the immune system is weak. If the count is more than 11000 then it means the condition of autoimmunity known as leucocytosis. There are some further classifications in the WBC which are displayed through the flowchart below.

There are two types of cells in the WBC namely the granulocytes and agranulocytes.

The granulocytes, as the name specifies have granules in their cytoplasm. There are three different cells in this.

The neutrophil constitutes to about 55-70% of the total WBC and they are ones involved in most of the fights against the infections. These defend against bacterial and fungal infections. These cells are mostly found in the epidermal regions and are in the first line of defense. These cells engulf the pathogens by the process of phagocytosis. These cells have multiple nuclei hence these are also known as PMN (Poly Morpho Neutrophils). Neutrophils help prevent infections by blocking, disabling, and digesting off invading particles and microorganisms. They also communicate with other cells to help them repair cells and mount a proper immune response. The death of these cells often results in the formation of pus (suppuration).

The eosinophil constitutes about 2-4% of the total WBC. These cells are very little in the body but can increase in the case of allergic reactions, parasite infection, and so on. The functions of the eosinophil include movement to inflamed areas, trapping substances, killing cells, anti-parasitic and bactericidal activity, participating in immediate allergic reactions, and modulating inflammatory responses.

The basophil is present in the least concentration of all (0.2%) in total WBC. These cells play an important role in allergic reactions in which their count can increase. The basophil contains inflammatory mediators like histamine and heparin. The release of the compounds results in dilation of the blood vessels. Hence these cells regulate the inflammation process.

The agranulocytes are those which lack granules in their cytoplasm. There are two types in this. The lymphocyte can be called as the memory of the immune system. There are two types of lymphocytes namely T and B lymphocytes. These lymphocytes recognize the incoming pathogens and based on their memory it produces a suitable response in a short amount of time. These cells are involved in the secondary response in the acquired immunity.

B cells make antibodies that can bind to pathogens, block pathogen invasion, activate the complement system, and enhance pathogen destruction. The T cells mostly known as CD4+ T helper cells produce the cytokines (proteins in cell signaling) and coordinate with the immune system. There is another form called CD8+ cytotoxic T cells which is opposite to the previous type, they help in the destruction of tumors and pathogens.

The monocyte is the largest of all the cells in WBC. They function similarly to that of the neutrophils (phagocytosis of the pathogens). These cells present the pathogen to the memory cells upon which a response is generated. Once they leave the blood, they turn into macrophages which help in clearing cell debris and killing pathogens. These are known as the vacuum cleaners of immunity.

Hence all these cells work in different mechanisms and they coordinate together to make sure that we do not fall prey to the disease-causing microorganisms.

HAPPY LEARNING!!

Independence Day of India: History, Significance, Facts and Celebration!

Happy Independence Day 2021: Wishes, Messages, Quotes, Images, Facebook & Whatsapp status

It is the 75th Indian Independence Day this year which means India has achieved 74 years of freedom from the britishers. We as Indians pay respect to all the leaders who fought bravely for our nation’s freedom in the past. The Prime Minister of India hoisted our tricolour flag at the Red Fort, Old Delhi. He also delivered a speech to the nation as well. However, all cultural programs and school celebrations didn’t took place this year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Independence day i.e. the 15th of August is declared as a national holiday which means every government office, post offices, banks and stores will remain shut.

History:-

India was ruled by the Britishers for many years. The East India Company ruled India for about 100 years. It was in 1757 when the East India Company won the battle of Plassey. It was after the win went the Company started exerting power over India. Our nation had its rebellion against the foreign rule for the first time in 1957. The entire country united against British power. It was an unfortunate event as India was defeated back then but after that time. Indian rule was then passed to the British who ruled our country till India got its independence.

Our nation faced a long campaign to gain independence. Britain then began to weaken after two world wars and India was finally free. India’s freedom struggle has always been an inspiration to the work as it was the most non-violent campaign in the world.

Significance of this Day:-

This day reminds us of all the sacrifices that were made by our freedom fighters in order to set India free from British rule. 15th August is a national holiday and the day is then celebrated with flag hoisting, parades and cultural events.

India’s Independence Day is significant as it stands as a reminder of the sacrifices that many freedom fighters made to get independence from the British rule. It is a national holiday and it is usually observed throughout the nation with the hoisting of the tricolour, parades and cultural events. India’s first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru raised the Indian national flag above the Lahori Gate of Red Fort in Delhi on August 15, 1947. It is a tradition that has since been followed by the incumbent Prime Minister, followed by an address to the country.

Some Rare and Unique Facts:-

The song ‘Bharoto Bhagyo Bidhata’ composed in 1911 by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore was renamed as ‘Jana Gana Mana’ and adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India as the national anthem on January 24, 1950.
The Indian national flag with three horizontal stripes of red, yellow and green was hoisted on August 7, 1906, at Parsee Bagan Square in Kolkata. The first variant of India’s current national flag was designed by freedom fighter Pingali Venkayya in 1921. The current flag with saffron, white and green colours and the Ashok Chakra in the middle was officially adopted on July 22, 1947, and hoisted on August 15, 1947.
Five other countries celebrate their independence on August 15 along with India. They are Bahrain, North Korea, South Korea and Liechtenstein.
The Indian flag is manufactured and supplied from only one place in the nation. The Karnataka Khadi Gramodyoga Samyukta Sangha (KKGSS), located in Dharwad in Karnataka, has the authority to manufacture and supply the Indian national flag. According to the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), the flag is manufactured only with hand-spun and handwoven cotton khadi wafting.
Even after India’s independence, Goa was still a Portuguese colony. It was annexed to India by the Indian Army only in 1961. Thus, Goa was the last state to join the Indian territory.

Celebrations Throughout the Whole Country:–

The national anthem is sung on this day, flag-rising ceremonies and drills are also conducted in every corner of the country. Indians make an effort to dress in a specific way to celebrate their nation and culture. Kite flying is another tradition that is followed on Independence Day with people of all age groups as participants. It represents the freedom that we achieved on this day.

The Prime Minister of our country hoists our flag at the Red Fort in Old Delhi. A parade with members of the army and police also takes place. A speech to the nation is delivered by the PM where he speaks on the country’s accomplishments in all these years. He even speaks about the goals for future developments to be taken place in the coming years.

JAI HIND JAI BHARAT!

DEBATE CONCEPTS IN OSTEOARTHRITIS

This article deals with some of the concepts related to the progression of osteoarthritis. These statements were given by prominent researchers and resulted in a debate between two prominent groups of researchers against each other. All of these took place actively in the 19th century where the publications of research scholars were opposed to that of the scholars in the other group.

William Bauer told that mechanical trauma can result in OA directly or indirectly. By the 20^th century ideologies were majorly split into two ‘inflammation’ and ‘no inflammation’. Henry Fuller and Robert Todd suggested that OA occurred due to disruption to nutrients required for knee development and doesn’t occur through inflammation. On the other hand, Garrod and others stated that OA is partly degenerative and partly inflammative. Hence the study for OA continued under these two domains and each group of scientists trying to prove the other is false. But this situation can be compared to two sides of a coin where both the situations cannot be neglected. Hence both the domains of OA cannot be neglected.

Some others say that OA is a neurogenic immune homeostatic disorder. Garrod in 1988 stated that OA is associated with lesions in CNS in a peculiar manner. CNS refers to the central nervous system which constitutes the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the mastermind of the body which generates electrochemical signals to simulate several neurons in the body. The spinal cord is known as a warehouse of reflexes. Reflex is an involuntary (cannot be controlled by conscience) rapid sequence of actions. Reflex can be best explained by several experiments.

When someone comes to hit you; you will either duck or catch his hand spontaneously and this is known as a reflex and the spinal cord or vertebral column is responsible for this.

The reflex of the knee is tested by the doctor who takes a rubber mallet and taps it on the knee and what interestingly happens is that the knee starts to retract and the patient can feel the pain. In case of OA or any knee-related diseases, the patient cannot experience any pain and hence the doctor understands that there is some abnormality in the knee. Hence we can understand that there is a connection between the knee’s ability and CNS and an interruption in this connection can lead to knee diseases.

We have to understand that this is a basic relation and there are other complex associations between them and require more complex methods like electrophysiology and pharmacology to understand them. Later it was proposed that changes in the sympathetic nervous system can also lead to OA.

The sympathetic nervous system is a part of the autonomic nervous system. This can be correlated to the word ‘increase’. The sympathetic nervous system works in response to stimuli like emotions and increases some parameters of the human body like heart rate, eye dilation, blood sugar, blood pressure, etc. this proposal paved the way for using micro-circuitry to correct it.

There is also another field on which the world is divided into two namely ‘nociceptive’ and ‘neuropathic’ where nociceptive refers to pain resulted due to receptors. These are present at target and send signals to the brain via the spine more or less like the reflex. On the other hand neuropathic refers to the condition where pain occurs due to nerves. The following table shows the difference between these two.

Nociceptive	Neuropathic
Receptor-mediated pain	Nerve mediated pain
Doesn’t affect nerves	Affects the nerves
Due to painful stimuli	Due to inflammation

However, some of the debate topics have not been resolved even till now but a lot of research articles about the progression of the disease and its underlying phenomena have been published. This is one of the cases in which a debate has done some good to the field of science!

HAPPY READING!!

India Of My Dreams.

The India of my dream would be a country where women are safe and walk freely on road. Also, it will be a place where there is freedom of equality to all and everyone can enjoy it in their true sense. Furthermore, it would be a place where there is no discrimination of caste, color, gender, creed, social or economic status, and race. In addition, I see it as a place that sees an abundance of development and growth.

Women Empowerment

There is a lot of discrimination against women. But, still, the women are stepping out of their houses and making a mark on different fields and on society. In addition, there are a lot of areas that need to be worked upon whether it is female feticide or restricting them to the household task. Besides, many NGO and social groups have come forward to promote women empowerment.

However, we have to work hard to change the mindset of society. I dream India as a country that sees women as its assets, not as liabilities. Also, I want to place women on an equal level as men.

Education.

Though there are many initiatives by the government to promote education. But there are many people who do not realize its true importance. The India of my dream will be a place where education will be mandatory for all.

Employment Opportunities.

Although there are many educated people in India. But, due to corruption and many other reasons they are unable to get a decent job. Besides, there are many employment opportunities in the country but they are either limited or don’t pay well enough. One of the reasons for this is weak industrial growth in the country.

In addition, reservation is a hindrance in this path as most of the deserving candidates lose their good opportunity because of it. Many of these deserving candidates go abroad and work for the economic growth of other countries. The Indian of My dream will be a place where the deserving candidate will get the job first rather than reserved candidates.

Caste Discrimination

Though India got independence in 1947, still we are not able to get complete independence from the caste, religion, and creed discrimination. It is shameful to see how in certain parts of the country the people of the lower section of the society are denied the basic rights.

However, there are various social groups that speak for their rights and help them to oppose this oppression. Besides, I dream of an India where there is no discrimination of any kind.

Corruption.

Corruption is one of the major reasons that are hindering the growth of the nation. Instead of making an effort to serve the growth of the country the officials and politicians are busy filling their own pockets. So, I dream of an India where the minister and official are dedicated to their work and wholly for the development of the country.

In conclusion, the India of my dream will be an ideal country where every citizen will be equal. Also, there is no discrimination of any type. In addition, it will be a place where women are seen as equals to men and respected equally.

India of my dreams……… Where the bell of happiness rings,where the birds in harmony sings.

. —“Shumayla Mallick”………

Tourist Places in Mumbai

Mumbai, which is the capital of Maharashtra, is known as ‘the city of dreams’. Many tourist attractions will appeal you to visit the place again and again. From the common street food taste to the gleaming Bollywood, the city is just going to leave you open-mouthed.

Gateway of India: The Gateway of India is a landmark that denotes India’s main ports and is a noteworthy vacation destination for guests who touch base in India surprisingly. At a certain point in time, this landmark spoke to the greatness of the British Raj in India. A most loved spot for visitors, these days, and this landmark pulls in vendors, food stalls and also the photography buffs. The passing of the First Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry; was recorded as the primary headliner that occurred at the Gateway of India.

Marine Drive: Are you a person who wants to sit back and relax from your busy day in a city that never sleeps? This is one of the most breath-taking places which calm your soul with the silence and beauty of the Arabian sea is the Marine Drive. It is a 4 km long promenade that lights up at night and looks like Queens Necklace. Because of the streetlights that make the road look like a pearl necklace.

Colaba Causeway Market- Colaba Causeway is also known as Shahid Bhagat Singh Road. If you are a shopping kind of person then this place is for you. Along with the small shops of garments, shoes and other materials to big boutiques all available in this market. You should know how to bargain and get some good stuff home.

Elephanta Caves- The perfect place to indicate the Indian Culture and architecture is the Elephanta Caves. It is built with solid rocks and delicately sculptured idols. There are seven caves present. The first big cave is made up of rock-cut stone sculptures dedicated to Lord Shiva. Further, there are six small caves with rock-cut sculptures representing Buddhism.

Haji Ali: The structure of Haji Ali was on an arrangement of high rising rocks and was given its present day shape in the mid-nineteenth century after the Trust was lawfully framed as an element in 1916. Haji Ali Dargah is the complex that holds the tomb of the Muslim Saint Pir Haji Ali Shah Bukhari (R.A.). Alongside the tomb, there is likewise a Masjid at Haji Ali. This landmark has been the sentinel to the shores of Mumbai for quite a while. The structure has white vaults and minarets reminiscent of the Mughal architecture of the period and is a prominent historical monument of Mumbai

Elephanta Caves: Towards the northern end of Marine Drive lies one of the most seasoned seafronts called Chowpatty Beach, which is acclaimed for its bazaars and dinners. Here one can find hundreds of salesmen are seen walking over the shoreline to sell various items of things, particularly on Sunday nighttimes. One can see stalls highlighting fast food and snacks, like Bhel Puri, Pav Bhaji, and so forth are set up in the territory each and every day. Going further down the path, is Walkeshwar, an exceptionally well-off and elegant range that gets its name from the popular and very loved Walkeshwar Temple.

How to Reduce Stress

If we get stressed often and quickly, it means that we are harboring many internal conflicts and are not conscious of them. This makes it impossible to get rid of stress quickly. First, we must learn what causes mental stress. The information we receive from the outside (which we dislike), creates a feeling that evolves into a negative emotion (negative mental energy). For example, the inability to understand or accept other people’s point of view can cause mental stress.

In my late twenties, I struggled consistently with mental stress. I was happy to work in a global corporation and also excited to be responsible for many projects at once. Despite the work load I had, I was a victim of mobbing because of my keen engagement towards my tasks. I was physically and mentally exhausted because of the many complex purchase orders I had to place for the projects assigned to me. On top of that, there were certain people in the organization giving me hard time because of my desire to strive to improve.

There was an immediate disharmony between me and these people that generated a feeling of intolerance and non-acceptance. This grew into feelings of disappointment and frustration, which ended up creating emotion of anger and anxiety over not performing well or losing my job.

Day in, and day out, I was stressed. I understood that the people and the circumstances causing my mental stress wouldn’t change, so I had to understand that, accept it, and find a way to approach my stress and conflicts efficiently. I saw it as a challenge and was grateful for it. I not only reduced my mental stress but found a way to never let it develop again.

A technique is applied successfully when its essence is really understood and absorbed. If a technique is to be applied quickly, there must be extensive knowledge of the situation in which the technique is required.

In the context of mental stress, for example, we get scared and anxious in (sometimes normal) situations because we don’t know what is happening or what is going to happen. The uncertainty of the result causes tension and mental stress. The longer we move in that uncertainty, the greater and heavier our mental stress becomes.

Meditation brings short-term stress relief as well as lasting stress management benefits. There are many different forms of meditation to try–each one is unique and brings its own appeal.²

You might develop a mantra that you repeat in your mind as you take slow deep breaths. Or, you might take a few minutes to practice mindfulness, which involves being in the moment. Simply pay attention to what you see, hear, taste, touch, and smell.

Yoga combines physical movement, meditation, light exercise, and controlled breathing—all of which provide excellent stress relief.¹³

And while you’re likely to reap immediate benefits from a single yoga session, you’re likely to receive long-term benefits if you incorporate it into your life in a consistent way.

eisure activities can be a wonderful way to relieve stress.¹² Yet, many people feel as though their lives are too busy for hobbies, games, or extra fun.

But building time for leisure into your schedule could be key to helping you feel your best. And when you feel better, you’ll perform better, which means leisure time may make your work time more efficient.

OSTEOARTHRITIS GRADING SYSTEM

Osteoarthritis can be mainly classified into two. They are primary and secondary. The criterion for this classification is based on the different types of risk factors. Primary OA is mainly due to age where the reason for cartilage breakdown is not known or maybe due to genetics. Secondary OA is due to direct injury through sports or trauma, stress, inflammation, or other metabolic diseases. In this case, the cause may localize.

OA grading

Grading is the process of classifying the disease based on its extent or severity. OA has been graded into 5 from grade 0 to grade 4

Stage number	Condition
0	Normal
1	Minor
2	Mild
3	Moderate
4	Severe

This was proposed by Kellgren and Lawrence and it is known as KL grading. The five grades have been proposed based on radiographic analysis of subjects. This was accepted as a standard measure by WHO in 1961. The grading has been done based on the narrowing of joint space and the formation of osteophytes.

grade 0 (normal): no changes in knee x-ray
grade 1 (minor): minimalistic joint space narrowing with possible osteophyte lipping
grade 2 (mild): definite osteophytes and joint space narrowing
grade 3 (moderate): multiple osteophytes, definite narrowing of joint space and some sclerosis and possible deformity of bone ends
grade 4 (severe): large osteophytes, marked narrowing of joint space, severe sclerosis and definite deformity of bone ends

Grade 0

Grade 0 is considered normal. The subject will not exhibit any features for OA. The x-ray image from this grade is taken as a standard and the other grades are compared with this grade.

Credit:- Häggström, M (2014). “Medical gallery of Mikael Häggström 2014“. *WikiJournal of Medicine* 1 (2). doi:10.15347/wjm/2014.008. ISSN 2002-4436. Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication
X-ray of a healthy knee

Grade 1

Grade 1 is known as the minor. It can be considered as the initial grade. The joint space has just started to decrease. Osteophyte refers to excess bone growth. It is also known as bone spurs since spur refers to kind to sharp material. This bone growth can be observed as sharp spikes. Here there is very minimal growth of excess bone. Bone spurs occur only at the bones adjacent to the joint. There will be very minor loss of cartilage but this does not contribute to the narrowing of the joint space. Subject in this stage is not confirmed with osteoarthritis. However, subjects having any of the risk factors become more prone to the disease

Grade 2

Grade 2 is known as mild. In this grade, the narrowing of the joint space is more and is visible through the x-ray. There will be also more formation of osteophytes. This grade can be considered as the precursor to many complications like bone dislocation and rubbing. None of these complications are seen in this grade but these complications are soon to occur. The subject in this grade is confirmed with osteoarthritis. Special care has to be taken by those in this grade and through proper medications, they can prevent those further complications.

Grade 3

Grade 3 is known as moderate. Obvious damage occurs to the cartilage and the joint space narrows even at a faster rate. Swelling of the joints starts to occur in this stage. Erosion of cartilage becomes prominent in this stage. The joints become rougher due to spurs leading to stiffness. Inflammation occurs at regular intervals. Subjects can experience popping sounds from the knee.

Grade 4

Grade 4 is known as severe. It is the worst and highest grade of all. The changes become prominent and occur at larger scales. There will be no gap literally meaning the joint is absent. The bones start to rub over each other causing pain. The joint becomes stiff like a rock. The cartilage wears down and maximum growth of osteophyte is seen. Various cytokines are released at cartilage resulting in further death. Life would be dreadful for those in this grade. The arrow in the given X-ray indicates the bones are touching each other and there is no gap in between them.

HAPPY READING!!

THE DREADFUL DISEASE FOR THE AGED- THE OSTEOARTHRITIS

Osteoarthritis is the most well-known type of joint pain, influencing a huge number of individuals in the world. It occurs as a result of the wearing down of the cartilage that cushions the ends of your bone over time. It is a complex disease that integrates biomechanics and biochemistry associated with the knee. This is the standard way of defining OA which will be difficult to understand. Hence let us try to understand what OA is. The best way is by splitting the word and analyzing it part by part

Osteo- bone

Arth- joint

It is- inflammation

Knee, Old, Care, Injury, Pain, Knee Pain — x-ray of the osteoarthritic knee joint

As mentioned earlier, the unit of bone is called osteon and any word ending with itis refers to inflammation. Also, arthro term refers to joints in general. Hence the combination of the terms corresponds to inflammation of bones in the joint. This rather sounds simplified. The previous definition had complex terms like biomechanics and biochemistry. Biomechanics refers to the study of movement in living beings. Biochemistry refers to the study of the reactions occurring in living things. So in short, osteoarthritis is such a disease that results in inflammation of joints that occur due to wearing down of the bones surrounding the joint hence affecting the movement and chemical reactions which used to occur properly during normal conditions.

Osteoarthritis can occur in any joint in the human body like elbows, hips, knees, etc. Since our primary focus is on the knee, we will take a deep dive into it. In view of its expectancy and the tolerance that goes with sickness in the knee osteoarthritis represents more prevalence with daily activities like climbing steps and walking when compared to other diseases. Osteoarthritis is the most standardized reason for total knee replacement. As a result of the frequency of this disease especially in middle-aged people, osteoarthritis can act as an extensive barrier towards work and can lead to early retirement.

Coining of OA

Many say that the term osteoarthritis was coined by the British physician John Kent Spender but it was Richard Von Volkmann who tried to separate it from rheumatoid arthritis. The other names which were offered to this disease were ‘chronical rheumatism’

‘senile arthritis’

‘hypertrophic arthritis’

‘arthritis deformans’.

Effect of age

Osteoarthritis can affect people of any age group but it majorly affects old age people. National Library of Medicine suggests that people with an age greater than 70 have more risk to get osteoarthritis. The reason lies in the definition of osteoarthritis. The definition says that disease occurs due to the wearing down of bones. So the bones don’t get worn down the next instant a baby is born. Every process requires time to occur. A mother has to wait for a minimum of 9 months to give birth to a healthy baby. A student must wait for 4 years to get a degree from college. Similarly, it takes time for the bones in the knee to get worn down.

This disease has always troubled old aged people in their lives. Living with osteoarthritis is dreadful. Even climbing the stairs will be a difficult task for them. Hence it is worth knowing about the disease.

HAPPY READING!!

“Poverty is the worst form of violence”. – Mahatma Gandhi.

We can define poverty as the condition where the basic needs of a family, like food, shelter, clothing, and education are not fulfilled. It can lead to other problems like poor literacy, unemployment, malnutrition, etc. A poor person is not able to get education due to lack of money and therefore remains unemployed. An unemployed person is not able to buy enough & nutritious food for his family and their health decline. A weak person lacks the energy required for the job. A jobless person remains poor only. Thus we can say that poverty is the root cause of other problems.

How Poverty is Measured?

For measuring poverty United nations have devised two measures of poverty – Absolute & relative poverty. Absolute poverty is used to measure poverty in developing countries like India. Relative poverty is used to measure poverty in developed countries like the USA. In absolute poverty, a line based on the minimum level of income has been created & is called a poverty line. If per day income of a family is below this level, then it is poor or below the poverty line. If per day income of a family is above this level, then it is non-poor or above the poverty line. In India, the new poverty line is Rs 32 in rural areas and Rs 47 in urban areas.

Causes of Poverty

According to the Noble prize winner South African leader, Nelson Mandela – “Poverty is not natural, it is manmade”. The above statement is true as the causes of poverty are generally man-made. There are various causes of poverty but the most important is population. Rising population is putting the burden on the resources & budget of countries. Governments are finding difficult to provide food, shelter & employment to the rising population.

The other causes are- lack of education, war, natural disaster, lack of employment, lack of infrastructure, political instability, etc. For instance- lack of employment opportunities makes a person jobless & he is not able to earn enough to fulfill the basic necessities of his family & becomes poor. Lack of education compels a person for less paying jobs & it makes him poorer. Lack of infrastructure means there are no industries, banks, etc. in a country resulting in lack of employment opportunities. Natural disasters like flood, earthquake also contribute to poverty.

In some countries, especially African countries like Somalia, a long period of civil war has made poverty widespread. This is because all the resources & money is being spent in war instead of public welfare. Countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc. are prone to natural disasters like cyclone, etc. These disasters occur every year causing poverty to rise.

Ill Effects of Poverty

Poverty affects the life of a poor family. A poor person is not able to take proper food & nutrition &his capacity to work reduces. Reduced capacity to work further reduces his income, making him poorer. Children from poor family never get proper schooling & proper nutrition. They have to work to support their family & this destroys their childhood. Some of them may also involve in crimes like theft, murder, robbery, etc. A poor person remains uneducated & is forced to live under unhygienic conditions in slums. There are no proper sanitation & drinking water facility in slums & he falls ill often & his health deteriorates. A poor person generally dies an early death. So, all social evils are related to poverty.

Government Schemes to Remove Poverty

The government of India also took several measures to eradicate poverty from India. Some of them are – creating employment opportunities, controlling population, etc. In India, about 60% of the population is still dependent on agriculture for its livelihood. Government has taken certain measures to promote agriculture in India. The government constructed certain dams & canals in our country to provide easy availability of water for irrigation. Government has also taken steps for the cheap availability of seeds & farming equipment to promote agriculture. Government is also promoting farming of cash crops like cotton, instead of food crops. In cities, the government is promoting industrialization to create more jobs. Government has also opened ‘Ration shops’. Other measures include providing free & compulsory education for children up to 14 years of age, scholarship to deserving students from a poor background, providing subsidized houses to poor people, etc.

Poverty is a social evil, we can also contribute to control it. For example- we can simply donate old clothes to poor people, we can also sponsor the education of a poor child or we can utilize our free time by teaching poor students. Remember before wasting food, somebody is still sleeping hungry.

Overcoming poverty is not a gesture of charity. It is an act of justice.

—nelsen mandela

A Thriller Piece: The Maze

The maze was dark. He could see a huge fire torch lit up in the distance. It was large enough to see that he was in a maze. He was in a different world. Somewhere totally different. Louis wanted to go back home, but some curiosity inside, pulled him to go further. He thought the end would be soon, but it wasn’t…

He took a few steps, and then ‘ oops! ‘. he tripped on something rocky. He bent down to take a closer look. He was able to smell something different and cheesy.He felt strange. It was covered with mud. He used his hands to remove the mud. When he saw it, it was white and bony. Yes, it was a skeleton. A dead body. Louis was now shaking.

He slowly stood up, and looked around. He saw torned clothes, bones, insects, tools, blood stains and fire burns around him. He realised that the whole place is now filled with dead bodies. Something has happened here. Something totally strange. He went near the walls, they were burnt too. He slowly touched the walls, it felt rough. He was not really sure of what the walls were made of. But, it just felt rough.Was this whole maze burnt? And that is why the people died? Did someone take over this place? Did anyone know that there is a place like this? These questions were fighting against each other in Louis’ mind. Will he get an answer for his questions?

He went further and further by trying to get out of the maze and observing everything around him. Then he stopped. He saw a torn t- shirt on the ground. It looked familiar. He has seen it somewhere. He tried looking more sharper. The smell was now stronger. He held his breath, went closer and took it up. He shook it a little, when he saw a letter inside the t-shirt. It was not clear. It looked like someone scratched the letter in a rough wall. He slowly tried to find out what the letter was about. All he got was this.

Get out Not safe.
ezcap
Outside world…
Reli

Louis was shaking… he knew it. It was relic. But how? Did relic come here before me? the writing was not completed. It looked like someone grabbed relic away before he could finish. There were blood drops in the letter. Did a war take place?

Louis couldn’t stop thinking about relic… he was still. Forcing himself not to drop a tear. He couldn’t help it. Tears jumped out of his eyes. “ You were the one who wanted us to come here. You were the one. But now you’re not here with me?!What am I doing?I was selfish! Why am I here! No! “ he was now showering with tears. He frustratedly looked around searching for the doorkeeper. “ where are you? You coward! Where are you? Just let me go! Where is relic? Give him back to me!” Louis cried.

Someone laughed, the voice echoed. Louis looked around surprised. Someone was coming closer. He could hear the footsteps coming closer and closer. Louis moved back a little. The shadow appeared. It was a man. An old man.

The old man looked at Louis and said,“ Get out of here as soon as possible. You might be dead soon. I am the only one who is still alive here. Nobody knows. Don’t tell him. Shh…” the old man warned. “ Dont tell who? questioned louis. “ you will know soon. Get out of here safely to reach home. Figure out how to escape from the maze. There is a secret way to escape, but I don’t know where it is. Figure it out. I wanted to help you. But nobody cared. Now I am telling you. ESCAPE. Just escape.”

Louis had infinite questions. But he had no time. “ I am sorry. Thank you. Come with me. Let’s go!” The old man smirked and said, “ IMPOSSIBLE. Just run son. Just run. “
Louis hesitated, and had no choice, but to run. He ran wherever he could go. He never stopped. Louis realised the maze never ended.

It went on and on, or maybe he was running around and around. Louis stopped. He walked for a while, and then again stopped. He jumped on where he was. The sound was different compared to the ground. It was a huge ‘ THUD ‘. louis bent down and placed his ears near the ground. His eyes widened. He knew this particular area was different from others. He looked around for any tool that he could find to dig in. There was a rusted rod tangled with blood stained clothing. Louis quickly got up and pushed himself to take out the rod from the cloth.
He tried beating it hard to the ground. It made a greater echoing sound. Then, Louis tried digging with the rod, while his hands helped him too. Finally there he was. There was a round steel door like thing. Louis knew this was the escape route and he used his full power to open the door. The door creaked and louis opened it…

His eyes widened. there was a long creepy path, it looked like no one ever lived there. There was nothing inside. Louis saw a light source in the distance. He closed the door to make sure no one would see.This place was under this ground and nobody knew?Louis was so scared but he had to escape. He slowly moved on, totally terrified…

He went near the light source as soon as possible, so that his fear level would be reduced. As Louis was in the middle of his terrifying journey, he couldn’t hear a single sound.Nobody was around. Now, he was near the light source. It was a fire torch attached to the wall. He took the torch in his hands and moved on. It felt like the path never ended. He couldn’t see the beginning and the end. He was in the MIDDLE of the path, confused.

Louis decided to move on, he knew there would be an end. But his legs were hurting a lot as he roamed around too much. He didn’t give up. He rested in the middle and boosted himself up to go on. Finally he saw the same door again at the other end. Louis felt relieved as he pushed the door open…

He was there. As expected, he was back into his own world. But it looked like he was in a shop. Louis took a long breath and checked around to make sure where he was. He has already seen this shop. He realised he was in a milkshake shop that he used to come after school sometimes. But no one was there in the shop. He looked back, and noticed the door. It vanished… Louis couldn’t believe it. But he didn’t care, he BELIEVED that he was back to his own world. Louis slowly came out of the shop.

It was a normal day with people around. Louis was now the happiest person in the world. He amazingly looked around like he had never seen the real world before. Louis didn’t know where to go, and he remembered that relic’s house was behind the shop. Louis walked 2 streets and was now in front of his friends house. His dead friend’s house…
Louis hesitated. He didn’t know how to inform his parents about relic’s death, but he had to. Louis rang the bell. It was relic’s mom who opened the door. Louis wanted to cry and apologize to her.Louis didn’t see relics mom’s face. He didn’t want to. He couldn’t face her. He held his tears, and with a broken voice Louis started, “ I am sorry, I am really sorry…” Louis started to break down in tears. “ It was not my mistake. Relic was the one. He wanted to go there. I escaped, but relic… I am sorry.”

No one made a noise for a minute. Louis looked up. He was surprised. Relic’s mom had a normal kind face. “ Honey. I think you have mistaken the door. But, it looks like you lost someone. Don’t worry, it will be alright. “ Louis looked confused. “ No! No! I am right. You are relic’s mom. It’s your son! It’s RELIC!! “

She looked worried. “ Is everything okay there, hon? “ It was her husband. Relic’s father. “ There is some kid here. I think he is mistaken.” she replied. “ no! It’s me! Louis, relic’s friend!” Relic’s dad came near the door. “Hey kid, please dont disturb us. We don’t know anything you are saying. Please leave. “ Louis had no choice, but to leave, with tears.
Louis was very confused. He walked a long way. He didn’t know where he was going. All his thoughts were about relic and his parents.He couldn’t believe that his own parents forgot him. That was not possible. Is it maybe that the ones who died in the other world have totally vanished from here?

Louis quickly thought that going back to the maze is the only way he can save relic. His only buddy… Louis bravely ran back to the tunnel. He was tired. He was exhausted. He was in pain. But he ran. He ran, for his only dead friend. He will be back, he believed. He purely believed. He will be back. He will be back for me.

INTRODUCTION TO THE KNEE DISORDERS

When there are some imbalances within the knee then it can lead to disorders which can be indicated by deviation of the knee in terms of function. Most of these disorders occur due to some conditions imposed onto the structures present inside the knee.

BURSITIS: – inflammation (burning sensation) of the bursa causes pain.

(TIP- a word ending with itis refers to inflammation)

FAT PAD IMPINGEMENT: – the fat pad gets swollen heavily and can burst due to over-expansion.

TENDINITIS: – inflammation of a tendon

TORN MENISCUS: – a sudden twist of the knee can tear the rubbery cartilage leading to serious issues.

FRACTURE: – the bones surrounding the joint may get broken especially the patella is viable to damage in the case of accidents.

DISLOCATION: – the knee bone slips and comes out from its original location leading to excruciating pain.

ACL AND PCL INJURY: – the anterior and posterior cruciate ligament gets torn which may occur when there are a lot of instantaneous turns. However, this occurs rarely since these are very strong ligaments naturally.

OSGOOD-SCHLATTER DISEASE: – this is the swelling of the tendon between the tibia and patellar muscles.

STRAIN AND SPRAIN: – both are injuries but strain occurs in ligaments whereas sprain occurs in tendons.

These are some of the common disorders occurring to the knee. All of these disorders have something in common….PAIN but the intensity can vary based on time and severity of the disorder

ARTHRITIS

Arthritis is a commonly used word referring to the inflammation of joints. In fact, many people have an intuition that severe pain in the knee corresponds to arthritis mainly in old age groups. This is potentially a dreadful disease and can mainly affect the old aged. Most arthritis occurs over time but some can occur suddenly. Old-aged persons are more prone to this disease. This disease is likely to affect all age groups. This disease is more prevalent in women rather than men since their joints are weaker and more susceptible to motion when compared to men.

differences between normal and arthritic knee joint

In the case of arthritis, the bones start to wear down, the ligaments can tear, inflammation and swelling can occur, and also lead to internal bleeding (hematoma). There are about 100+ types of arthritis with different causes and symptoms.

comparisons between some of the arthritis

The different types of arthritis have symptoms different from each other. But arthritis, in general, shows some symptoms irrespective of the type.

Joint pain, stiffness in joints, red swollen mass, deranged and irregular motion is some of the common symptoms exhibited during arthritis. These symptoms are easy to identify by a common man and hence one can consult a medical practitioner known as a rheumatologist. The study of joints is known as arthrology and it is recommended to consult such a person.

As mentioned earlier cartilage is the one that protects the bones and also acts as a shock absorber. In the case of Osteoarthritis, this cartilage starts to vanish slowly. In the case of rheumatoid arthritis, the synovial fluid gets attacked by its own antibodies!!! This phenomenon in medicine is known as autoimmune disease and occurs due to error in the programming of these cells leading to the attack on their own cells.

In the case of gouty arthritis, there is a deposition of sodium urate crystals in the joints. It can lead to redness, pain, and heat around the joint. Uric acid which is generated in our body gets converted to purines (an essential component in DNA). Increased uric acid levels can lead to its deposition in the form of crystals. The best way is to remove the synovial fluid.

So these are the different types of disorders that can be seen in the knee. Proper diet and exercise and a healthy lifestyle can prevent most of them. So it is essential to be healthy to prevent the occurrence of these diseases.

HAPPY READING!!

INTRODUCTION TO THE BONES AND JOINTS

Our human body can be compared to a machine in terms of its functioning, but the magnanimous human can perform extremely better than a machine. As there are many nuts and bolts to connect many parts in a machine, there are too some bolts and nuts in our body which join several parts of the body like arms and legs. The so-called nuts and bolts of the human body are known as JOINTS. A joint in general is the articulation that is present in between two bones. This sounds a bit complex. So joint in the English language refers to the association. So the joints in the human body associate something. The something defined previously is bones. In order to understand this, we have to know about the structure of bone in detail.

The above image depicts the structure of a bone in general. Important information to be known is that the unit of a bone is called an osteon. Many osteons combine together to form a bone. Bone-destroying cells are known as osteoclasts and bone-forming cells are known as osteoblasts. The external structure of a bone has two parts namely epiphysis and diaphysis. Physis refers to the growing plate. An increase in the bone’s height corresponding to bone growth. Epi means above and dia means through. Hence diaphysis is found in between two epiphysis which acts as the head and tail to the bone. The point of attachment of muscle in this bone is known as the trochanter. Everything present in the human body has some kind of protection. In the case of bone, that protection is offered by the periosteum. The inner layers can be visualized by peeling off those previous layers hindering them. Next, we have the cartilage which is a rubbery kind of protection to the bone. Hyaline cartilage present in bone is rather glassy in nature. The bone also has nerves and blood vessels since the bone requires nourishment and a proper message for its functioning. Bone marrow is the spongy tissue inside the bones. It contains stem cells. The stem cells can develop into the red blood cells that carry oxygen through your body, the white blood cells that fight infections, and the platelets that help with blood clotting. Bone marrow can be considered the mother of blood cells. This table provides insights on the types.

Type name	Prevalence	Content
Red	Children	Blood
Yellow	Adults	Fat

So now we move onto how a joint connects two bones. Consider this situation where there are two pipes and we want to connect them. The best way to connect so as to minimize their loss is by using a junction. There may be other options also, but there is no need to make a fuss about it.

Fig 1.2- the structure of a healthy joint

Hence from all these, we can come to an understanding of the importance of joints in the human body. To be short, the human body is meaningless and fragmented as the face, trunk, hands, and legs are separated without the joints.

HAPPY READING!!

Endless Celebration – Christmas

Christmas is a well-known Christian holiday set in December, celebrated the world over and famed for its decorations and Santa Clause. The Christmas means “Feast day of Christ”.It is a yearly celebration marking Jesus Christ’s birth; it is observed on the 25th of December as a cultural and religious celebration among a lot of people all over the world. Christmas is celebrated in all Christian countries but there are differences in the way each nation celebrates this date.

History Behind Christmas

The history of Christmas is one that dates back to a very long time; the first Christmas was celebrated in 336 A.D. in Rome. It played a very important role during the famed Arian controversy that took place in the 300s. During the early years of the middle age, epiphany overshadowed it.

Christmas was brought back to limelight around 800 A.D. when the emperor Charlemagne received the crown on Christmas day. During the 17th century, the Puritans had Christmas banned because it was associated with drunkenness and different other misbehavior.

It was made a proper holiday around 1660 but was still quite disreputable. Around the early 1900s, the Oxford movement of the Anglican Communion church started and this led to the revival of Christmas.

Preparations for Christmas

Christmas is a cultural festivity that entails a lot of preparations. It is a public holiday and so people get a Christmas break to celebrate it.

Preparations for Christmas start early for most people so that celebrations begin on the eve of Christmas. Preparations for Christmas involves a lot of activities. People usually buy decorations, food, and gifts mostly for children in the family and friends. Some families shop for matching Christmas outfits for everyone.

The common preparations include decorations of the place with Christmas trees, lighting. Before decorations begin, the house must be deep cleaned. The Christmas tree brings the Christmas spirit in homes.

Presents are placed under the Christmas tree in wrapped gift boxes and are not to be opened until Christmas day. The church is also decorated for the special event. Thorough cleaning of the churches is also done to usher in Christmas. Songs and skits to be performed on Christmas day.

People usually spend a lot on Christmas and so saving money for these plans should be the earliest preparation among all these. Families also plan to travel to stay together during this celebration period. Traditionally turkey is the common meal across the world in this day. Cards are also written to friends and family to wish them a happy holiday and to show love.

Christmas Day Celebration

Christmas carols are played on radios and televisions to mark the day. Most families start by going to church where performances and songs are done. Then later, they join their families to exchange gifts and celebrate with food and music. Happiness during Christmas is like no other.

Homemade traditional plum cakes, cupcakes, and muffins are the special treats on Christmas. Kids are showered with lots of presents and new dresses. They also get to meet the ‘Santa Claus’, dressed in a fluffy red and white costume, who greets them with hugs and gifts.

Conclusion:

Christmas reminds us of the importance of giving and sharing with friends and family. Through Christmas, we know that Jesus birth is the beginning of great things in the world. It is generally an opportunity to think about nature and the reason for our existence. Christmas is such a festival which people from all religions and faith celebrate worldwide despite it being a Christian festival. It is the essence of this festival which unites the people so much.

What is Christmas?It is tenderness for the past, courage for the present,hope for the future.

—AGNES M. PAHRO

WEIGHT BEARERS OF THE BODY- THE KNEE JOINT

The knee joint is one of the biggest and most important joints in the lower part of the body. The knee plays an important role in distributing the body weight throughout the body. It is worth studying about this joint.

The knee joint is the tibiofemoral synovial hinge joint. This seems a bit complex. This can be easily understood by splitting each term.

Tibio- tibia bone
Femoral- femur bone
Synovial- freely movable joint
Hinge- swinging motion

We can consider the knee joint as a castle with the patellar bone as a castle wall protecting it from the front, the femur from top, tibia and fibula from bottom and muscles aiding these bones. In general, the massive structures protect the joint from mechanical damage like banging the knee onto a hard surface etc…

the detailed structure of knee joint.
Credit:- OpenStax College Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun 19, 2013

The above diagram shows the complete parts of the knee joint. There are some terms that were not explained earlier. Bursa can be compared to a tin of oil or any other lubricant and structurally is like a sac containing fluid to reduce friction. Friction is

A physical quantity develops when two things come in contact and the lubricant is the one that provides a medium between the two objects thus reducing friction.

Here are the anatomical terms and their meaning:-

Anterior-front
Posterior-back
Supra-upper
Infra-lower
Cruciate-cross shape
Pre-before

The fat pad is the one present beneath the knee bone and acts as a cushion for the joint. Ligaments are the primary elements of the knee joint which connect bone to bone.

There are two types of ligaments namely ACL and PCL. They connect the tibia to the femur as mentioned earlier through the term tibiofemoral. ACL is medial (present more close to centre) than PCL and PCL are lateral (present far from the centre).

NOTE:-Understanding these structures are very important as an imbalance in each structure can lead to a disorder.

The knee is the largest known joint in the human body which performs very complex functions. The various functions are:-

It bears the weight load and prevents the lower legs to take in all the weight.
Acts as a supportive agent to the body.
Provides motion but is limited.
Coordination of the movement of upper and lower legs
Fat present in knee acts as thermal insulator
Bursa reduces friction between the bones
Synovial fluid acts as medium for bones to articulate with.

As mentioned earlier motion is a key aspect amongst the functions of the knee. The following table shows the various movements exhibited directly or indirectly using the knee.

Knee movements are of two types- primary and secondary.

Name	Meaning
Flexion	Decreasing the angle
Extension	Increasing the angle
Medial rotation	Rotating towards centre
Lateral rotation	Rotating away from centre
Adduction	Moving towards middle
Abduction	Moving away from the middle
Anterio-posterior displacement	Front and back movement

Flexion, extension, medial and lateral rotations constitute the primary movements. Adduction, abduction and anterio-posterior displacement constitute secondary movements. Hence all these movements can be offered by the knee. In addition to that knee joint also has sensory receptors and produce proprioreceptic information about the position of knee.

The ligaments contribute more towards the stability of the joint as compared to other elements. The several structures inside the knee must perform perfectly so that the knee functions properly as a whole. The knee joint is hinge type and hence it is more vulnerable to injury (stretching beyond the limit leads to injury). In case of injury, the damaged cells start to heal when the stress is removed but there is a chance of losing their functions as there is a chance of them getting replaced with scars.

It is absolutely worth knowing about the structure and function of the knee joint and how they help to carry ourselves on.

HAPPY LEARNING!!

Organ trafficking

Organ trafficking is a very big issue which the world is facing right now. It is a deadly crime which robs human beings of their healthy life. It is essentially an illegal business of human organs, tissues and body parts. They use them for transplantation. It is bringing down the human body to the worth of an object. They trade them off for a little money or some other commodities. There are various reasons why this happens greatly in all parts of the world.

Causes of Organ Trafficking

When we look at the problems people are facing in today’s world, a lack of organ donors is the main one. There are too many patients nowadays and too few volunteers. Thus, when the supply and demand do not match, crimes like these will rise.

Most importantly, poverty is a great cause of this. People who are in great debt or in need of money sell off their organs to get some temporary relief. They get very less amount than the actual worth. Furthermore, illiteracy is also a great cause. Those who are not educated are not aware of the consequences of selling their organs. They do not know the health hazards and are very vulnerable to this crime.

The children in war and developing regions are also very vulnerable to organ trafficking. When they get displaced from their homes, the traffickers make them easy targets. Furthermore, deceiving and dishonest medical firms and people also are a major cause. As organ transplant cannot be done without proper knowledge of it, people of the medical field who are corrupt contribute to it.

The lack of proper implementation of laws also contributes largely to this problem. As there are no stringent laws against this crime, the traffickers have no fear. Moreover, they also get off easy which makes it easy to commit this crime.

Impact of Organ Trafficking

Organ trafficking has a negative impact on society as a whole. The poor people get robbed off their good health due to this crime. The traffickers exploit them endlessly to make sure they do not betray them.

Moreover, kidnapping and human trafficking also happen due to this crime only. The traffickers abduct and traffic children into selling their organs. Some also murder them after their work is done to not leave any proof behind.

Organ trafficking also impacts the health of a person as well as their safety. The high demand for organs results in diseases and illnesses amongst people whose organs are trafficked. People also rob others so they can sell their organs. Even medical firms are losing their credibility because of such illegal practices.

Therefore, we need to eliminate this crime to protect people. The government must take strict measures and implement stringent laws against this crime. We must spread awareness about organ donation so people can donate their organs after death so the supply meets the demand. This will ensure no organ trafficking happens. Moreover, people must also be made aware of the dangers of organ trafficking so they can be better prepared and aware of the consequences.

HAPPY LEARNING!!

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History:-

Significance of this Day:-

Some Rare and Unique Facts:-

Celebrations Throughout the Whole Country:–

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India of my dreams……… Where the bell of happiness rings,where the birds in harmony sings.

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HAPPY READING!!

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Overcoming poverty is not a gesture of charity. It is an act of justice.

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HAPPY READING!!

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HAPPY READING!!

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What is Christmas?It is tenderness for the past, courage for the present,hope for the future.

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HAPPY LEARNING!!

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“life is a gift of our creater…And it should NEVER Be for SALE”

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