L.Frank Baum was an American author born on May 15,1856 ChittenangoNew York. He has written 14 novel on Oz, plus 41 on others and many more works.
. SUMMARY
Let’s talk about one of the greatest literary work of L.Frank ‘The Wizard’s of Oz’ which became a classic of children literature. The novel is about a girl named Dorothy, who lives with her uncle Henry and aunt Em with her pet dog Toto in Kansas. A sudden cyclone strikes and swift away Dorothy and Toto along with her uncle’s farmhouse and dumped it in the land of Munchkin of Oz’s, in the process killing the wicked witch of East. Wanting to go back to her homeland the story embarks her journey on the yellow brick road to the emerald City of great wizard of oz. On the way she makes friends with the Scarecrow who wants a brain, the Tin woodmen who wants a heart and a cowardly Lion who wants courage. After many adventures they reach the Emerald City to the great wizard of Oz. The wizard lay’sa condition only if they kill the wicked witch of west the desires will be fulfilled. They commence their journey on killing the witch , after a lot of difficulties they are able to kill the witch. On returning back to the wizard they are left shocked………. Let me leave the summary on this note so the readers curiosity is not killed.
. THEME
The story has many theme ; one must find their strength in oneself and their friendship. The courage to tackle the problems comes from within and the good circle of friends who surrounds them. The grass is not greener on the other side , we should enjoy our present and stay contented from within . It also depicts there no place like home one can not find the happiness of a family to a foreign land but their own land . Life throws you many hurdles but one must fight with it with their full potential and never to lose hope .
An exception occurs when the PL/SQL engine encounters an instruction which it cannot execute due to an error that occurs at run-time. These errors will not be captured at the time of compilation and hence these needed to handle only at the run-time.
For example, if PL/SQL engine receives an instruction to divide any number by ‘0’, then the PL/SQL engine will throw it as an exception. The exception is only raised at the run-time by the PL/SQL engine.
Exceptions will stop the program from executing further, so to avoid such condition, they need to be captured and handled separately. This process is called as Exception-Handling, in which the programmer handles the exception that can occur at the run time.
In this tutorial, you will learn the following topics-
Exceptions are handled at the block, level, i.e., once if any exception occurs in any block then the control will come out of execution part of that block. The exception will then be handled at the exception handling part of that block. After handling the exception, it is not possible to resend control back to the execution section of that block.
The below syntax explains how to catch and handle the exception.
BEGIN
<execution block>
.
.
EXCEPTION
WHEN <exceptionl_name>
THEN
<Exception handling code for the “exception 1 _name’' >
WHEN OTHERS
THEN
<Default exception handling code for all exceptions >
END;
Syntax Explanation:
In the above syntax, the exception-handling block contains series of WHEN condition to handle the exception.
Each WHEN condition is followed by the exception name which is expected to be raised at the run time.
When any exception is raised at runtime, then the PL/SQL engine will look in the exception handling part for that particular exception. It will start from the first ‘WHEN’ clause and, sequentially it will search.
If it found the exception handling for the exception which has been raised, then it will execute that particular handling code part.
If none of the ‘WHEN’ clause is present for the exception which has been raised, then PL/SQL engine will execute the ‘WHEN OTHERS’ part (if present). This is common for all the exception.
After executing the exception, part control will go out of the current block.
Only one exception part can be executed for a block at run-time. After executing it, the controller will skip the remaining exception handling part and will go out of the current block.
Note: WHEN OTHERS should always be at the last position of the sequence. The exception handling part present after WHEN OTHERS will never get executed as the control will exit from the block after executing the WHEN OTHERS.
Types of Exception
There are two types of Exceptions in Pl/SQL.
Predefined Exceptions
User-defined Exception
Predefined Exceptions
Oracle has predefined some common exception. These exceptions have a unique exception name and error number. These exceptions are already defined in the ‘STANDARD’ package in Oracle. In code, we can directly use these predefined exception name to handle them.
Below are the few predefined exceptions
Exception
Error Code
Exception Reason
ACCESS_INTO_NULL
ORA-06530
Assign a value to the attributes of uninitialized objects
CASE_NOT_FOUND
ORA-06592
None of the ‘WHEN’ clause in CASE statement satisfied and no ‘ELSE’ clause is specified
COLLECTION_IS_NULL
ORA-06531
Using collection methods (except EXISTS) or accessing collection attributes on a uninitialized collections
CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN
ORA-06511
Trying to open a cursor which is already opened
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
ORA-00001
Storing a duplicate value in a database column that is a constrained by unique index
INVALID_CURSOR
ORA-01001
Illegal cursor operations like closing an unopened cursor
INVALID_NUMBER
ORA-01722
Conversion of character to a number failed due to invalid number character
NO_DATA_FOUND
ORA-01403
When ‘SELECT’ statement that contains INTO clause fetches no rows.
ROW_MISMATCH
ORA-06504
When cursor variable data type is incompatible with the actual cursor return type
SUBSCRIPT_BEYOND_COUNT
ORA-06533
Referring collection by an index number that is larger than the collection size
SUBSCRIPT_OUTSIDE_LIMIT
ORA-06532
Referring collection by an index number that is outside the legal range (eg: -1)
TOO_MANY_ROWS
ORA-01422
When a ‘SELECT’ statement with INTO clause returns more than one row
VALUE_ERROR
ORA-06502
Arithmetic or size constraint error (eg: assigning a value to a variable that is larger than the variable size)
ZERO_DIVIDE
ORA-01476
Dividing a number by ‘0’
User-defined Exception
In Oracle, other than the above-predefined exceptions, the programmer can create their own exception and handle them. They can be created at a subprogram level in the declaration part. These exceptions are visible only in that subprogram. The exception that is defined in the package specification is public exception, and it is visible wherever the package is accessible. <
Syntax: At subprogram level
DECLARE
<exception_name> EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
<Execution block>
EXCEPTION
WHEN <exception_name> THEN
<Handler>
END;
In the above syntax, the variable ‘exception_name’ is defined as ‘EXCEPTION’ type.
This can be used as in a similar way as a predefined exception.
Syntax:At Package Specification level
CREATE PACKAGE <package_name>
IS
<exception_name> EXCEPTION;
.
.
END <package_name>;
In the above syntax, the variable ‘exception_name’ is defined as ‘EXCEPTION’ type in the package specification of <package_name>.
This can be used in the database wherever package ‘package_name’ can be called.
PL/SQL Raise Exception
All the predefined exceptions are raised implicitly whenever the error occurs. But the user-defined exceptions needs to be raised explicitly. This can be achieved using the keyword ‘RAISE’. This can be used in any of the ways mentioned below.
If ‘RAISE’ is used separately in the program, then it will propagate the already raised exception to the parent block. Only in exception block can be used as shown below.
CREATE [ PROCEDURE | FUNCTION ]
AS
BEGIN
<Execution block>
EXCEPTION
WHEN <exception_name> THEN
<Handler>
RAISE;
END;
Syntax Explanation:
In the above syntax, the keyword RAISE is used in the exception handling block.
Whenever program encounters exception “exception_name”, the exception is handled and will be completed normally
But the keyword ‘RAISE’ in the exception handling part will propagate this particular exception to the parent program.
Note: While raising the exception to the parent block the exception that is getting raised should also be visible at parent block, else oracle will throw an error.
We can use keyword ‘RAISE’ followed by the exception name to raise that particular user-defined/predefined exception. This can be used in both execution part and in exception handling part to raise the exception.
CREATE [ PROCEDURE | FUNCTION ]
AS
BEGIN
<Execution block>
RAISE <exception_name>
EXCEPTION
WHEN <exception_name> THEN
<Handler>
END;
Syntax Explanation:
In the above syntax, the keyword RAISE is used in the execution part followed by exception “exception_name”.
This will raise this particular exception at the time of execution, and this needs to be handled or raised further.
Example 1: In this example, we are going to see
How to declare the exception
How to raise the declared exception and
How to propagate it to the main block
DECLARE
Sample_exception EXCEPTION;
PROCEDURE nested_block
IS
BEGIN
Dbms_output.put_line(‘Inside nested block’);
Dbms_output.put_line(‘Raising sample_exception from nested block’);
RAISE sample_exception;
EXCEPTION
WHEN sample_exception THEN
Dbms_output.put_line (‘Exception captured in nested block. Raising to main block’);
RAISE,
END;
BEGIN
Dbms_output.put_line(‘Inside main block’);
Dbms_output.put_line(‘Calling nested block’);
Nested_block;
EXCEPTION
WHEN sample_exception THEN
Dbms_output.put_line (‘Exception captured in main block');
END:
/
Besides being a software engineer, Marianne Bellotti is also a kind of technological anthropologist. Back in 2016 at the Systems We Love conference, Bellotti began her talk by saying she appreciated the systems most engineers hate —”messy, archaic, duct-tape-and-chewing-gum.” Then she added, “Fortunately, I work for the federal government.”
At the time, Bellotti was working for the U.S. Digital Service, where talented technology workers are matched to federal systems in need of some consultation. (While there, she’d encountered a web application drawing its JSON-formatted data from a half-century-old IBM 7074 mainframe.)
The rich experiences led her to write a book with the irresistible title “Kill It with Fire: Manage Aging Computer Systems (and Future Proof Modern Ones).” Its official web page at Random House promises it offers “a far more forgiving modernization framework” with “illuminating case studies and jaw-dropping anecdotes from her work in the field,” including “Critical considerations every organization should weigh before moving data to the cloud.”
Bellotti is now working on products for defense and national security agencies as the principal engineer for system safety at Rebellion Defense (handling identity and access control).
But her latest project is a podcast chronicling what she’s learned while trying to write her own programming language.
“Marianne Writes a Programming Language” captures a kind of expedition of the mind, showing how the hunger to know can keep leading a software engineer down ever-more-fascinating rabbit holes. But it’s also an inspiring example of the do-it-yourself spirit, and a fresh new perspective on the parsers, lexers and evaluators that make our code run.
In short, it’s a deeply informative deconstruction of where a programmer’s tools really come from.
Going Deep
In one blog post, Bellotti invited listeners to “start this strange journey with me through parsers, grammars, data structures and the like.”
And it is a journey, filled with hope and ambition — and a lot of unexpected twists and turns. “Along the way, I’ll interview researchers and engineers who are active in this space and go deep on areas of programming not typically discussed,” the podcast host promised. “All in all, I’m hoping to start a conversation around program language design that’s less intimidating and more accessible to beginners.”
But the “Marianne Writes a Programming Language” podcast also comes with a healthy dose of self-deprecation. “Let’s get one question out of the way,” her first episode began. “Does the world really need another programming language? Probably not, no.” But she described it as a passion project, driven by good old-fashioned curiosity. “I have always wanted to write a programming language. I figured I would learn so much from the challenge.”
“In an industry filled with opinions, where people will fight to the death over tabs -vs.- spaces, there isn’t much guidance for would-be program language designers.”
—Marianne Bellotti, software engineer and podcast host
Fifteen years into a sparkling technology career, “I feel like there are all these weird holes in my knowledge,” Bellotti told her audience. And even with the things she does know — like bytecode and logic gates — “I don’t have a clear sense of how all those things work together.”
In the podcast’s third episode, Bellotti pointed out that, “for me at least, the hardest part of learning something is figuring out how to learn it in the first place.” She discovered a surprising lack of best-practices documents, she wrote in an essay in Medium. “In an industry filled with opinions, where people will fight to the death over tabs -vs.- spaces, there isn’t much guidance for would-be program language designers.”
Still, her podcast’s first episode showed the arrival of those first glimmers of insight. “Even knowing very little upfront, I had a sense that in order for a programming language to work, there had to be some sense of cohesion in its design.”
Where to Begin?
Her Medium post cited a 2012 article titled “Programming Paradigms for Dummies: What Every Programmer Should Know,” which offers a taxonomy of language types based on how exactly they’re providing their abstractions. That article apparently got her thinking about how exactly a programming language helps communicate the connections that exist between its various data structures — which led to more insights. (In a later podcast, Bellotti even says “technology suggests to its user how it should be used.”)
“Eventually I came to my own conclusions,” she wrote in her Medium article. To be successful at creating her own language, she realized that she needed to think of programming paradigms like object-oriented or functional programming “as logical groupings of abstractions and be as intentional about what is included and what isn’t.”
Bellotti is also trying to design a language that will work for her specific needs: to know how likely certain types of problems are in a given system, to achieve model resilience. But on her first podcast episode, Bellotti acknowledged that she still had to begin by typing, “How do you design a programming language” into Google —and was surprised by how little came up. (Although she did discover “there’s a whole world of obscure experimental languages that appear in research papers, rack up a host of citations, and never touch an actual computer other than their inventor’s.”)
“I feel like I’ve been struggling to hang pictures around my home and one day someone knocks on my door and introduces me to the hammer,”
—Marianne Bellotti, software engineer and podcast host
That book’s author, Thorsten Ball, became her podcast’s first guest, explaining that his language was not so much designed as experimented into existence. (Later, other people suggested something similar — that Bellotti “pick something you like in another language and copy the implementation to start, because figuring out all the edge cases from scratch is really hard.”)
In that first podcast episode, Bellotti explained her concern that “tiny little design decisions I don’t even realize I’m making could have dramatic impacts… it does seem to be the case that programmers create languages without being able to fully anticipate exactly how they will be used or how technology will change around them.”
Things Get Complicated
There are moments where it all sounds so simple. (“What you’re doing when you write a programming language is actually writing a series of applications that take string input and translate it into something the machine can execute.”)
But things get complicated pretty quickly, and by episode three Bellotti started to see a pattern: “Confronting what feels like a tidal wave of information is becoming an all too familiar feeling on this project.” Yet, while considering a need for her language’s source code-interpreting parser, she realized that parsers can be auto-generated — as long as she can supply that tool with the necessary grammar rules.
“I feel like I’ve been struggling to hang pictures around my home and one day someone knocks on my door and introduces me to the hammer,” she told her podcast audience.
She ends up talking to a linguist who studied under Noam Chomsky, who refers her to another linguistics professor, who begins by discussing whether language can be learned through the brute-force assimilation of machine learning, and ends up explaining why Chomsky’s “context-free grammar” ultimately became the basis for programming languages and compilers.
But there are resources to discover. Along the way, Bellotti found a Reddit forum about programming language design. (“This subreddit is full of great stories and people will give detailed explanations and encouragement, which is rare on the internet these days.”) She’s also found a forum for people building Domain Specific Languages.
By December, she’d received a comment from a grateful listener who was also writing their own programming language, and was glad to find a relevant podcast. And Bellotti acknowledged in a response that her whole journey “has been so much fun so far.”
Progress is clearly being made. By episode 12, Bellotti considered how hard it would be to add modules to her language. (“From my vantage point, being able to split a system specification into smaller parts means you get to reuse those parts and build progressively more complex systems that are in easily digestible chunks.”) And there’s also already an empty repository on GitHub that’s waiting expectantly for the code to arrive.
Then, in mid-April Bellotti announced that episode 12 would be the last one “for a while. I’ve made some design decisions that I feel really good about, but it’s clear that the only way to validate them is to write code and try things out.”
She’s also spending some time researching how to optimize her compiler, “But really, I just need to just be heads-down, hands-on-a-keyboard for a while on this.”
And so, the podcast has entered a productive hiatus, leaving listeners with this tantalizing promise.
“I’ll be back in a couple of months to let you know how that went.”
In a patriarchal society like India, women have always been under the umbrella of the community. It’s barely seen in the families who support a girl’s dream and accept her to be a dancer.
The movie begins with the introduction of a foreign couple who came to India in the search of a surrogate. After long hours of work, they were finally able to find a girl with the help of the driver (a role played by Pankaj Tripathi) in a hotel. Mimi(the girl) was a dancer and getting influenced by its flexibility they decided to offer her 20 lakhs to be the surrogate. Being an ambitious 25-year old woman agrees to take the risk for the same of becoming a famous Bollywood actress. She decides to live at her friend’s house by convincing the parents saying, she is going to a film shoot. With the required procedure, Mimi becomes the surrogate, and for the first four months, she was having a good time with the pregnancy. However, after eight months tests revealed that the baby is suffering from some mental disorder. This news outraged the couple and they decided not to accept the baby after birth and told Mimi to abort. This became the turning point in her life. She sacrificed all her dreams by deciding to give birth to the child and raise him. Later, the couple returned to her after 2 years when they came to know that the baby was born healthy. Mimi refused to give the child back and in the end, they decided to adopt a girl.
Message
A girl is also born with a dream and her character is not decided with what she pursues but what she is.
The support of family is crucial in the darkest times. Mimi faced all the criticisms from society but her parents never let her alone and accepted her as she was.
Killing is not an option. It’s not the fault of a child to be born unhealthy.
One loyal friend is more important than a group of unloyal ones. The driver and the friend were with Mimi till the end, helping her go through all the difficulties with a smile.
Every coin has two sides. Even though the movie won the hearts of the audience, it faced several criticisms like not following the laws related to a sensitive topic of surrogacy, using the term casually, and disrespect towards the decision of abortions.
It played with the emotions well, yet failed to manipulate the thoughts.
When we got independence, our forefathers gave us some rights and provided us with some rules and regulations with common consensus in the name of the constitution. The objective was to create a superstructure that could govern the nation by installing the rights in the hands of people and whenever there is a threat to human rights, the constitution will safeguard the innocent.
In our Constitution, fundamental rights hold extraordinary significance as they guarantee basic civic liberties for the citizens. Notwithstanding, note that these rights will lose all their importance if a wronged individual doesn’t have any component to move toward the court for infringement of his basic rights. Subsequently, keeping in see this need, the forefathers of our Constitution give us the “right to constitutional remedy” under Article 32 and 226 of the constitution. We can move toward the court for the issuance of a specific writ for the insurance of our privileges. In this article, we will investigate the importance of Article 32 and 226. We will likewise dive profound into the significance and sort of writs that can be given by our hon’ble courts.
Presently the inquiry emerges that what is a writ? The significance of the word ‘Writs’ signifies order recorded as a hard copy for the sake of the Court. It is an authoritative record given by the court that arranges an individual or element to play out a particular demonstration or to stop playing out a particular activity or deed. Orders, warrants, bearings, summons and so forth are all writs. A writ appeal is an application recorded under the watchful eye of the skilled Court mentioning it to give a particular writ.
There are five kinds of writ – habeas corpus, mandamus, quo-warranto, prohibition and certiorari.
Who can file a writ petition? A writ request can be documented by any individual whose Fundamental Rights have been encroached by the State. Under a Public Interest Litigation, any open energetic individual may document a writ request in light of a legitimate concern for the overall population regardless of whether his Fundamental Right has not encroached.
Where can a writ petition be filed? Under Article 32, a writ appeal can be documented in the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court can give a writ in particular if the candidate can demonstrate that his Fundamental Right has encroached. Under Article 226, a writ appeal can be documented under the steady gaze of any High Court inside whose purview the reason for activity emerges, either entirely or to some extent.
TYPES OF WRIT:
1. HABEAS CORPUS.
It signifies “to have a body of”. This writ is utilized to deliver an individual who has been unlawfully confined or detained. By ideals of this writ, the Court coordinates the individual so confined to be brought before it to analyze the legitimateness of his detainment. Assuming the Court reasons that the detainment was unlawful, it guides the individual to be delivered right away.
Conditions of unlawful detention are: The confinement was not done as per the method set down. For example, the individual was not created before a Magistrate within 24 hours of his arrest. The individual was captured when he didn’t abuse any law. A capture was made under a law that is illegal.
This writ guarantees a quick legal audit of the supposed unlawful detainment of the detainee and prompt assurance of his entitlement to opportunity. Nonetheless, Habeas corpus can’t be allowed where an individual has been captured under a request from a skilled court and when at first sight the request doesn’t give off an impression of being completely unlawful or without locale. This writ can be recorded by the kept individual himself or his family members or companions for his benefit. It very well may be given against both public specialists and people.
2. MANDAMUS
A writ of mandamus, which in Latin signifies “we order, or once in a while “we command”, is the name of this right writ in the common law. It is given by a better court than force a lower court or an administration official to perform obligatory or ecclesiastical obligations accurately.
Mandamus is an order by the Supreme Court or High Courts to any open power to do or not to accomplish something in the idea of public obligation. It is given against the people or specialists who neglect to play out their compulsory obligations. For the motivation behind giving writ of mandamus, the official should have a pubic obligation and should neglect to perform such obligation. The applicant of this writ should likewise have an option to constrain the presence of some obligation cast upon the power.
3. QUO-WARRANTO
It signifies ‘what is your authority?’ It is an Order scrutinizing the authority of an individual holding a public office. It is given against the holder of a public office calling upon him to show with what authority he holds such office. The object of this writ is to control the leader activity in making arrangements to the public workplaces furthermore to shield general society from usurpers of public workplaces.
The Writ of Quo Warranto isn’t given when the workplace is a private office. At the point when the holder of the workplace is able to hold that office. At the point when the holder accordingly gets equipped for the workplace. At the point when the issue of writ gets useless. It implies if the writ doesn’t fill any need.
4. PROHIBITION
It signifies ‘to prevent’. Each Court is relied upon to act inside the restrictions of their purview. A writ of preclusion is given to keep a substandard Court or Tribunal from surpassing its locale, which isn’t legitimately vested, or acting without a ward or acting contrary to the standards of common equity. The writ of Prohibition can be given against the Courts as well as against the specialists practising legal or semi-legal capacities.
When can a Writ of Prohibition be granted? When the inferior Court or quasi-judicial authority exceeds its jurisdiction. When the inferior Court acts without lawful jurisdiction. When the inferior Court or quasi-judicial authority acts against the rule of natural justice. When there is an apparent error on the face of the judicial record.
When the Writ of Prohibition not issued? At the point when the Court acts inside its legitimate ward. At the point when the Court notices standards of normal equity.
5. CERTIORARI
It intends ‘to certify’. Certiorari is a curative writ. It is an Order by the Supreme Court or the High Courts to a substandard Court to eliminate a suit from such second rate Court and mediate upon the legitimacy of the procedures or to suppress the Orders of the sub-par Court. Writ of Certiorari can be given against any second rate Courts as well as against a body practising legal or semi-legal capacities. This writ is given under the administrative or unique ward and not under the redrafting purview. Any individual whose central right is abused can apply for the writ of Certiorari.
When a writ of Certiorari can’t be allowed? To eliminate pastoral demonstrations. To eliminate or drop leader acts. To pronounce an Act as unlawful or void.
CONCLUSION
The privilege to protected cure is a piece of our fundamental construction and it can never be repealed. Our Constitution has conceded the preeminent ability to give the writ to the Supreme Court and the High court according to Article 32 and 226 individually.
There are predominantly 5 kinds of writs in which the extent of mandamus is the greatest one while other writs are issued in specific conditions only. These writs play an important role in the enforcement of justice.
The movement of electromagnetic wave without any physical contact of a body is called radiation. Example – light coming from the sun. Heat transfer form hoter to colder body.
All bodies radiate some energy except at zero Calvin. The energy emitted by the body is in the form of packets or quanta of energy called photon.
When the radiation is incident on the surface of a body some fractional part of energy is being absorbed by the surface, some fractional part of energy being transmitted by the surface and some fractional part being reflected by the surface.
The fractional part which is absorbed by the body is called absorbitivity of that body and it is denoted by sigma. The fractional part which is reflected by the body is called reflectivity and it is denoted by row. The fractional part which is transmitted by the body is called transmissivity and it is denoted by tow. Mathematical expressions for this
ρ + α + τ = 1
Where ρ is reflectivity, α is absorbitivity and τ is transmissivity.
The value of these are depend upon
1 nature of surface of the body
2 Temperature of the body. – greater the temperature greater will be the radiation
3 wavelength of the incident rays.
Black body
The body that absorbed all the radiation, and does not trasmite or reflect any radiation is called black body. i. e α =1 and ρ =τ=0. It doesn’t mean that for the black body the body should be black. For example snow which is white in colour and whose absorbitivity is 0.955 that is very near to the 1, hence it is a black body.
White body
The body which which reflects all the radiation is called white body. i.e α = τ = 0, ρ = 1.
Gray body
It is a hypothetical body because the value of absorbitivity, reflectivity and transmissivity does not varies with temperature. ρ + α + τ =1
Scientists have several ideas why humans can high-five each other instead of, say, high four or high six. One theory suggests four fingers and a thumb on each hand are the perfect number and length to grip objects firmly. (Another study suggests we can gasp most things with just our thumb and index finger if necessary ; the other four fingers are spares).
The process of evolution determined the most beneficial number of fingers and toes for our survival. Pandas, after all, have thumblike digits to help them grasp bamboo shoots, while some birds have quadruple digits for perching and tucking away during flight. Occasionally, babies are born with extra fingers and toes (a condition known as polydactyly), but those additional digits have never offered enough of an edge to survive to later generations. In other words, evolution determined that five fingers per hand are just right for humans.
Why do we have thumbs?
Having no thumbs would make you all thumbs, fumbling to tie your shoes or assemble a hamburger. (Don’t believe us? Tape one of your thumbs against the side of your hand and see how hard life becomes). We inherited a fully “opposable” thumb named for its ability to close tip-to-tip against our other fingers – grom our primate ancestors around two million years ago. These ancient relatives needed handier hands to help get a grip on simple tools. So give a thumbs – up to your thumbs. So give a thumbs – up to your thumbs. They are the main reasons you can text with one hand and build a burger without fumbling the bun.
Do other animals have thumbs beside us?
Lots of them, although the exact number depends on your definition of “thumbs”. Apes and many monkeys have opposable thumbs just like us, while smaller primates, pandas, and koalas have thumblike digits and claws that help them grip plants and prey.
Why do we have fingerprints?
Those whirls, swirls, loops, and arches on your fingertips (and toes, in case you didn’t know) are hnique to you – even if you have an identical twin – and they remain unchanged throughout your entire life. In fact, the faint ridges known as fingerprints form before you have ever born. Fluids in the womb put pressure on your developing digits, which, combined with your rate of growth and genetic makeup, create one-of-a-kind designs.
Okay, but why do we have fingerprints?
Ah, you want to know the point of those fingertip designs ( well, besides incriminating crooks who forget to wear gloves). Scientist have put forth all sorts of possible reasons. Fingerprints might magnify the hand’s ability to detect vibrations, for example, or improve our sense of touch. They also might work like tyre trying to help They also might work like tire treads to help us grip objects.
Why do my fingers wrinkle when we’ve been swimming?
You might think that playing in the pool or soaking in the tub makes your fingertips and toes waterlogged and soggy. Not so ! The prune effect is caused by blood vessels bringing just below the skin – an automatic reaction triggered by your nervous system when it senses long exposure to water. Scientists think people evolved this reaction to improve their grip and traction in wet environments. After all, pruny fingers make it easier to snag slippery fish.
Why can we pop our knuckles?
When you move or bend your fingers, you occasionally squeeze tiny air bubbles that form in the protective fluid around your body’s joints.Those poping bubbles create an audible crack.
When it comes to the possibilities and possible perils of artificial intelligence (AI), learning and reasoning by machines without the intervention of humans, there are lots of opinions out there. Only time will tell which one of these quotes will be the closest to our future reality. Until we get there, it’s interesting to contemplate who might be the one who predicts our reality the best.
“The development of full artificial intelligence could spell the end of the human race. It would take off on its own, and re-design itself at an ever-increasing rate. Humans, who are limited by slow biological evolution, couldn’t compete, and would be superseded.”— Stephen Hawking
Will computers eventually be smarter than humans?
Everyone is talking about artificial intelligence (AI) – in the media, at conferences and in product brochures. Yet the technology is still in its infancy. Applications that would have been dismissed as science fiction not long ago could become reality within a few years. With its specialty materials, the Electronics business sector of Merck is contributing to the development of AI.
HOW SMART ARE YOU?
Who’s smarter — you, or the computer or mobile device on which you’re reading this article? The answer is increasingly complex, and depends on definitions in flux. Computers are certainly more adept at solving quandaries that benefit from their unique skill set, but humans hold the edge on tasks that machines simply can’t perform. Not yet, anyway.
Computers can take in and process certain kinds of information much faster than we can. They can swirl that data around in their “brains,” made of processors, and perform calculations to conjure multiple scenarios at superhuman speeds. For example, the best chess-trained computers can at this point strategize many moves ahead, problem-solving far more deftly than can the best chess-playing humans. Computers learn much more quickly, too, narrowing complex choices to the most optimal ones. Yes, humans also learn from mistakes, but when it comes to tackling the kinds of puzzles computers excel at, we’re far more fallible.
Computers enjoy other advantages over people. They have better memories, so they can be fed a large amount of information, and can tap into all of it almost instantaneously. Computers don’t require sleep the way humans do, so they can calculate, analyze and perform tasks tirelessly and round the clock. On the other hand, humans are still superior to computers in many ways. We perform tasks, make decisions, and solve problems based not just on our intelligence but on our massively parallel processing wetware — in abstract, what we like to call our instincts, our common sense, and perhaps most importantly, our life experiences. Computers can be programmed with vast libraries of information, but they can’t experience life the way we do.
Some of that’s rethinking how we approach these questions. Rather than obsessing over who’s smarter or irrationally fearing the technology, we need to remember that computers and machines are designed to improve our lives, just as IBM’s Watson computer is helping us in the fight against deadly diseases. The trick, as computers become better and better at these and any number of other tasks, is ensuring that “helping us” remains their prime directive.
The important thing to keep in mind is that it is not man versus machine. “It is not a competition. It is a collaboration.”
The previous article dealt in detail with immunoglobulin and how they help in phagocytosis. This article is about the types of immunoglobulins, their functions.
The types of immunoglobulins are based on the types of light and heavy chains. There are two types of light chains namely the kappa and the lambda. An immunoglobulin contains either kappa (K-K) or lambda (L-L) but does not have a mixture of both (K-L not possible). About 60% of the immunoglobulins in humans have kappa chains.
So, the classes of immunoglobulins are based on the heavy chain. So based on this condition, there are five classes of immunoglobulins namely:-
Immunoglobulin G (IgG) – gamma
Immunoglobulin M (IgM) – mu
Immunoglobulin A (IgA) – alpha
Immunoglobulin D (IgD) – delta
Immunoglobulin E (IgE) – epsilon
These immunoglobulins have certain configurations and play different roles in the human body. The immunoglobulin G is present the most. It constitutes about 80% of the total immunoglobulin. These are mostly present in the blood, plasma, and other body fluids. This immunoglobulin has the lowest carbohydrate content when compared to the rest. This immunoglobulin has a half-life of 23 days which is the longest of all. Some of the unique features and functions of this immunoglobulin:-
This is the only immunoglobulin which can cross the placenta (this is a unique feature because this immunoglobulin provides immunity to the foetus inside the womb and also after birth for some months. Presence of others may indicate infection)
This helps in killing bacteria and viruses by opsonisation (the process of covering the pathogen with a protein coat such that the pathogens become more presentable to the immune cells)
Neutralize toxins
Activate complement by classical pathway (The complement system, also known as complement cascade, is a part of the immune system that enhances the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells from an organism, promote inflammation, and attack the pathogen’s cell membrane)
Unique catabolism (breaking down of molecules) based on concentration
There are four sub classes (G1, G2, G3 and G4) out of which 1,3 and 4 cross the placenta and offer immunity
Also involves in the Rh immunization (there are two types’ Rh+ve and Rh-ve based on the presence of Rh factor in blood). The mother being Rh+ve and child the opposite is not a problem in the first pregnancy but can be fatal in second, killing the foetus.
The immunoglobulin M constitutes about 5-10% of total proteins. This is a pentamer structure with a J chain. This weighs about 900000-1000000 and is the heaviest of all. They have 5 days of half-life. Some of its features-
Presence in newborn indicate congenital infection as they don’t cross placenta
Short lived, so their presence indicates recent infection
First Ig to participate in primary response
Opsonisation
classical pathway
bacteria agglutination
Play an important role in ABO blood grouping (discovered by Landsteiner). There are 8 types of blood groups based on antigen, antibody and Rh factor
Immunoglobulin A is also known as the secretory immunoglobulin and is mostly present in body secretions (tear, saliva, sebum, mucous, and milk) in which they are dimer and are monomer in blood. They constitute 10-15% of the proteins. They also have a J chain and secretory piece. Their half-life is 6-8 days.
The secretory piece protects the Ig from enzymes and juices
Complement activation by alternate pathway
Promote phagocytosis
Intracellular microorganism killing
First line of defense against some microbes
Immunoglobulin E is a dimer similar to IgG. This is present in low concentrations (about 0.3) and has the weight of about 1,90,000. These have a half-life of about 2 days and can become inactivated at 56 C.
Present extra-cellularly
Associated with allergic reactions like asthma, hay fever and anaphylactic shock
Bind with the Fc of mast cells and basophils resulting in degranulation and release histamine which causes allergy
Mediate the some immunity reactions
No complement activation
Provide immunity against helminthes
The last is immunoglobulin D. It is present in low concentrations and on the surface of B lymphocytes. They constitute 0.2% of proteins. They have a half-life of 3 days. The IgM and IgD bind on the B lymphocyte to help in antigen identification.
Hence these were the different types of immunoglobulins and the mechanisms by which they help with immunity. The next article is about the process of inflammation.
The previous article was about the different types of immune cells. This article is about a special molecule in immunity known as immunoglobulin.
There might be a question that what is so special about this immunoglobulin. There is a reason for this. These molecules play an important and inevitable role in the phagocytosis of pathogens. To understand this, it is essential to know about immunoglobulins.
The immunoglobulin is a gamma globulin, a specialized group of proteins (glycoprotein) produced in response to pathogens. It is produced by the plasma cells (a globulin protein present in the plasma). These constitute 25-30% of the blood proteins.
There are two important terms that are more commonly known by the most, they are the antigen and the antibody. The antigen is the molecule present on the surface of the pathogen and can stimulate an immune response. There is a small part of the antigen called the epitope which interacts with the antibody. The epitope is known as the antigen determinant site. An antigen can have unlimited epitopes.
On the contrary, the antibody is the molecule produced in response to the antigen in order to kick it away. The part of the antibody which interacts with the antigen is called a paratope. An antibody must have at least 2 paratopes. These antibodies belong to the immunoglobulins. All antibodies are immunoglobulins but not immunoglobulins are antibodies. To understand how the antibody helps in immunity, it is essential to understand the structure of an antibody/immunoglobulin. The image below shows the general structure of an immunoglobulin:-
There are two chains in an immunoglobulin namely the light chain and heavy chain. The light chain has 212 amino acids (the building block of protein) and the heavy chain has 450 amino acids. Each chain has two types namely the constant and variable. These regions are based on the amino acid sequences. Half of the light chain (1 out of 2) is constant and the rest is variable. A quarter of the heavy chain (1 out of 4) is variable and the rest is constant. These are linked by two types of sulfide bonds namely the intra (H-H AND L-L) and inter (H-L). These molecules contain carbohydrates (CHO) hence these are called as glycoproteins.
The tip of the variable regions of the heavy and light chain is hypervariable in nature and these constitute the antigen-binding site (Fab). These are hyper-variable because they have to produce amino acid sequences complementary to that of the antigen so that they can interact together. The other site is called a crystallizable region (Fc).
Having known all this, now it will be convenient to explain the process by which the antibody plays in the prevention of infections.
There are millions of substances that pass through the blood every day. So there must be a criterion/substance to identify them whether they are pathogenic. This is where antigen comes to play. These antigens present on the surface of the pathogens alert the immune system which then identifies this as a pathogen. So in response to the antigen, a suitable antibody is secreted and deployed to the target site. On reaching the antigen, the Fab region binds with the antigen.
The ultimate aim of the immune system is to abolish the pathogen and one way is by phagocytosing them. This is done by the macrophages. But it is essential for them to identify the substance before engulfing it. This is where the antibody comes to play. The Fc region of the antibody combines with the receptor of the macrophage. This facilitates the process of phagocytosis.
Hence the antibody acts like a bridge between the source (antigen) and the destination (macrophage) aiding in phagocytosis. This is essential because in most of the cases the macrophages, it is difficult to identify the non-self-objects and this is where antibody helps.
In the case of the new pathogen, the antigen is new, and therefore their might not be a suitable antibody. In that case, the macrophage cannot phagocytocise the pathogen and it reigns in the body causing infection and disease.
The next article is about the types of immunoglobulins.
Your feminine cycle assists your body with getting ready pregnancy consistently. It additionally causes you to have a period in case you’re not pregnant. Your monthly cycle and period are constrained by chemicals like estrogen and progesterone. Here’s the means by which everything goes down. You have 2 ovaries, and every one holds a lot of eggs. The eggs are really minuscule — too little to even consider seeing with the unaided eye.
During your monthly cycle, chemicals make the eggs in your ovaries develop — when an egg is adult, that implies it’s fit to be treated by a sperm cell. These chemicals likewise make the coating of your uterus thick and elastic. So if your egg gets prepared, it has a decent comfortable spot to land and begin a pregnancy. This covering is made of tissue and blood, as nearly all the other things inside our bodies. It has bunches of supplements to assist a pregnancy with developing. Part of the way through your feminine cycle, your chemicals advise one of your ovaries to deliver a develop egg — this is called ovulation. The vast majority don’t feel it when they ovulate, yet some ovulation manifestations are bulging, spotting, or a little aggravation in your lower tummy that you may just feel on one side. When the egg leaves your ovary, it goes through one of your fallopian tubes toward your uterus.
In the event that pregnancy doesn’t occur, your body needn’t bother with the thick covering in your uterus. Your coating separates, and the blood, supplements, and tissue stream out of your body through your vagina. Presto, it’s your period! In the event that you do get pregnant, your body needs the coating — that is the reason your period quits during pregnancy. Your period returns when you’re not pregnant any longer.
When in life do periods begin and stop? Eventually during pubescence, blood emerges from your vagina, and that is your first period. The vast majority get their first period between ages 12 and 14, however a few group get them prior or later than that. It’s basically impossible to know precisely when you’ll get it, however you might feel a few PMS indications (connection to PMS segment) a couple of days before it occurs. On the off chance that you don’t get your period when you’re 16, it’s a smart thought to visit a specialist or attendant. Peruse more about getting your first period.
The vast majority quit getting their period when they’re somewhere in the range of 45 and 55 years of age — this is called menopause. Menopause can require a couple of years, and periods for the most part change progressively during this time. After menopause is absolutely finished, you can’t get pregnant any longer. Peruse more about menopause. Your period might begin and stop around the time it accomplished for others you’re identified with, similar to your mother or sisters.
Do transsexual folks get a period? Not every person who gets a period distinguishes as a young lady or lady. Transsexual men and genderqueer individuals who have uteruses, vaginas, fallopian cylinders, and ovaries additionally get their periods. Having a period can be a distressing encounter for some trans people since it’s an update that their bodies don’t coordinate with their actual sex character — this uneasiness and nervousness is once in a while called sex dysphoria. Other trans individuals probably won’t be excessively troubled by their periods. Either response is typical and alright.
Now and then trans individuals who haven’t arrived at pubescence yet take chemicals (called adolescence blockers) to forestall the entirety of the gendered body changes that occur during pubescence, including periods. What’s more, individuals who as of now get periods can utilize specific kinds of conception prevention (like the embed or hormonal IUD) that help ease up or stop their periods. Chemical substitution treatment, such as taking testosterone, may likewise stop your period.
In the event that you begin taking testosterone, your period will disappear. In any case, this is reversible — on the off chance that you quit taking testosterone, your period will return. There can be a few changes in your feminine cycle before it stops for great. Periods get lighter and more limited over the long run, or come when you don’t anticipate it. You might have spotting or squeezing now and again until you quit getting your period, and once in a while even get-togethers appears to have halted — this is typical. Testosterone infusions make your periods disappear quicker than testosterone cream.
In the event that you experience sexual orientation dysphoria when you get your period, realize that you’re in good company. It very well might be useful to look at our assets and track down a trans-accommodating specialist in your space that you can converse with.
“Always remember, your focus determines your reality.” — George Lucas
Unless you have a strong desire to learn the information or develop a skill, it can be hard to focus all of your attention in one place. If you are impatient to learn or master anything, it wouldn’t benefit you more. If you are restless, you will make more mistakes and you will be more distracted as your whole focus will be on result, not on your action.
Instead, remain calm and be devoted to your work.
A mind which is calmer helps you to concentrate better, attaining undivided focus and it makes you proactive.
Television, smart phones, social media, friends, and family can all distract you from your goal of doing well in school. Create an environment that helps you focus. Set a schedule that maximized your study time. Try different study techniques and take breaks so you don’t become too overwhelmed. Here are some of the best tricks that scientists have come up with to help you increase your focus in studying.
Get rid of distractions. Choose the right spot. In order to concentrate, you must eliminate those things that you know will distract you. Put up mobile devices. Turn off the TV. Close other pages in your web browser. Sit away from people making loud noises.
Play music without lyrics. Some people cannot stand silence. They need to have background noise to help keep themselves motivated. Consider playing classical music softly. For some people, music helps them concentrate. For some, it doesn’t. Try it out and see what works best for you. A little something in the background can make you forget that you’re studying instead of out having fun.
Come prepared. Be sure to have all the materials needed to work. Have pencils, pens, highlighters, paper, textbooks, calculators, or whatever else will help you finish the task. Organize the area. A clean space will mean less distractions too. Your goal should be to take care of everything outside of studying before you sit down to focus. If not, you’ll just end up getting up repeatedly. Having to stop and start takes more time than continuously working.
Find a place where you can “unplug”. One of the biggest complaints that teachers have about their students is their inability to concentrate on a subject. Our constant use of social media and personal devices like cell phones divides our attention and makes it more difficult to concentrate.
Learn when to say no. Often times, people find it difficult to concentrate on their studies because they are overextended with other obligations. If this is you, don’t be afraid to tell people no. Just explain that you need to study and won’t have the time or energy to do so, if you help them out.
Ultimately, there’s no quick, one-size-fits-all solution to staying focused while studying. Different methods and tools will work better for some than others. However, with a little trial and error and the tools and techniques above, you can create a routine of focused studying that works best for you.
We spend one third of our life dreaming. Sometimes dreams are happy, scary, unexplainable and even an indication of what is going to happen in future. There is a popular saying that the dreams we see in the morning are usually true and real, though there is no scientific proof to it. We usually dream what we think, stress is an important factor in dreams. Less stress means happy dreams.
But will you believe it if I tell you that you can actually control your dreams?🤔 A dream where one becomes aware of the dream it is known as lucid dreaming. And there are people who do this. You can do it too!! Let’s know how. People have been studying lucid dreams for a very long time, from ancient to modern it has been studied to understand the cause and purposes of it. As a result many theories have emerged, though it is still under research.
This term was given by Dutch author and psychiatrist Fredreik Van Eeden. In his article A Study of Dreams in 1913. He studied his own dreams for a period of time and wrote them in his dream diary, 352 of his dreams were categorized as lucid. He mentioned 7 different types of dreams and out of which he considered lucid dreams most interesting and worthy of observation. The reference to this phenomenon can be found in ancient greek writings. According to Aristotle, Greek philosopher, “often when one is asleep, there is something in consciousness which declares that what then presents itself is but a dream”. Other than Aristotle, physician Sir Thomas Browne, Samuel Pepys and more have mentioned lucid dreaming. In 2020 there was a large increase in reports of lucid dreams compared to the previous year.
There are a few conditions for a dream in order to be defined as a lucid dream and these were given by Paul Tholey. The conditions are: 1. Awareness of the dream state (orientation) 2. Awareness of the capacity to make decisions 3. Awareness of memory functions 4. Awareness of self 5. Awareness of the dream environment 6. Awareness of the meaning of the dream 7. Awareness of concentration and focus (the subjective clarity of that state)
Lucid dreams are often found to be affective in treating nightmares. Physiotherapists have also been including lucid dreaming as a part of therapy. There are also books and movies based on this like inception, paprika, etc. Though lucid dreaming has been beneficial in many aspects but for the people who experience it for the first time can go through the feelings of stress or confusion. People who see lucid dreams very often might feel empowered and also isolated from others in terms of their dreaming experience which is quiet different to others. Others might experience sleep paralysis, which is sometimes confused with lucid dreams.
There are many methods using which one can experience lucid dream like, make a dream diary and jot down the dreams you remember, diary alone won’t help but it will be beneficial with other methods. Some devices and drugs are also used.
The B+ tree is almost identical to the binary search tree. It is a balanced tree where the search is directed through internal nodes. The data entries are present in the leaf nodes of the B+ tree. B+ trees support both random and sequential access since the leaf nodes are interconnected with each other through links.
STRUCTURE OF B+ TREE
The general node structure of B+ node is as follows
It contains up to n – 1 search-key values K1, K2, . . ., Kn-1, and n pointers P1, P2, . . ., Pn.
The search-key values within a node are kept in sorted order; thus, if i < j, then Ki < Kj.
To retrieve all the leaf pages efficiently we have to link them using page pointers.
The sequence of leaf pages is also called a sequence set.
In a B+ tree, the tree structure tends to grow on the insertion of new records and shrinks on the deletion of existing records. Hence it is called a dynamic tree.
CHARACTERISTICS OF B+ TREE
The following are the characteristics of the B+ tree:
The B+ tree is a balanced tree and the operations such as insertion and deletion keep the tree balanced.
Each node, except for the root node, must be compulsorily occupied with at least 50%.
Searching becomes so simple because traversing from the root to the relevant leaf nodes results in the record.
INSERTION OPERATION
Algorithm for Insertion:
Step 1: Find correct leaf L.
Step 2: Put data entry onto L.
If L has enough space, done!
If there is no space, split L (into L and a new node L2)
Allocate a new node
Redistribute entries evenly
Copy up the middle key.
Insert index entry such that it points to L2 into the parent of L.
Step 3: This can happen recursively. To split the index node, redistribute entries evenly, but push up the middle key. (Contrast with leaf splits).
Step 4: Splits “grow” tree; splitting the root increases the height. The tree grows either wider or one level taller at the top.
DELETION OPERATION
Algorithm for deletion:
Step 1: Start from the root to find the leaf node L with the entry.
Step 2: Remove the entry,
If L is at least half-full, done!
If L has only d-1 entries,
Try the redistribution technique by borrowing keys from the adjacent node (sibling) with the same parent node as L.
If a failure occurs when tried to re-distribute, merge L and sibling.
Step 3: Whenever a merge occurs, entry (pointing to L or sibling) must be deleted from the parent of L.
Step 4: Merge could pass the entries to the root, reducing the height of the tree.
MERITS OF B+ INDEX TREE STRUCTURE
1. In the B+ tree the data is stored in the leaf node so searching of any data requires scanning only of leaf node alone.
2. Data is ordered in the linked list.
3. Any record can be fetched in an equal number of disk accesses.
4. Since the leaf nodes are linked, performing range queries is easy.
5. Since keys are used for indexing, the height of the tree is less.
The previous article was about the acquired immunity. This article is all about the immune cells, the warriors of the human body.
These cells play a major role in protecting the body from infections. Some of them contribute directly and some contribute indirectly. Despite the methods, all of them are required in optimum amounts so as to live a healthy life.
All of these cells are derived from a specific type of cell found in the blood. The blood is a freely flowing interstitial fluid that transports oxygen, nutrients, etc. to the cells of the body. There are two components in the blood in which the first one is called plasma. The plasma is the liquid carrying water, salts, enzymes, and proteins. There are three specialized proteins in the plasma-
Albumin- to maintain water balance
Globulin- for immunity (it is a part of immunoglobulin)
Fibrinogen- for clotting
Hence the plasma also contributes to immunity. This plasma constitutes about 55% of the blood. The rest 45% of the blood is constituted by the formed elements or corpuscles. There are three elements in it namely-
Erythrocyte or Red Blood Corpuscle- transport of oxygen
Leucocyte or White Blood Corpuscle- fight infections
Thrombocyte or platelets- for clotting
Out of these, the WBC is the one primarily contributing to immunity. A healthy person must have a WBC count from 4000-11000. Count less than 4000 means leukopenia meaning that the immune system is weak. If the count is more than 11000 then it means the condition of autoimmunity known as leucocytosis. There are some further classifications in the WBC which are displayed through the flowchart below.
There are two types of cells in the WBC namely the granulocytes and agranulocytes.
The granulocytes, as the name specifies have granules in their cytoplasm. There are three different cells in this.
The neutrophil constitutes to about 55-70% of the total WBC and they are ones involved in most of the fights against the infections. These defend against bacterial and fungal infections. These cells are mostly found in the epidermal regions and are in the first line of defense. These cells engulf the pathogens by the process of phagocytosis. These cells have multiple nuclei hence these are also known as PMN (Poly Morpho Neutrophils). Neutrophils help prevent infections by blocking, disabling, and digesting off invading particles and microorganisms. They also communicate with other cells to help them repair cells and mount a proper immune response. The death of these cells often results in the formation of pus (suppuration).
neutrophil
The eosinophil constitutes about 2-4% of the total WBC. These cells are very little in the body but can increase in the case of allergic reactions, parasite infection, and so on. The functions of the eosinophil include movement to inflamed areas, trapping substances, killing cells, anti-parasitic and bactericidal activity, participating in immediate allergic reactions, and modulating inflammatory responses.
eosinophil
The basophil is present in the least concentration of all (0.2%) in total WBC. These cells play an important role in allergic reactions in which their count can increase. The basophil contains inflammatory mediators like histamine and heparin. The release of the compounds results in dilation of the blood vessels. Hence these cells regulate the inflammation process.
The agranulocytes are those which lack granules in their cytoplasm. There are two types in this. The lymphocyte can be called as the memory of the immune system. There are two types of lymphocytes namely T and B lymphocytes. These lymphocytes recognize the incoming pathogens and based on their memory it produces a suitable response in a short amount of time. These cells are involved in the secondary response in the acquired immunity.
B cells make antibodies that can bind to pathogens, block pathogen invasion, activate the complement system, and enhance pathogen destruction. The T cells mostly known as CD4+ T helper cells produce the cytokines (proteins in cell signaling) and coordinate with the immune system. There is another form called CD8+ cytotoxic T cells which is opposite to the previous type, they help in the destruction of tumors and pathogens.
The monocyte is the largest of all the cells in WBC. They function similarly to that of the neutrophils (phagocytosis of the pathogens). These cells present the pathogen to the memory cells upon which a response is generated. Once they leave the blood, they turn into macrophages which help in clearing cell debris and killing pathogens. These are known as the vacuum cleaners of immunity.
Hence all these cells work in different mechanisms and they coordinate together to make sure that we do not fall prey to the disease-causing microorganisms.
Eduindex 
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