Fresh violence broke out at the disputed Assam-Mizoram border today — two days after Union home minister Amit shah Chief Ministers of the northeast at Shillong. There were reports of firing from the border area – which lies over Assam’s Cachar district and Mizoram’s Colasib district and attacks on government vehicles.
The Chief Ministers of both states clashed on Twitter, and tagged Union Home Minister Amit Shah in their posts.
Tweeting a video of the violence where people armed with sticks can be seen, Chief Minster Zoramthanga sought Mr Shah’s intervention, saying it “needs to be stopped right now.
All senior officers are now camping along the border. The situation has now been brought under control. However, due to the presence of Mizoram police on their side, some people have fled their homes along the inter-state border in fear. But no one forced them to leave the area,” said Cachar district SP Nimbalkar Vaibhav Chandrakant.
Government is the main agency of state. It comprises of several members belonging to political and administrative wings. It serves as the instrument for delegation and execution of the state policies for the welfare of the people. It formulates, expresses and realises the will of the state. It exercises certain legislative, executive and judicial powers, based on the constitution and the laws. There are three organs in government,namely – legislature, Executive and Judiciary. These organs carry out the activities of the state. Governments are classified into unitary, federal, parliamentary and presidential forms.
Types of Constitution
Unitary Form of Government
A unitary system of government or unitary state, is a sovereign state governed as a single entity. The central government is supreme and the administrative divisions exercise only powers that the central government has delegated to them. England, France, Japan and Sri Lanka are examples of Unitary Form of governments. The term Government is derived from old French ‘governor’, derived from Latin ‘gubernare’ to direct, rule, guide, govern”.
In a Unitary Form of government, all the authority and power is vested in a single centre, whereas in a federal form of government authority and power is distributed between centre and the constituent units. Even in a Unitary Form of Government,there might be a lot of decentralisation of authority,but we cannot claim it as a federal system.
Merits of Unitary form of government
• Suitable for small countries. • There is no conflict of authority and responsibility. • A unitary government will make prompt decisions and take speedy action. • A unitary government is less expensive. • Amendments to the Constitution are easy. • There is unity, uniformity of law, policy and administration.
De-merits of Unitary form of government
• It is not suitable for big countries. • The central government will have to tackle so many complex problems that lead to administrative delay • The central government will not concentrate on local problems, local interest and initiative. • The concentration of powers may pave way for the despotism of the central government.
Unitary features of the Indian constitution
• Strong Centre • Central Government’s control over state territory • Single Constitution • Flexibility of the Constitution • Unequal representation of states • Emergency Provisions • Single Citizenship • Single Integrated Judiciary • All India Services • Appointment of Governor by the Central government
Federal form of government
The classification of governments into Unitary and federal is based on the nature of relations between the national and the regional governments. A federal government is one in which powers are divided between the national government and the regional governments by the Constitution itself and both operate in their respective jurisdictions independently. U.S.A, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, Russia, Brazil, Argentina have federal form of governments. In a federal model, the national government is known as the Federal government or the central government or the Union government and the regional government is known as the state government or the provincial government.
Merits of federal form of government
• Reconciliation of local autonomy with national unity • Division of power between centre and states leads of administrative efficiency • It gives rise to big states • Distribution of powers check the despotism of central government • More suitable for bigger countries • It is good for economic and cultural progress
De – merits of federal form of government
• Federal government is weaker when compared to the unitary government • Federal government is more expensive • Provincial tendencies are very common • Lack of uniformity in Administration • Threat to national unity • Distribution of powers between centre and states lead to conflicts • Double Citizenship • Rigid constitution cannot be a mended easily for changing needs • The state governments sometimes place hindrances in the foreign policy
Federal features of Indian constitution
• Dual Government • Written Constitution • Division of powers • Supremacy of the Constitution
The Constitution is the supreme law of the land. The laws enacted by the Centre and the states must confirm to its provisions.
Diffence between Unitary form and federal form of government
Parliamentary form of government
Modern democratic governments are classified into parliamentary and presidential on the basis of the nature of relations between the executive and the legislative organs of the government. The parliamentary system of government is the one which the executive is responsible to the legislature for its policies and acts. The parliamentary goverment is also known as cabinet government or responsible government and is prevalent in Britian, Japan, Canada and India among others.
Features of parliamentary form of government
• Norminal and Real Executives • Majority party Rule • Collective Responsibility • Dual Membership • Leadership of the Prime Minister
Merits of the parliamentary form of government
• Harmony between Legislature and Executive • Responsible Government • Prevents Dictatorship • Wide Representation
Demerits of the parliamentary form of government
• Unstable Government • No Continuity of policies • Dictatorship of the Cabinet • Against Seperation of powers
The presidential form of government
The presidential form of government is also known as Non-parliamentary or fixed executive system of government, basically built on the principal of seperation of power and is prevalent in the USA, Brazil, Russia and Sri Lanka among others.
Features of presidential form of government
The president as the head of state,he occupies a ceremonial position. The president is elected by an electoral college for a fixed tenure of four years. The president governs with the help of a cabinet or a smaller body called ‘Kitchen Cabinet’. The legislative, executive and judicial powers of the government are separated and vested in three independent organs of the government.
Merits of the presidential system of government
• Democratic • Effective Control by the President • Facilitate decision-making • State government
Demerits of the presidential system of government
• Can degenerate into Dictatorship • Strain relationship between executive and legislative • Lack of Harmony between the legislature and Executive.
Government is the main agency of state. It comprises of several members belonging to political and administrative wings. It serves as the instrument for delegation and execution of the state policies for the welfare of the people. It formulates, expresses and realises the will of the state. It exercises certain legislative, executive and judicial powers, based on the constitution and the laws. There are three organs in government,namely – legislature, Executive and Judiciary. These organs carry out the activities of the state. Governments are classified into unitary, federal, parliamentary and presidential forms.
Types of Constitution
Unitary Form of Government
A unitary system of government or unitary state, is a sovereign state governed as a single entity. The central government is supreme and the administrative divisions exercise only powers that the central government has delegated to them. England, France, Japan and Sri Lanka are examples of Unitary Form of governments. The term Government is derived from old French ‘governor’, derived from Latin ‘gubernare’ to direct, rule, guide, govern”.
In a Unitary Form of government, all the authority and power is vested in a single centre, whereas in a federal form of government authority and power is distributed between centre and the constituent units. Even in a Unitary Form of Government,there might be a lot of decentralisation of authority,but we cannot claim it as a federal system.
Merits of Unitary form of government
• Suitable for small countries. • There is no conflict of authority and responsibility. • A unitary government will make prompt decisions and take speedy action. • A unitary government is less expensive. • Amendments to the Constitution are easy. • There is unity, uniformity of law, policy and administration.
De-merits of Unitary form of government
• It is not suitable for big countries. • The central government will have to tackle so many complex problems that lead to administrative delay • The central government will not concentrate on local problems, local interest and initiative. • The concentration of powers may pave way for the despotism of the central government.
Unitary features of the Indian constitution
• Strong Centre • Central Government’s control over state territory • Single Constitution • Flexibility of the Constitution • Unequal representation of states • Emergency Provisions • Single Citizenship • Single Integrated Judiciary • All India Services • Appointment of Governor by the Central government
Federal form of government
The classification of governments into Unitary and federal is based on the nature of relations between the national and the regional governments. A federal government is one in which powers are divided between the national government and the regional governments by the Constitution itself and both operate in their respective jurisdictions independently. U.S.A, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, Russia, Brazil, Argentina have federal form of governments. In a federal model, the national government is known as the Federal government or the central government or the Union government and the regional government is known as the state government or the provincial government.
Merits of federal form of government
• Reconciliation of local autonomy with national unity • Division of power between centre and states leads of administrative efficiency • It gives rise to big states • Distribution of powers check the despotism of central government • More suitable for bigger countries • It is good for economic and cultural progress
De – merits of federal form of government
• Federal government is weaker when compared to the unitary government • Federal government is more expensive • Provincial tendencies are very common • Lack of uniformity in Administration • Threat to national unity • Distribution of powers between centre and states lead to conflicts • Double Citizenship • Rigid constitution cannot be a mended easily for changing needs • The state governments sometimes place hindrances in the foreign policy
Federal features of Indian constitution
• Dual Government • Written Constitution • Division of powers • Supremacy of the Constitution
The Constitution is the supreme law of the land. The laws enacted by the Centre and the states must confirm to its provisions.
Diffence between Unitary form and federal form of government
Parliamentary form of government
Modern democratic governments are classified into parliamentary and presidential on the basis of the nature of relations between the executive and the legislative organs of the government. The parliamentary system of government is the one which the executive is responsible to the legislature for its policies and acts. The parliamentary goverment is also known as cabinet government or responsible government and is prevalent in Britian, Japan, Canada and India among others.
Features of parliamentary form of government
• Norminal and Real Executives • Majority party Rule • Collective Responsibility • Dual Membership • Leadership of the Prime Minister
Merits of the parliamentary form of government
• Harmony between Legislature and Executive • Responsible Government • Prevents Dictatorship • Wide Representation
Demerits of the parliamentary form of government
• Unstable Government • No Continuity of policies • Dictatorship of the Cabinet • Against Seperation of powers
The presidential form of government
The presidential form of government is also known as Non-parliamentary or fixed executive system of government, basically built on the principal of seperation of power and is prevalent in the USA, Brazil, Russia and Sri Lanka among others.
Features of presidential form of government
The president as the head of state,he occupies a ceremonial position. The president is elected by an electoral college for a fixed tenure of four years. The president governs with the help of a cabinet or a smaller body called ‘Kitchen Cabinet’. The legislative, executive and judicial powers of the government are separated and vested in three independent organs of the government.
Merits of the presidential system of government
• Democratic • Effective Control by the President • Facilitate decision-making • State government
Demerits of the presidential system of government
• Can degenerate into Dictatorship • Strain relationship between executive and legislative • Lack of Harmony between the legislature and Executive.
At a two-year celebration of his government, today Karnataka Chief Minister, BS Yediyurappa announced his resignation. This announcement ends the weeks of speculation floating around regarding calls for his removal by a BJP section in the state. On Monday, BS Yediyurappa (78) was seen breaking down on the stage from where he made the announcement of his resignation. Yediyurappa denied leaving the BJP and said he would continue to serve the party as a worker.Meanwhile, the BJP has decided to send a team of observers to Bengaluru who will convene the legislative party meeting to elect the next chief minister. Until then, BS Yediyurappa will continue to serve as caretaker chief minister of Karnataka.The BJP high command wants fresh faces in the renewed Karnataka Cabinet, sources told India Today. This means that a number of senior ministers could be dropped from the state Cabinet. The BJP’s central leadership is also likely to replace at least two of the three deputy chief ministers in Karnataka – Govind Karajol, Ashwath Narayan and Laxman Sangappa Savadi.A BJP MLA hailing from the Scheduled Tribes (ST) community could be appointed as a deputy chief minister to Yediyurappa’s successor.
BJP national general secretary in charge of Karnataka and Rajasthan, Arun Singh, is slated to arrive in Bengaluru on Tuesday to stand in as a central observer. He could be accompanied by Union Minister Dharmendra Pradhan.Arun Singh told media outlets earlier on Monday that the BJP’s parliamentary board would take the final call on who will succeed Yediyurappa as chief minister of Karnataka.According to sources, no BJP MLA or minister has been summoned to New Delhi by the party high command as of yet.
Speaking on the resignation of BS Yediyurappa as Karnataka chief minister, former CM and Congress leader Siddaramaiah said, “There is no benefit for the common man if one corrupt CM is removed to make another corrupt as CM. Instead the whole BJP party, which is responsible for the miseries of people, should be ousted.”
Acting with full conscience
Addressing the media after submitting his resignation to the Governor, BS Yediyurappa said, “No pressure from (BJP) high command. I myself resigned. I’ve submitted it voluntarily.”
Yediyurappa denied on reports on becoming a Governor and he would continue to work as a BJP worker. “I want to thank the (Lingayat) seers who supported,” he said, urging the Lingayat seers to support the next Karnataka CM.
BS Yediyurappa reached Raj Bhavan to meet Governor Thawar Chand Gehlot to submit his resignation as the Karnataka chief minister. The Governor has accepted his resignation.
Addressing the Vidhan Soudha, Karnataka Chief Minister BS Yediyurappa said, “I’ve gone through agni pariksha always. For two months (in 2019) I didn’t get to make my Cabinet. There were floods and I roamed like a mad man. Later the Cabinet was formed.”
At a two-year celebration of his government, today Karnataka Chief Minister, BS Yediyurappa announced his resignation. This announcement ends the weeks of speculation floating around regarding calls for his removal by a BJP section in the state. On Monday, BS Yediyurappa (78) was seen breaking down on the stage from where he made the announcement of his resignation. Yediyurappa denied leaving the BJP and said he would continue to serve the party as a worker.Meanwhile, the BJP has decided to send a team of observers to Bengaluru who will convene the legislative party meeting to elect the next chief minister. Until then, BS Yediyurappa will continue to serve as caretaker chief minister of Karnataka.The BJP high command wants fresh faces in the renewed Karnataka Cabinet, sources told India Today. This means that a number of senior ministers could be dropped from the state Cabinet. The BJP’s central leadership is also likely to replace at least two of the three deputy chief ministers in Karnataka – Govind Karajol, Ashwath Narayan and Laxman Sangappa Savadi.A BJP MLA hailing from the Scheduled Tribes (ST) community could be appointed as a deputy chief minister to Yediyurappa’s successor.
BJP national general secretary in charge of Karnataka and Rajasthan, Arun Singh, is slated to arrive in Bengaluru on Tuesday to stand in as a central observer. He could be accompanied by Union Minister Dharmendra Pradhan.Arun Singh told media outlets earlier on Monday that the BJP’s parliamentary board would take the final call on who will succeed Yediyurappa as chief minister of Karnataka.According to sources, no BJP MLA or minister has been summoned to New Delhi by the party high command as of yet.
Speaking on the resignation of BS Yediyurappa as Karnataka chief minister, former CM and Congress leader Siddaramaiah said, “There is no benefit for the common man if one corrupt CM is removed to make another corrupt as CM. Instead the whole BJP party, which is responsible for the miseries of people, should be ousted.”
Acting with full conscience
Addressing the media after submitting his resignation to the Governor, BS Yediyurappa said, “No pressure from (BJP) high command. I myself resigned. I’ve submitted it voluntarily.”
Yediyurappa denied on reports on becoming a Governor and he would continue to work as a BJP worker. “I want to thank the (Lingayat) seers who supported,” he said, urging the Lingayat seers to support the next Karnataka CM.
BS Yediyurappa reached Raj Bhavan to meet Governor Thawar Chand Gehlot to submit his resignation as the Karnataka chief minister. The Governor has accepted his resignation.
Addressing the Vidhan Soudha, Karnataka Chief Minister BS Yediyurappa said, “I’ve gone through agni pariksha always. For two months (in 2019) I didn’t get to make my Cabinet. There were floods and I roamed like a mad man. Later the Cabinet was formed.”
The Amazon rainforest, alternatively, the Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses 7,000,000 km2 (2,700,000 sq mi), of which 5,500,000 km2 (2,100,000 sq mi) are covered by the rainforest. This region includes territory belonging to nine nations and 3,344 formally acknowledged indigenous territories.
The majority of the forest is contained within Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%, and with minor amounts in Bolivia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela. Four nations have “Amazonas” as the name of one of their first-level administrative regions, and France uses the name “Guiana Amazonian Park” for its rainforest protected area. The Amazon represents over half of the planet’s remaining rainforests, and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world, with an estimated 390 billion individual trees divided into 16,000 species.
More than 30 million people of 350 different ethnic groups live in the Amazon, which are subdivided into 9 different national political systems and 3,344 formally acknowledged indigenous territories. Indigenous peoples make up 9% of the total population with 60 of the groups remaining largely isolated.
LOCATION
Nine countries share the Amazon basin—most of the rainforest, 58.4%, is contained within the borders of Brazil. The other eight countries include Peru with 12.8%, Bolivia with 7.7%, Colombia with 7.1%, Venezuela with 6.1%, Guyana with 3.1%, Suriname with 2.5%, French Guyana with 1.4%, and Ecuador with 1%.
NATURAL
The rainforest likely formed during the Eocene era (from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago). It appeared following a global reduction of tropical temperatures when the Atlantic Ocean had widened sufficiently to provide a warm, moist climate to the Amazon basin. The rainforest has been in existence for at least 55 million years, and most of the region remained free of savanna-type biomes at least until the current ice age when the climate was drier and savanna more widespread.
Following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, the extinction of the dinosaurs and the wetter climate may have allowed the tropical rainforest to spread out across the continent. From 66 to 34 Mya, the rainforest extended as far south as 45°. Climate fluctuations during the last 34 million years have allowed savanna regions to expand into the tropics. During the Oligocene, for example, the rainforest spanned a relatively narrow band. It expanded again during the Middle Miocene, then retracted to a mostly inland formation at the last glacial maximum. However, the rainforest still managed to thrive during these glacial periods, allowing for the survival and evolution of a broad diversity of species.
During the mid-Eocene, it is believed that the drainage basin of the Amazon was split along the middle of the continent by the Purus Arch. Water on the eastern side flowed toward the Atlantic, while to the west water flowed toward the Pacific across the Amazonas Basin. As the Andes Mountains rose, however, a large basin was created that enclosed a lake; now known as the Solimões Basin. Within the last 5–10 million years, this accumulating water broke through the Purus Arch, joining the easterly flow toward the Atlantic.
There is evidence that there have been significant changes in the Amazon rainforest vegetation over the last 21,000 years through the last glacial maximum (LGM) and subsequent deglaciation. Analyses of sediment deposits from Amazon basin paleolakes and the Amazon Fan indicate that rainfall in the basin during the LGM was lower than for the present, and this was almost certainly associated with reduced moist tropical vegetation cover in the basin. There is a debate, however, over how extensive this reduction was. Some scientists argue that the rainforest was reduced to small, isolated refugia separated by open forest and grassland; other scientists argue that the rainforest remained largely intact but extended less far to the north, south, and east than is seen today. This debate has proved difficult to resolve because the practical limitations of working in the rainforest mean that data sampling is biased away from the center of the Amazon basin, and both explanations are reasonably well supported by the available data.
BIODIVERSITY, FLAURA AND FAUNA
Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia. As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. One in ten known species in the world lives in the Amazon rainforest. This constitutes the largest collection of living plants and animal species in the world.
The region is home to about 2.5 million insect species, tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and mammals. To date, at least 40,000 plant species, 2,200 fishes, 1,294 birds, 427 mammals, 428 amphibians, and 378 reptiles have been scientifically classified in the region. One in five of all bird species are found in the Amazon rainforest, and one in five of the fish species live in Amazonian rivers and streams. Scientists have described between 96,660 and 128,843 invertebrate species in Brazil alone.
The biodiversity of plant species is the highest on Earth with one 2001 study finding a quarter square kilometer (62 acres) of Ecuadorian rainforest supports more than 1,100 tree species. A study in 1999 found one square kilometer (247 acres) of Amazon rainforest can contain about 90,790 tonnes of living plants. The average plant biomass is estimated at 356 ± 47 tonnes per hectare. To date, an estimated 438,000 species of plants of economic and social interest have been registered in the region with many more remaining to be discovered or catalogued. The total number of tree species in the region is estimated at 16,000.
The green leaf area of plants and trees in the rainforest varies by about 25% as a result of seasonal changes. Leaves expand during the dry season when sunlight is at a maximum, then undergo abscission in the cloudy wet season. These changes provide a balance of carbon between photosynthesis and respiration.
The rainforest contains several species that can pose a hazard. Among the largest predatory creatures are the black caiman, jaguar, cougar, and anaconda. In the river, electric eels can produce an electric shock that can stun or kill, while piranha are known to bite and injure humans. Various species of poison dart frogs secrete lipophilic alkaloid toxins through their flesh. There are also numerous parasites and disease vectors. Vampire bats dwell in the rainforest and can spread the rabies virus. Malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever can also be contracted in the Amazon region.
The Amazon rainforest, alternatively, the Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses 7,000,000 km2 (2,700,000 sq mi), of which 5,500,000 km2 (2,100,000 sq mi) are covered by the rainforest. This region includes territory belonging to nine nations and 3,344 formally acknowledged indigenous territories.
The majority of the forest is contained within Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%, and with minor amounts in Bolivia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela. Four nations have “Amazonas” as the name of one of their first-level administrative regions, and France uses the name “Guiana Amazonian Park” for its rainforest protected area. The Amazon represents over half of the planet’s remaining rainforests, and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world, with an estimated 390 billion individual trees divided into 16,000 species.
More than 30 million people of 350 different ethnic groups live in the Amazon, which are subdivided into 9 different national political systems and 3,344 formally acknowledged indigenous territories. Indigenous peoples make up 9% of the total population with 60 of the groups remaining largely isolated.
LOCATION
Nine countries share the Amazon basin—most of the rainforest, 58.4%, is contained within the borders of Brazil. The other eight countries include Peru with 12.8%, Bolivia with 7.7%, Colombia with 7.1%, Venezuela with 6.1%, Guyana with 3.1%, Suriname with 2.5%, French Guyana with 1.4%, and Ecuador with 1%.
NATURAL
The rainforest likely formed during the Eocene era (from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago). It appeared following a global reduction of tropical temperatures when the Atlantic Ocean had widened sufficiently to provide a warm, moist climate to the Amazon basin. The rainforest has been in existence for at least 55 million years, and most of the region remained free of savanna-type biomes at least until the current ice age when the climate was drier and savanna more widespread.
Following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, the extinction of the dinosaurs and the wetter climate may have allowed the tropical rainforest to spread out across the continent. From 66 to 34 Mya, the rainforest extended as far south as 45°. Climate fluctuations during the last 34 million years have allowed savanna regions to expand into the tropics. During the Oligocene, for example, the rainforest spanned a relatively narrow band. It expanded again during the Middle Miocene, then retracted to a mostly inland formation at the last glacial maximum. However, the rainforest still managed to thrive during these glacial periods, allowing for the survival and evolution of a broad diversity of species.
During the mid-Eocene, it is believed that the drainage basin of the Amazon was split along the middle of the continent by the Purus Arch. Water on the eastern side flowed toward the Atlantic, while to the west water flowed toward the Pacific across the Amazonas Basin. As the Andes Mountains rose, however, a large basin was created that enclosed a lake; now known as the Solimões Basin. Within the last 5–10 million years, this accumulating water broke through the Purus Arch, joining the easterly flow toward the Atlantic.
There is evidence that there have been significant changes in the Amazon rainforest vegetation over the last 21,000 years through the last glacial maximum (LGM) and subsequent deglaciation. Analyses of sediment deposits from Amazon basin paleolakes and the Amazon Fan indicate that rainfall in the basin during the LGM was lower than for the present, and this was almost certainly associated with reduced moist tropical vegetation cover in the basin. There is a debate, however, over how extensive this reduction was. Some scientists argue that the rainforest was reduced to small, isolated refugia separated by open forest and grassland; other scientists argue that the rainforest remained largely intact but extended less far to the north, south, and east than is seen today. This debate has proved difficult to resolve because the practical limitations of working in the rainforest mean that data sampling is biased away from the center of the Amazon basin, and both explanations are reasonably well supported by the available data.
BIODIVERSITY, FLAURA AND FAUNA
Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia. As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. One in ten known species in the world lives in the Amazon rainforest. This constitutes the largest collection of living plants and animal species in the world.
The region is home to about 2.5 million insect species, tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and mammals. To date, at least 40,000 plant species, 2,200 fishes, 1,294 birds, 427 mammals, 428 amphibians, and 378 reptiles have been scientifically classified in the region. One in five of all bird species are found in the Amazon rainforest, and one in five of the fish species live in Amazonian rivers and streams. Scientists have described between 96,660 and 128,843 invertebrate species in Brazil alone.
The biodiversity of plant species is the highest on Earth with one 2001 study finding a quarter square kilometer (62 acres) of Ecuadorian rainforest supports more than 1,100 tree species. A study in 1999 found one square kilometer (247 acres) of Amazon rainforest can contain about 90,790 tonnes of living plants. The average plant biomass is estimated at 356 ± 47 tonnes per hectare. To date, an estimated 438,000 species of plants of economic and social interest have been registered in the region with many more remaining to be discovered or catalogued. The total number of tree species in the region is estimated at 16,000.
The green leaf area of plants and trees in the rainforest varies by about 25% as a result of seasonal changes. Leaves expand during the dry season when sunlight is at a maximum, then undergo abscission in the cloudy wet season. These changes provide a balance of carbon between photosynthesis and respiration.
The rainforest contains several species that can pose a hazard. Among the largest predatory creatures are the black caiman, jaguar, cougar, and anaconda. In the river, electric eels can produce an electric shock that can stun or kill, while piranha are known to bite and injure humans. Various species of poison dart frogs secrete lipophilic alkaloid toxins through their flesh. There are also numerous parasites and disease vectors. Vampire bats dwell in the rainforest and can spread the rabies virus. Malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever can also be contracted in the Amazon region.
Introduction:- There are many situations in which law, as well as justice, require that a person be required to conform to an obligation, although he has neither broken any contract nor committed any tort. Chapter V of the Indian Contract Act deals with the situations under the heading “Of certain relations resembling those created by Contract”. The chapter avoids the word “Quasi-contract” and given the clear statutory authorization, the courts in India are not hindered in allowing relief under the different sections of the Act by the theoretical considerations concerning quasi-contracts.
Conditions of quasi- contract:-
(1) A legal agreement created by the courts between two parties who did not a previous obligation to each other.
(2) A normal contract requires two parties to consent to mutually agreeable terms under a quasi-contract neither party is originally intended to create an agreement. Instead, an agreement is imposed by a judge to rectify an occurrence of unjust enrichment.
(3) Courts create quasi-contracts to protect the unjust enrichment of the parties in dispute over payments of goods and services.
Salient Features of quasi-contractual rights:-
(a) Firstly, it does not arise from any agreement of the parties concerned but is imposed by the law, and
(b) Secondly, it is a right that is available not against the entire world but a particular person or persons only.
Kinds of quasi-contractual Obligations:- Section 68 to 72 provide for 5 kinds of quasi-contractual obligations are as follows:
(1)Supply of necessaries
S.68. Claim for necessaries suppliedto a person incapable ofcontracting, oron his account.
Persons incapable of contracting includes:
• a minor
• person of unsound mind
• person disqualified by law to which they are subjected
Illustration:-A supplies B, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to his condition in life. A is entitled to be reimbursed from B‘s property.
(2) Payment by interested person
S.69. Reimbursement of person payingmoney due to another, in payment of which he is interested.
Essential requirements of section 69:
• payer must be interested in making payment
• but should not be bound to pay
• defendant should be under legal compulsion to pay
• payment should be by one to another
(3) Liability to pay for non-gratuitous acts
S.70.Obligation of person enjoying the benefit of non-gratuitous act.
Essentials:
• a person should lawfully do something for another person or deliver something to him;
• in doing the said thing or delivered the said thing he must not intend to act gratuitously;
• the other person for whom something is done or to whom something is delivered must enjoy the benefit thereof.
(4) Finder of goods
S.71.Responsibility of finder of goods.
• Entitled to retain the goods until he receives the lawful charges or consequences for retaining the goods and taking care of them.
• However, he cannot sue for such compensation unless a specified reward has been advertised by the owner.
• Entitled to possess the goods until the true owner was found.
(5) Mistake or coercion
S.72.Liability of person to whom money is paid, or thing delivered by mistake or under coercion- A person to whom money has been paid, or anything delivered, by mistake or under coercion, must repay or return it.
Illustration:A and B jointly owe 100 rupees to C. A alone pays the amount to C, and B, not knowing this fact, pats 100 rupees over again to C. C is bound to repay the amount to B.
Introduction:- There are many situations in which law, as well as justice, require that a person be required to conform to an obligation, although he has neither broken any contract nor committed any tort. Chapter V of the Indian Contract Act deals with the situations under the heading “Of certain relations resembling those created by Contract”. The chapter avoids the word “Quasi-contract” and given the clear statutory authorization, the courts in India are not hindered in allowing relief under the different sections of the Act by the theoretical considerations concerning quasi-contracts.
Conditions of quasi- contract:-
(1) A legal agreement created by the courts between two parties who did not a previous obligation to each other.
(2) A normal contract requires two parties to consent to mutually agreeable terms under a quasi-contract neither party is originally intended to create an agreement. Instead, an agreement is imposed by a judge to rectify an occurrence of unjust enrichment.
(3) Courts create quasi-contracts to protect the unjust enrichment of the parties in dispute over payments of goods and services.
Salient Features of quasi-contractual rights:-
(a) Firstly, it does not arise from any agreement of the parties concerned but is imposed by the law, and
(b) Secondly, it is a right that is available not against the entire world but a particular person or persons only.
Kinds of quasi-contractual Obligations:- Section 68 to 72 provide for 5 kinds of quasi-contractual obligations are as follows:
(1)Supply of necessaries
S.68. Claim for necessaries suppliedto a person incapable ofcontracting, oron his account.
Persons incapable of contracting includes:
• a minor
• person of unsound mind
• person disqualified by law to which they are subjected
Illustration:-A supplies B, a lunatic, with necessaries suitable to his condition in life. A is entitled to be reimbursed from B‘s property.
(2) Payment by interested person
S.69. Reimbursement of person payingmoney due to another, in payment of which he is interested.
Essential requirements of section 69:
• payer must be interested in making payment
• but should not be bound to pay
• defendant should be under legal compulsion to pay
• payment should be by one to another
(3) Liability to pay for non-gratuitous acts
S.70.Obligation of person enjoying the benefit of non-gratuitous act.
Essentials:
• a person should lawfully do something for another person or deliver something to him;
• in doing the said thing or delivered the said thing he must not intend to act gratuitously;
• the other person for whom something is done or to whom something is delivered must enjoy the benefit thereof.
(4) Finder of goods
S.71.Responsibility of finder of goods.
• Entitled to retain the goods until he receives the lawful charges or consequences for retaining the goods and taking care of them.
• However, he cannot sue for such compensation unless a specified reward has been advertised by the owner.
• Entitled to possess the goods until the true owner was found.
(5) Mistake or coercion
S.72.Liability of person to whom money is paid, or thing delivered by mistake or under coercion- A person to whom money has been paid, or anything delivered, by mistake or under coercion, must repay or return it.
Illustration:A and B jointly owe 100 rupees to C. A alone pays the amount to C, and B, not knowing this fact, pats 100 rupees over again to C. C is bound to repay the amount to B.
Today in the 21st century where we can get things at the tip of our fingers, where there are flying cars, one can see each other from any corner of the world; where one can shop for food, clothes, house everything from their mobile phone but still our mind is not happy or is at peace which creates mental health issues.
Today we are physically strong but mentally weak. Our body is perfect yet our minds are chaotic. Today we have everything but still, our mind desires more of other things which makes our minds unhappy, jealous, and unsatisfied with our life. Mental health has been one of the most important health issues in today’s time. People have thousands of friends on Facebook but still no one to hear their problems. It makes a person feel low self-esteem, self-doubt, depression, and anxiety too. If your mind is not happy then no matter what you do; no matter whom you are with, you won’t feel good at all.
It feels like you are with all the people around you, and yet you may lose yourself in the crowd. Mental health issues make you feel sad and add negative contemplations to your brain which impacts your daily life.
It makes you feel bored and lazy to do the job. One going through mental health problems always try to isolate themselves and they don’t socialize with people usually. They have irregular sleeping patterns. They start consuming alcohol and smoking cigarettes which makes them feel better.
One of the most important reasons behind the rise of this Issue is today’s digital world we live in. Where we are provided with every information we want but also exposes us to the information we are not supposed to have. Too much exposure to something always leads you to the negative side. People get wrongly influenced by this information which results in wrong thoughts.
But still today in our society having mental health problems is a stigma. People are afraid to tell others about their problems because society judges them. Which makes it even more worse for people to talk. But this stereotype is slowly breaking, people are now accepting this as completely normal.
People can talk to their friends, family, or with someone, they can connect with. Talking about problems and feelings will always help you to reduce your stress and stay calm. People can start doing meditation or play outdoor games, or socialize with people which would definitely help them with their problems.
European debt crisis is a debt crisis that has affected European Union (EU). Many European zone members could not repay government debt that had severe impact on their economies. These states could not prevent macroeconomic imbalances that caused exceeding debt crisis.
Since, European zone stopped foreign investment in the countries, it was difficult for the member states economies to survive due to excessive dependent on foreign countries. Debt-to-equity ratio had also increased which caused intensive borrowing and spending. France and Germany were involved spent more than the limit.
Member states of the Eurozone adopted similar monetary policies and currencies. However, the fiscal policies of each country were different, which encouraged country like Greece to borrow and spend more.
International trade imbalances led to economic problems. The Great Recession of 2008-2012 worsened the fiscal policies that were adopted to control government expenses. Private debt burdened the existing debt. European Central Bank chose that interest rates in Germany were high, whereas interest rate was lower in Southern eurozone. Germany would lend to Southern states. This gave rise to wages and prices and exports had become less competitive. They had to boost their spending capacity to protect people who were unemployed and needed support. They borrowed more and spent more than what they borrowed.
European governance did not structure the policies that were initiated to control growing debts. Fiscal policies were not implemented properly by the government. In Greece, the governments could not handle the situation due to lack of support from the citizens.
Due to rising unemployment, consumers had to reduce their spending. Unemployment increased because of austerity measures like budget cuts, lower spending. These measures did not work in the favor of protecting the nation from expanding debts.
Foreign investments reduced with ascending debts. Investing in a country that is stuck with a pile of debt was not profitable. Lower investments did not encourage job opportunities and growth of the economy High unemployment, lower wages, shutting down of businesses was the result of the debt crisis. Lack of permanent jobs encouraged people to move to other countries. Adopted policies had reverse effect on the economies. Higher exports and lower imports created even higher debts.
Greece has the highest debts compared to other states. Greek debt crisis originated from heavy spending and borrowing that escalated its overall debt. Improper structure of taxation caused loss of taxes. The debt piled up and Greece was not in a position to pay back all its debt.
This crisis arrived in late 2009 because of Greek governments disclosure that it has higher budget deficits. Greece was helped by European countries by support them with measures to control the deficits like European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF). Greece has repaid 41.6 billion euros as of 2019.
European Debt crisis had profound impact on countries despite stringent measures were taken to stabilize economies. While European nations were gradually recovering from this crisis, coronavirus has concerned these nations again. Effect of Covid-19 is affecting economies and imperative measures are being taken to prevent forthcoming crisis.
Today in the 21st century where we can get things at the tip of our fingers, where there are flying cars, one can see each other from any corner of the world; where one can shop for food, clothes, house everything from their mobile phone but still our mind is not happy or is at peace which creates mental health issues.
Today we are physically strong but mentally weak. Our body is perfect yet our minds are chaotic. Today we have everything but still, our mind desires more of other things which makes our minds unhappy, jealous, and unsatisfied with our life. Mental health has been one of the most important health issues in today’s time. People have thousands of friends on Facebook but still no one to hear their problems. It makes a person feel low self-esteem, self-doubt, depression, and anxiety too. If your mind is not happy then no matter what you do; no matter whom you are with, you won’t feel good at all.
It feels like you are with all the people around you, and yet you may lose yourself in the crowd. Mental health issues make you feel sad and add negative contemplations to your brain which impacts your daily life.
It makes you feel bored and lazy to do the job. One going through mental health problems always try to isolate themselves and they don’t socialize with people usually. They have irregular sleeping patterns. They start consuming alcohol and smoking cigarettes which makes them feel better.
One of the most important reasons behind the rise of this Issue is today’s digital world we live in. Where we are provided with every information we want but also exposes us to the information we are not supposed to have. Too much exposure to something always leads you to the negative side. People get wrongly influenced by this information which results in wrong thoughts.
But still today in our society having mental health problems is a stigma. People are afraid to tell others about their problems because society judges them. Which makes it even more worse for people to talk. But this stereotype is slowly breaking, people are now accepting this as completely normal.
People can talk to their friends, family, or with someone, they can connect with. Talking about problems and feelings will always help you to reduce your stress and stay calm. People can start doing meditation or play outdoor games, or socialize with people which would definitely help them with their problems.
European debt crisis is a debt crisis that has affected European Union (EU). Many European zone members could not repay government debt that had severe impact on their economies. These states could not prevent macroeconomic imbalances that caused exceeding debt crisis.
Since, European zone stopped foreign investment in the countries, it was difficult for the member states economies to survive due to excessive dependent on foreign countries. Debt-to-equity ratio had also increased which caused intensive borrowing and spending. France and Germany were involved spent more than the limit.
Member states of the Eurozone adopted similar monetary policies and currencies. However, the fiscal policies of each country were different, which encouraged country like Greece to borrow and spend more.
International trade imbalances led to economic problems. The Great Recession of 2008-2012 worsened the fiscal policies that were adopted to control government expenses. Private debt burdened the existing debt. European Central Bank chose that interest rates in Germany were high, whereas interest rate was lower in Southern eurozone. Germany would lend to Southern states. This gave rise to wages and prices and exports had become less competitive. They had to boost their spending capacity to protect people who were unemployed and needed support. They borrowed more and spent more than what they borrowed.
European governance did not structure the policies that were initiated to control growing debts. Fiscal policies were not implemented properly by the government. In Greece, the governments could not handle the situation due to lack of support from the citizens.
Due to rising unemployment, consumers had to reduce their spending. Unemployment increased because of austerity measures like budget cuts, lower spending. These measures did not work in the favor of protecting the nation from expanding debts.
Foreign investments reduced with ascending debts. Investing in a country that is stuck with a pile of debt was not profitable. Lower investments did not encourage job opportunities and growth of the economy High unemployment, lower wages, shutting down of businesses was the result of the debt crisis. Lack of permanent jobs encouraged people to move to other countries. Adopted policies had reverse effect on the economies. Higher exports and lower imports created even higher debts.
Greece has the highest debts compared to other states. Greek debt crisis originated from heavy spending and borrowing that escalated its overall debt. Improper structure of taxation caused loss of taxes. The debt piled up and Greece was not in a position to pay back all its debt.
This crisis arrived in late 2009 because of Greek governments disclosure that it has higher budget deficits. Greece was helped by European countries by support them with measures to control the deficits like European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF). Greece has repaid 41.6 billion euros as of 2019.
European Debt crisis had profound impact on countries despite stringent measures were taken to stabilize economies. While European nations were gradually recovering from this crisis, coronavirus has concerned these nations again. Effect of Covid-19 is affecting economies and imperative measures are being taken to prevent forthcoming crisis.
July 26 is celebrated as the Kargil Vijay Diwas to cerebrate the victory of Operation Vijay, the moment which was launched by Indian army to recapture Indian Territories from Pakistani Army and Pakistani militants .Since 1999,This day is celebrated to show respect and gratitude to our brave soldiers who laid down their life to recapture the seized position from Pakistani Army.
The Kargil war was fought in 1999 between India and Pakistan. Kargil war was fought for more than 60 days and ended on 26 July 1999. however Indian prime minister at that time declared operation successful on 14 July. This war started when Pakistani troops silently occupied some Indian posts. However, Pakistani army denied their involvement . But later their Prime minister and other big officials revealed about the involvement of Pakistani forces, that was led by general Ashraf rashid.to give a response Indian army launched operation Vijay to clear the Pakistani Forces and militants.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the prime minister of India at that time. This war was not an easy war to be a part of. because this war was in high attitude in mountaineous terrain. Initially Pakistan captured various important Indian posts and India very well responded with recapturing the posts and pushing Pakistani troops back to their country.
To respond back ,India sent 5 infantory divisions, 44 battalions of Paramilitary forces in Kashmir and 73000 Indian troops. and after that deployment of 60 frontline aircrafts was also done. But all these things were not so easy.it was a high altitude region and very few tracks were connected with main roads. and snow was also a factor. Pakistan had occupied those posts keeping these factors in mind. The Pakistani army was trying to take a strong position in Kashmir by doing this. They were divided into many groups of intruders in Kargil. There total strength was considered to be 1000. with heavily armed with guns like AK-47, mortars, artillery and many other weapons.(Source:https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/kargil-war-history-1595672853-1)
But soon Indian army detected the intruders occupying , and without wasting much time Indian army operations were planned in may 1999,’ operation Vijay’ was launched by Indian army. Indian army was successful in clearing of Drass sector. and many of those were pushed back to Batalik sector. Indian army with the help of Indian Air force attacked those intruders. Thousands of guns, bombs artillery guns were used which created havoc in kargil. Indian troops destroyed their positions and forced them to leave .till July 1999, Tiger hill was recaptured.In July 7,mashkoh valley was also re-captured. Gradually many were recaptured by our army. Air force also made a huge rule in the kargil war , over 300 aircrafts were used.It was believed that 700 intruders were killed by aircrafts.
The war was concluded on July 26,1999. with Indian army regaining all occupied posts by Pakistani Forces, but India also had to sacrifice a lot in Kargil war. More than 500 soldiers laid down their life in Kargil war, and more than 1300 were injured. Today is 22 nd Anniversary of Kargil Vijay Diwas and today whole nation is remembering soldiers’ Sacrifice for the country.
July 26 is celebrated as the Kargil Vijay Diwas to cerebrate the victory of Operation Vijay, the moment which was launched by Indian army to recapture Indian Territories from Pakistani Army and Pakistani militants .Since 1999,This day is celebrated to show respect and gratitude to our brave soldiers who laid down their life to recapture the seized position from Pakistani Army.
The Kargil war was fought in 1999 between India and Pakistan. Kargil war was fought for more than 60 days and ended on 26 July 1999. however Indian prime minister at that time declared operation successful on 14 July. This war started when Pakistani troops silently occupied some Indian posts. However, Pakistani army denied their involvement . But later their Prime minister and other big officials revealed about the involvement of Pakistani forces, that was led by general Ashraf rashid.to give a response Indian army launched operation Vijay to clear the Pakistani Forces and militants.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the prime minister of India at that time. This war was not an easy war to be a part of. because this war was in high attitude in mountaineous terrain. Initially Pakistan captured various important Indian posts and India very well responded with recapturing the posts and pushing Pakistani troops back to their country.
To respond back ,India sent 5 infantory divisions, 44 battalions of Paramilitary forces in Kashmir and 73000 Indian troops. and after that deployment of 60 frontline aircrafts was also done. But all these things were not so easy.it was a high altitude region and very few tracks were connected with main roads. and snow was also a factor. Pakistan had occupied those posts keeping these factors in mind. The Pakistani army was trying to take a strong position in Kashmir by doing this. They were divided into many groups of intruders in Kargil. There total strength was considered to be 1000. with heavily armed with guns like AK-47, mortars, artillery and many other weapons.(Source:https://m.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/kargil-war-history-1595672853-1)
But soon Indian army detected the intruders occupying , and without wasting much time Indian army operations were planned in may 1999,’ operation Vijay’ was launched by Indian army. Indian army was successful in clearing of Drass sector. and many of those were pushed back to Batalik sector. Indian army with the help of Indian Air force attacked those intruders. Thousands of guns, bombs artillery guns were used which created havoc in kargil. Indian troops destroyed their positions and forced them to leave .till July 1999, Tiger hill was recaptured.In July 7,mashkoh valley was also re-captured. Gradually many were recaptured by our army. Air force also made a huge rule in the kargil war , over 300 aircrafts were used.It was believed that 700 intruders were killed by aircrafts.
The war was concluded on July 26,1999. with Indian army regaining all occupied posts by Pakistani Forces, but India also had to sacrifice a lot in Kargil war. More than 500 soldiers laid down their life in Kargil war, and more than 1300 were injured. Today is 22 nd Anniversary of Kargil Vijay Diwas and today whole nation is remembering soldiers’ Sacrifice for the country.
Eduindex 
You must be logged in to post a comment.