Citation

Okeme, C., Itanyi, M. F., & Oluwagbenga, T. T. (2026). Smart Textiles and IoT Integration for Entrepreneurial Growth in Nigeria’s Fashion Industry. International Journal of Research, 13(3), 72–84. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/6

¹Charles Okeme, ²Mamudu Francis Itanyi ³Taiwo Timothy Oluwagbenga

¹The Federal Polytechnic Idah,Kogi State, Nigeria.

^2,3Thomas Adewumi University, Oko, Kwara State, Nigeria.

itanyi.mamudu@tau.edu.ng

Abstract

The integration of smart textiles and the Internet of Things (IoT) presents transformative opportunities for entrepreneurial growth in Nigeria’s fashion industry, particularly among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) rooted in cultural heritage. This study employs a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, grounded in an extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) framework, to examine adoption drivers, barriers, and outcomes. Quantitative data from 248 fashion SME respondents revealed that performance expectancy (β = 0.42, p < 0.001), cultural compatibility, sustainability orientation, and competitive pressure significantly predict behavioral intention, while infrastructure readiness negatively moderates the performance expectancy–intention relationship. Qualitative insights from 22 interviews and 5 focus groups highlighted perceived benefits in production efficiency, waste reduction, and global market differentiation through interactive, heritage-infused products, yet underscored persistent constraints including unreliable electricity, high costs, limited digital skills, and inadequate policy implementation. Despite moderate adoption intention, actual use remains low, creating an intention–behavior gap. However, successful adoption strongly links to entrepreneurial outcomes, including revenue growth, innovation, and job creation. The findings extend UTAUT by incorporating context-specific constructs relevant to the Global South and emphasize the need for targeted interventions reliable energy access, affordable financing, localized training, and strengthened public–private partnerships to bridge adoption barriers. By addressing these challenges, Nigeria can position its fashion sector as a leader in African fashion technology, converting traditional craftsmanship into sustainable, data-driven, globally competitive enterprises aligned with Sustainable Development Goals.

Keywords: smart textiles, Internet of Things, fashion entrepreneurship, technology adoption

1. INTRODUCTION

The fashion industry in Nigeria represents a dynamic intersection of cultural heritage, economic potential, and emerging technological innovation, positioning it as a key driver for entrepreneurial growth. Rooted in traditional textiles such as adire, aso-oke, and Ankara, the sector supports vibrant small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), predominantly women-led, and generates substantial employment while contributing to the creative economy. Recent assessments indicate that Nigeria’s fashion industry contributes approximately $6.1 billion to the nation’s gross domestic product, with consumer spending on apparel and accessories estimated in the range of $2.5 billion to $6 billion annually, although its formal contribution remains modest relative to potential (Musawa, as cited in Guardian Nigeria, 2024; multiple industry analyses, 2025). This disparity highlights significant untapped opportunities for value addition through technological integration, particularly in a context where the industry faces structural constraints including infrastructure deficits, limited access to finance, and supply chain inefficiencies.

Smart textiles, also known as e-textiles or intelligent fabrics, incorporate sensors, actuators, conductive materials, and electronic components to enable adaptive responses to environmental or physiological stimuli. When integrated with the Internet of Things (IoT), these textiles facilitate connectivity for real-time data exchange, remote monitoring, predictive analytics, and enhanced interactivity (Ahmed et al., 2025; Fernández-Caramés & Fraga-Lamas, 2018). Globally, these technologies have advanced from specialized applications in healthcare and sports to broader adoption in fashion, supporting personalization, sustainability, and user-centric design. IoT-enabled smart textiles allow for continuous monitoring of vital signs or environmental conditions, adaptive functionalities such as temperature regulation, and seamless integration into digital ecosystems, aligning with principles of Industry 4.0 and circular economy models that optimize resource use and minimize waste (Younes, 2023).

In the context of Nigerian fashion entrepreneurship, which relies heavily on SMEs with constrained scalability, the adoption of smart textiles and IoT offers practical solutions to longstanding challenges. IoT sensors embedded in production equipment can support predictive maintenance, energy optimization, and fault detection, addressing issues related to unreliable power supply and operational downtime common in developing economies. This technological integration enables entrepreneurs to transform traditional fabrics into interactive, value-added products that preserve cultural motifs while meeting global demands for sustainable and tech-enhanced apparel. Such innovations can enhance supply chain traceability, reduce material waste through upcycling, and improve market access by enabling data-driven customization and consumer engagement.

Nigeria benefits from high digital penetration, with widespread internet and mobile access supporting the deployment of connected garments that collect user data for personalized designs and informed marketing strategies. This capability fosters brand loyalty and facilitates entry into export markets, where demand for ethical, culturally rich African fashion continues to grow. Supportive initiatives, including the African Development Bank’s Fashionomics Africa program, provide training, funding, and digital platforms to empower fashion entrepreneurs in adopting innovative tools, building networks, and scaling operations from local to international levels (African Development Bank, 2022). By promoting digital marketplaces and value chain development, such programs underscore the potential for technology to drive job creation, sustainability, and economic diversification in the sector.

Despite these opportunities, notable research gaps remain in adapting smart textiles and IoT specifically to Nigeria’s socio-economic environment. Much of the existing scholarship centers on developed markets or general applications in developing contexts, with limited empirical investigation into context-specific barriers such as affordability, infrastructure limitations, and digital skill requirements in African settings (Ahmed et al., 2025). This study addresses these gaps by exploring integration pathways for entrepreneurial advancement in Nigeria’s fashion SMEs, drawing on robust, verifiable sources primarily from Scopus- and Web of Science-indexed publications. Grounded in principles of sustainable development, including innovation, responsible consumption, and inclusive growth, the adoption of these technologies holds the promise of positioning Nigeria as a leader in African fashion technology, thereby converting rich cultural assets into scalable, globally competitive enterprises.

• LITERATURE REVIEW

In recent years, several research studies have explored the convergence of smart textiles and the Internet of Things (IoT), highlighting their potential to transform various sectors, including fashion, through enhanced functionality, sustainability, and connectivity. Smart textiles, encompassing e-textiles or intelligent fabrics, integrate sensors, actuators, conductive materials, and electronic components into textile structures to enable sensing, actuation, and data processing capabilities (Ahmed et al., 2025; Younes, 2023). These materials respond adaptively to stimuli such as temperature, pressure, or physiological signals, while IoT integration facilitates real-time data transmission, remote monitoring, and interoperability within digital ecosystems (Fernández-Caramés & Fraga-Lamas, 2018).

Global reviews emphasize the evolution of smart textiles from passive wearables to active, connected systems aligned with Industry 4.0 principles. Key advancements include the incorporation of conductive fibers, flexible electronics, and energy-harvesting mechanisms to support self-powered operation and reduce environmental impact (Ahmed et al., 2025). In fashion applications, IoT-enabled smart textiles enable interactive garments that offer personalization, such as color-changing fabrics, haptic feedback, or embedded wellness tracking, blending aesthetics with utility while promoting user-centric design (Younes, 2023). Sustainability emerges as a central theme, with modular, recyclable, and biodegradable components supporting circular economy models by minimizing waste and enabling repair or upcycling (Ahmed et al., 2025).

Studies further examine integration strategies across hierarchical textile levels—fibers, yarns, fabrics, and finished products—to achieve durability, washability, and comfort essential for apparel (Singha et al., 2019). Energy-efficient designs and IoT frameworks enhance predictive analytics and adaptive responses, expanding applications in healthcare monitoring, sports performance, and consumer fashion (Ahmed et al., 2025; Fernández-Caramés & Fraga-Lamas, 2018). Challenges persist, including material flexibility, power management, and scalability of production, yet ongoing innovations in nanotechnology and bio-integrated systems promise broader adoption (Younes, 2023).

In the context of developing economies, research on digital transformation in the textile and fashion sectors underscores opportunities for technology adoption to address inefficiencies and foster sustainability. Systematic reviews indicate that ICT and Industry 4.0 tools, including IoT, improve supply chain traceability, resource optimization, and market competitiveness in textiles and apparel (Akram, 2022). While much literature focuses on global or developed markets, emerging discussions highlight potential in regions like the Global South, where digital tools can support artisanal revival, waste reduction, and export growth through sustainable practices (various scoping reviews on digital transformation).

This body of literature demonstrates that smart textiles integrated with IoT hold substantial promise for entrepreneurial advancement in fashion, particularly by enabling sustainable, data-driven innovations. Future research should prioritize context-specific applications in emerging markets to bridge theoretical advancements with practical implementation.

• METHODOLOGY

The methodology section outlines the rigorous, replicable procedures employed to investigate the integration of smart textiles and the Internet of Things (IoT) for entrepreneurial growth within Nigeria’s fashion industry. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was adopted, consistent with pragmatic paradigms commonly applied in technology adoption research within emerging economies and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). This approach first collects and analyzes quantitative data to identify patterns and test relationships, followed by qualitative data to provide explanatory depth and contextual interpretation.

Research Design

The study integrates quantitative and qualitative strands under a pragmatic philosophical stance, prioritizing actionable insights over strict epistemological boundaries. The quantitative phase draws on an extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) framework (Venkatesh et al., 2003), augmented with context-specific constructs such as infrastructure readiness, cultural compatibility, government support, perceived sustainability benefits, and competitive pressure. These extensions reflect established adaptations in developing-country and Industry 4.0 contexts. The qualitative phase employs interpretive inquiry to elucidate mechanisms, barriers, and enablers identified quantitatively.

Population and Sampling

The target population includes owners, managers, designers, and technical personnel from fashion SMEs in Nigeria engaged in textile production, garment manufacturing, traditional weaving, ready-to-wear, and bespoke tailoring. Key clusters include Lagos, Abuja, Aba, and Kano.

For the quantitative phase, stratified purposive sampling targeted 280 respondents to ensure representation across enterprise size (micro, small, medium), sub-sector, and geographic location. Sample size was informed by structural equation modeling (SEM) guidelines, aiming for a minimum of 200 valid responses to support model complexity (approximately 10–15 estimated parameters per latent construct) and achieve statistical power ≥ 0.80 at α = 0.05.

For the qualitative phase, purposive sampling selected 22 key informants for in-depth semi-structured interviews and 5 focus group discussions (FGDs) with 6–8 participants each (total n ≈ 35–40). Selection criteria prioritized diversity in experience with emerging technologies, enterprise maturity, and regional representation. Data saturation determined final sample size.

Data Collection Instruments

• Quantitative: A structured questionnaire comprising 48 items measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Constructs were adapted from validated UTAUT scales, with additional items for contextual factors developed from prior literature and pilot-tested for content validity.
• Qualitative: Semi-structured interview guides (12 core questions) and FGD protocols explored adoption experiences, perceived barriers (e.g., power instability, skill deficiencies), opportunities for cultural-textile integration, and entrepreneurial outcomes.

Both instruments underwent pilot testing with 35 respondents (Cronbach’s α > 0.70 for all scales; minor revisions for clarity and cultural appropriateness). Face-to-face and online administration ensured accessibility.

Data Collection Procedure

Quantitative data were collected from October to December 2025 via hybrid methods (online platforms and field administration in fashion clusters). Qualitative data followed (January–March 2026), with audio-recorded interviews/FGDs (average duration 45–60 minutes) conducted in English or local languages (with translation). All participants provided informed consent; ethical clearance was obtained from an institutional review board.

Data Analysis

• Quantitative: Descriptive statistics summarized demographics and construct means. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) assessed measurement model validity (convergent: AVE ≥ 0.50; discriminant: Fornell-Larcker criterion and HTMT < 0.85). Structural equation modeling (SEM) via AMOS tested hypothesized paths. Model fit indices included χ²/df < 3, CFI ≥ 0.95, TLI ≥ 0.95, RMSEA ≤ 0.08, and SRMR ≤ 0.08. Bootstrapping (5,000 resamples) examined mediation/moderation effects.
• Qualitative: Thematic analysis using NVivo followed a six-phase process (Braun & Clarke, 2006): transcription, familiarization, initial coding, theme development, review, and refinement. Inter-coder reliability exceeded 85%.
• Integration: Joint displays merged quantitative results (e.g., significant predictors) with qualitative themes to explain variance, enhance interpretation, and generate meta-inferences.

Table 1: Summary of Research Phases

Phase	Design Component	Sample Size Target	Primary Instrument	Analysis Method	Key Objective
Quantitative (Phase 1)	Survey-based	280 (minimum 200 valid)	Structured questionnaire	CFA, SEM (AMOS), bootstrapping	Test extended UTAUT relationships and predictors of adoption/intention
Qualitative (Phase 2)	Semi-structured interviews & FGDs	22 interviews; 5 FGDs	Interview/FGD guides	Thematic analysis (NVivo)	Explain quantitative findings, explore contextual barriers/enablers
Integration	Explanatory convergence	–	Joint displays	Meta-inference synthesis	Triangulate results for comprehensive insights

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

.

• RESULTS

The Results section presents the findings from the sequential explanatory mixed-methods study on the integration of smart textiles and IoT for entrepreneurial growth in Nigeria’s fashion SMEs. Quantitative results are derived from 248 valid responses (response rate: 88.6% from 280 targeted surveys), followed by qualitative insights from 22 in-depth interviews and 5 focus group discussions (n ≈ 38 participants) to explain and contextualize the patterns.

Respondent Profile

Respondents were predominantly female (62.1%), aged 25–44 years (68.5%), with most operating small enterprises (1–50 employees: 71.4%). Sub-sectors included ready-to-wear (48.8%), traditional textile weaving (22.6%), and bespoke tailoring (28.6%). Lagos and Aba accounted for 65.3% of participants.

Table 2: Demographic Profile of Respondents (N = 248)

Characteristic	Category	Frequency	Percentage (%)
Gender	Female	154	62.1
	Male	94	37.9
Age	18–24	32	12.9
	25–34	98	39.5
	35–44	72	29.0
	45+	46	18.5
Enterprise Size	Micro (<10 employees)	112	45.2
	Small (10–50)	65	26.2
	Medium (51–250)	71	28.6
Primary Sub-sector	Ready-to-wear	121	48.8
	Traditional weaving	56	22.6
	Bespoke tailoring	71	28.6

Mean scores (5-point Likert scale) indicate moderate levels of awareness and intention toward smart textiles/IoT adoption. Performance Expectancy (M = 4.12, SD = 0.68) and Government Support (M = 3.45, SD = 0.92) scored highest and lowest, respectively.

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics and Reliability of Constructs

Construct	Mean	SD	Cronbach’s α	Composite Reliability	AVE
Performance Expectancy (PE)	4.12	0.68	0.89	0.91	0.68
Effort Expectancy (EE)	3.78	0.75	0.85	0.88	0.62
Social Influence (SI)	3.56	0.82	0.82	0.86	0.59
Facilitating Conditions (FC)	3.64	0.79	0.87	0.90	0.65
Infrastructure Readiness (IR)	3.21	0.91	0.84	0.87	0.61
Cultural Compatibility (CC)	3.89	0.71	0.86	0.89	0.64
Government Support (GS)	3.45	0.92	0.83	0.86	0.60
Sustainability Orientation (SO)	4.01	0.69	0.88	0.91	0.67
Competitive Pressure (CP)	3.92	0.74	0.85	0.88	0.63
Behavioral Intention (BI)	3.68	0.80	0.90	0.92	0.70
Use Behavior (UB)	3.12	0.88	0.84	0.87	0.62
Entrepreneurial Growth (EG)	3.45	0.85	0.87	0.90	0.65

All constructs exceeded recommended thresholds (Cronbach’s α > 0.70, CR > 0.70, AVE > 0.50).

Measurement Model Assessment

Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed adequate fit: χ²/df = 2.18, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.069, SRMR = 0.052. Discriminant validity was established (HTMT ratios < 0.85; Fornell-Larcker criterion met).

Structural Model and Hypothesis Testing

SEM results (bootstrapped, 5,000 resamples) revealed significant paths. PE (β = 0.42, p < 0.001), EE (β = 0.18, p < 0.01), FC (β = 0.21, p < 0.001), CC (β = 0.15, p < 0.05), SO (β = 0.19, p < 0.01), and CP (β = 0.14, p < 0.05) positively influenced BI. BI strongly predicted UB (β = 0.58, p < 0.001), which in turn influenced EG (β = 0.49, p < 0.001). IR (β = -0.12, p < 0.05) negatively moderated PE → BI. GS showed no significant direct effect (β = 0.08, p = 0.142).

Model explained 62.4% variance in BI, 48.7% in UB, and 41.2% in EG. Fit indices: χ²/df = 2.34, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.074.

Table 4: Hypothesis Testing Results (Structural Paths)

Hypothesis	Path	β	t-value	p-value	Supported?
H1	PE → BI	0.42	7.81	<0.001	Yes
H2	EE → BI	0.18	3.12	<0.01	Yes
H3	SI → BI	0.09	1.64	0.102	No
H4	FC → BI	0.21	4.05	<0.001	Yes
H5	IR → BI (direct)	-0.12	-2.31	<0.05	Yes (neg)
H6	CC → BI	0.15	2.78	<0.05	Yes
H7	GS → BI	0.08	1.47	0.142	No
H8	SO → BI	0.19	3.45	<0.01	Yes
H9	CP → BI	0.14	2.56	<0.05	Yes
H10	BI → UB	0.58	9.62	<0.001	Yes
H11	UB → EG	0.49	8.14	<0.001	Yes

Thematic analysis yielded four major themes:

1. Perceived Benefits and Performance Gains — Participants emphasized efficiency in production (e.g., predictive maintenance via IoT sensors) and market differentiation through interactive traditional fabrics. “Smart integration could let us monitor looms remotely and reduce downtime from power issues” (Interviewee 7, Lagos weaver).
2. Infrastructure and Readiness Barriers — Erratic electricity, high costs, and limited digital skills dominated discussions. “We lack stable power; IoT devices would fail without reliable energy” (FGD 2, Aba participant).
3. Cultural and Compatibility Factors — Positive views on blending heritage with tech: “Adire with embedded sensors could appeal globally while keeping our identity” (Interviewee 14). However, concerns over skill mismatches persisted.
4. External Enablers and Pressures — Competitive pressure from imports and sustainability demands drove interest, but government support was deemed insufficient: “Policies exist on paper, but no funding or training reaches us” (FGD 4).

Discussion of Findings

Quantitative predictors (PE, FC, CC, SO, CP) aligned with qualitative narratives on benefits and contextual fit. Infrastructure negatively moderated adoption, as explained by power and cost challenges. Low GS effect reflected perceived policy gaps, despite calls for incentives.

These results indicate moderate intention but low actual adoption of smart textiles/IoT in Nigeria’s fashion SMEs, driven by performance benefits and sustainability yet constrained by infrastructure deficits. Entrepreneurial growth potential exists through targeted interventions.

• DISCUSSION

The findings of this mixed-methods study affirm the transformative potential of smart textiles and IoT integration for entrepreneurial advancement in Nigeria’s fashion industry, while simultaneously exposing critical barriers that must be addressed to translate intention into widespread adoption. Performance expectancy emerged as the dominant driver of behavioral intention (β = 0.42, p < 0.001), underscoring that Nigerian fashion entrepreneurs strongly associate these technologies with enhanced production efficiency, reduced waste, predictive maintenance, and the ability to create high-value, interactive products that preserve cultural heritage. Qualitative narratives reinforced this perception, with participants describing scenarios where IoT-enabled looms could minimize downtime from power fluctuations and where sensor-embedded adire or aso-oke fabrics could command premium prices in ethical global markets.

Cultural compatibility (β = 0.15, p < 0.05) and sustainability orientation (β = 0.19, p < 0.01) further strengthened adoption intention, indicating that entrepreneurs view smart textiles not as a disruption to tradition but as an opportunity to modernize and globalize it. This alignment between heritage and innovation represents a unique competitive advantage for Nigerian SMEs in an era of rising demand for authentic, sustainable fashion. Competitive pressure (β = 0.14, p < 0.05) also played a meaningful role, reflecting the urgency to differentiate from low-cost Asian imports and capitalize on digital marketplaces.

However, infrastructure readiness exerted a significant negative moderating effect on the performance expectancy–intention relationship, confirming that unreliable electricity, high equipment costs, and limited broadband access erode confidence in the practical benefits of these technologies. Qualitative data vividly illustrated this constraint, with entrepreneurs repeatedly citing power instability as the single greatest obstacle to implementation. The non-significant influence of government support and social influence further highlights systemic gaps: while policy frameworks and initiatives exist, their reach and effectiveness at the SME level remain limited, and peer demonstration effects are weakened by the industry’s informal structure.

The robust path from behavioral intention to use behavior (β = 0.58, p < 0.001) and subsequently to entrepreneurial growth (β = 0.49, p < 0.001) provides compelling evidence that successful adoption can drive revenue growth, product innovation, and job creation. Yet the low mean score for actual use behavior (M = 3.12) signals a pronounced intention–behavior gap, consistent with patterns observed in other resource-constrained emerging markets.

These results extend UTAUT by demonstrating the salience of cultural compatibility and sustainability orientation in heritage-based industries of the Global South, while underscoring infrastructure as a critical boundary condition. For Nigeria to harness smart textiles and IoT as engines of entrepreneurial growth, deliberate interventions are essential: reliable energy solutions, affordable financing mechanisms, localized digital skills training, and strengthened public–private partnerships to pilot culturally relevant applications. By closing these gaps, the fashion sector can evolve from a largely informal contributor to a globally competitive, technology-driven pillar of economic diversification and inclusive development.

• CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that the integration of smart textiles and the Internet of Things (IoT) holds substantial promise for catalyzing entrepreneurial growth in Nigeria’s fashion industry, particularly among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) rooted in cultural heritage. Quantitative findings from the extended UTAUT model reveal that performance expectancy, cultural compatibility, sustainability orientation, and competitive pressure significantly drive adoption intention, while infrastructure deficits exert a strong negative moderating effect, creating a pronounced intention-use gap. Qualitative insights corroborate these patterns, highlighting perceived benefits in production efficiency, waste reduction, and global market differentiation through interactive, heritage-infused products, yet underscoring persistent barriers such as unreliable power supply, high costs, limited digital skills, and inadequate government support implementation. Despite low actual adoption levels, the robust linkage from use behavior to entrepreneurial outcomes—encompassing revenue growth, innovation, and job creation affirms the technologies’ potential to elevate the sector’s economic contribution, currently estimated at around $6 billion annually, toward greater formalization and competitiveness. By addressing these contextual constraints through targeted interventions including reliable energy access, affordable financing, localized training programs, and strengthened public-private partnerships like Fashionomics Africa Nigeria can position its fashion industry as a leader in African fashion technology. Ultimately, embracing smart textiles and IoT offers a pathway to transform traditional craftsmanship into sustainable, data-driven, globally viable enterprises, fostering inclusive economic diversification, cultural preservation, and alignment with Sustainable Development Goals on innovation and responsible consumption.

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¹Egwu, Francis Ogbonnia

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: francis.egwu@funai.edu.ng

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0009-8519-8303

^2**Nlemchukwu Emmanuel Chigozirim***

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: nlemchukwu.emmanuel@funai.edu.ng   

Corresponding author***

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6403-6507

³Adinde, Kenneth Umezulike

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: kenneth.adinde@funai.edu.ng 

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0002-7458-7847

⁴Daniel Chidiebere Onwe

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: onwedaniel1990@gmail.com 

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0003-4168-148X

⁵Idam, Gabriel Ogbonnia

Department of Criminology and Security Studies,

Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Email: libertymovieproduction@gmail.com  

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0006-7825-7596

Abstract

Cybercrime has become a growing global concern, affecting individuals, corporations, and governments alike, with its reach extending far beyond national borders. The paper adopted a theoretical approach to examine the prevalence of cybercriminality among undergraduates of universities in Southeastern Nigeria. The paper used two theoretical approaches: the routine activity theory and the differential-association theory. The routine activity theory stipulates three necessary conditions for most crime: a likely offender (cybercriminals), a suitable target (victims) and the absence of a capable guardian (unprotected information), coming together in time and space. That is, for a crime to occur, a likely offender must find a suitable target in the absence of capable guardians.  And the differential-association theory asserts that an individual is influenced to participate in criminal behaviour through watching and interacting with other individuals who are engaging in the criminal behaviour. The study revealed that the high level of corruption and the spread of poverty are seen by university undergraduates as the principal cause of cybercrime. Findings also show that the effort to get rich quickly by most Nigerians, especially the youths, is often exploited by cyber fraudsters. Again, findings also show that many security personnel, instead of looking at how to arrest this cybercrime operator, serve as bodyguards to them and cover them up in order to gain cash rewards. The conclusion is that cybercrime can adequately be controlled if law enforcement agencies are trained on the use of technology. The study recommends that there should be a more proactive approach that will allow law enforcement agencies to track and investigate students’ involvement in cybercrime within and outside the institution.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Keywords: Prevalence of cybercrime, Forms of cybercrime, Cybercrime, Undergraduate Students, Nigeria universities                                                     

 Introduction

Cybercrime is one of the most evolving high-technology crimes of the twenty-first century in the world. Cybercrime has become a growing global concern, affecting individuals, corporations, and governments alike, with its reach extending far beyond national borders. As technology continues to advance, so too do the tactics employed by cybercriminals. In Europe, cybercrime encompasses a wide array of illegal activities, including identity theft, financial fraud, data breaches, and even cyber terrorism. The European Union has made efforts to combat these challenges by introducing stringent regulations such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), as well as cybersecurity initiatives (European Union, 2016). However, despite these efforts, cybercrime remains a persistent threat due to the evolving nature of technology and the increasingly sophisticated methods used by criminals (Böhme, 2020). In Africa, the rapid growth of internet access and mobile technology has brought both opportunities and challenges. Many African nations face widespread poverty, unemployment, and a lack of adequate educational opportunities, which have contributed to the rise of cybercrime. Countries such as South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria have witnessed an alarming increase in cybercriminal activities, including phishing, online scams, and hacking. In 2019, the African Union reported that cybercrime cost the continent approximately $3.5 billion annually (African Union, 2020).

Nigeria, Africa’s most populous nation, has been significantly impacted by the growing threat of cybercrime. Nigerian youths, in particular, have become increasingly involved in various forms of online crime, with financial fraud, phishing, and scams being the most common offences. The term “Yahoo boys” has become synonymous with internet fraud in Nigeria, referring to young people who engage in fraudulent schemes to scam people out of money (Adebayo, 2020).

These impacts have taken different shapes and forms over the years. It has contributed to the invention of other information and communication technology (ICT) solutions and services, such as emails, e-commerce, social media, the Internet of Things (IoT), and its smart services, among others. Aside from the numerous positive aspects of the internet, such as social networking, worldwide linkages, job creation, improving medical and education access, expansion of the commercial landscape and so on (Chen et al., 2023), it has also contributed to a series of criminal activities in our society in the form of internet crimes or cybercrimes (Garba, 2023). Cyber activities have both positive and negative impacts on the users as individuals, organisations, groups, people and society at large. According to Alansari, Aljazzaf, and Sarfraz (2019), cybercrime is any Internet-related crime that is always directed against individuals, groups, and/or the state and its economy, motivated by the criminal intention that can cause damage/destruction that may be of different types, including physical, mental, and loss of money, and also it involves the unlawful accessing of information of the victims using electronic devices. Cybercrimes are not entirely new with their widespread nature, nor are they peculiar to developing nations like Nigeria. For instance, the first highly publicised cybercrimes occurred in November 1988 in the United States (U.S.), when a 23-year-old student, Robert Morris, launched a virus (“Morris Worm”) on the internet. Over 6,000 computers of the estimated 60,000 systems linked to the internet at that time were infected, and it cost about $100 million to repair the infected systems. As a consequence, Morris got a sentence of 3 years’ probation and a $10,000 fine (Stambaugh et al., 2001). Subsequently, cybercrimes gradually evolved into a serious global problem.

In Nigeria, Rotimi (2015) asserted that the menace is very rampant among the youths within the age of 18 to 35 years, and it would be inappropriate to describe youths in Nigeria based on the temporal relation of age because of the timeline and multiplicity of opinion on this issue. Cybercrimes have become a serious problem in Nigeria, culminating in the listing of Nigeria as third on the roll of the top ten cybercrime hot spots in the world by a 2009 Internet Crime Report (FBI, 2010). The seriousness of this problem can be better appreciated when we consider the fact that in spite of the several interventions made by the Nigerian government and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in tackling cybercrime, such as the co-operation between Microsoft Corporation and the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) of Nigeria to fight cybercrime, the enactment of cybercrime laws by the Nigerian government aimed at ensuring the security of computer systems and networks in Nigeria has not produced much result (Balogun & Obe, 2010). Nigeria has for four consecutive years (2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009) ranked third on the list of world cybercrime perpetrator countries (FBI, 2010). Thus, Debarati and Jaishanka (2011) stressed that cybercrimes are offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with criminal motives to intentionally harm the reputations of their victims or cause physical or mental harm to their victims directly or indirectly using modern telecommunication networks such as the internet (chat rooms, e-mails, etc.) and mobile phones (SMS/MMS). The use of modern applications has enhanced cyber criminality such as facebook, yahoo messenger, tinder, twitter, instagram, snapchat, telegram, among others. However, there are no generally accepted typologies of cybercrime, but scholars of criminology typified two main kinds of internet-related crime, such as (1) Advanced Cybercrime (or high-tech crime), sophisticated attacks against computer hardware and software, and (2) Cyber Realm Enabled Crime (Interpol, 2016). What this implies is that many traditional crimes have taken a new turn with the emergence of the internet, such as crimes against children, financial crimes and even terrorism (Oyesanya, 2015). In view of the aforementioned problems, the age category of people that indulges in cybercrimes and other related activities is undergraduate students of universities; hence, this study aims at evaluating the prevalence of cybercrimes among undergraduate students of universities in southeastern Nigeria.

Problem Statement

A global concern today is the issue of cybercrime among undergraduates of Nigerian universities. This social phenomenon has been constituting huge security, economic and mental health threats to individuals, corporate and government organisations in different countries. A global economic crime survey by Armin, Thompson, Ariu, Giacinto, Roli and Kijewski (2015) puts the annual cost of cybercrime to the global economy at more than €300 billion, while the cost of cybercrime for the European Union (EU) was estimated to be 0.4% of its GDP, amounting to €13 billion per annum. This report claimed that Poland, Germany and the United Kingdom lost €377 million, €2.6 billion and €2 billion per annum, respectively (Armin et al., 2015). These figures, among others, showed that cybercrime globally constitutes a serious financial threat to the economy and the wellbeing of their innocent victims. It also follows logically that a crime of this magnitude is possible when individuals remove self-censure and self-sanctions from their behaviour. However, with respect to the undergraduates in Nigerian universities, the contribution of the internet to the academic development of Nigerian undergraduates has been marred by the conscious evolution of new waves of crime.

The internet has also become an environment where the most productive and safest offence thrives. Thus, the ubiquity of social media platforms in recent times has further aggravated the extent of cybercrime involvement among undergraduates in Nigeria (Akor, 2017). Indeed, the trend and patterns of this crime are fast changing with the increasing involvement of female students. For instance, in November 2018, the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) arrested 34 undergraduates, including nine females suspected to be involved in cyber fraud perpetration at Awa-Ijebu, Ogun State (Akinkuotu, 2018). Moreover, Tade and Aliyu (2011) submit that cyber fraud, a form of cybercrime, has literally become a way of life for many undergraduates in 44 Nigerian universities. Aghatise (2006) contends that 80% of cybercrime perpetrators in Nigeria are students in various institutions. The reported cases range from fake lotteries to the biggest internet scams. In July 2001, the Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) arrested four Nigerians suspected to be involved in cybercrime that duped unsuspecting foreign investors in Ghana. Two young men were recently arrested after making an online purchase of two laptops advertised by a woman on her website under false claims. They were arrested at the point of delivery by government officials. Recently, the Ibadan zonal office of the Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) arrested a 26-year-old student of Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, for internet fraud, deceiving unsuspecting victims on military dating sites while posing as a Nigeria-based US Army officer by the name Sergeant Frank McGhee (EFCC, 2016).In view of the aforementioned problems, this study evaluates the prevalence of cybercrimes among undergraduate students of universities in southeastern Nigeria.                                 

The Conceptual Overview of Cybercrimes

Cybercrime refers to illegal activities carried out using computers, networks, or the internet. It has emerged as a significant issue in the digital age, with the rise of technology increasing the potential for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities in systems. Cybercrime can affect individuals, businesses, governments, and even entire nations. The anonymity provided by the internet makes it easier for criminals to operate without being identified, presenting significant challenges for law enforcement (Smith, 2010). Cybercrime is a global issue that frequently surpasses national borders, necessitating international cooperation for effective prevention.  It is not surprising that a large number of youths are involved in cybercrime, as they are found to constitute the largest user of the internet. According to the NCA report (2018), the average age of people involved in cybercrime is between 17 and 22 years. This implies that the youths, especially the university undergraduate students, dominate the population of cybercriminals. Various studies (Lowry et al., 2016; Emma et al., 2015; Matti et al., 2015) have been conducted to examine cybercrime of different forms among university students. Cybercrime is mainly committed by our youths in order to make life earnings easier, thereby defrauding individuals or all organisations of all kinds. Some cybercriminals are well organised, use advanced strategies and are highly technically skilled. Their goal is to make money and is usually done by individuals or an organisation at large.

Cybercrime offences made their way into Nigeria in the 1990s. Such crimes were generally referred to as Advance Fee Fraud, or simply ‘419’. Advance fee fraud was a means by which some dubious Nigerians deceived foreigners into parting with their money by promising them non-existent oil contracts. Fraudsters perpetrate such illicit acts by sending emails to their prospective victims whom they promise oil well contracts and demand upfront payments to facilitate the process. Most times, the foreigners are invited into Nigeria and treated to make-believe official receptions during which they are made to sign fictitious contract papers. However, after being put through such make-believe shady deals and upon return to their country of origin, the foreign businessmen would later discover to their discomfiture that they have been conned by Nigerian fraudsters who, thereafter, discontinue further communication with their victims. Beyond the advance fee fraud, or 419 scams, the growth in information communication technology has led to an unprecedented rise in other cybercrime offences such as extortion, identity theft, cyber trespassing, digital piracy, Yahoo-Yahoo Plus and email scams, among many others. Thus, the ubiquity of social media platforms in recent times has further aggravated the extent of cybercrime involvement among undergraduates in Nigeria (Akor, 2017). Indeed, the trend and patterns of this crime are fast changing with the increasing involvement of female students. For instance, in November 2018, the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) arrested 34 undergraduates, including nine females suspected to be involved in cyber fraud perpetration at Awa-Ijebu, Ogun State (Akinkuotu, 2018). Moreover, Tade and Aliyu (2011) submit that cyber fraud, a form of cybercrime, has literally become a way of life for many undergraduates in 44 Nigerian universities. Aghatise (2006) contends that 80% of cybercrime perpetrators in Nigeria are students in various institutions.                                    

Theoretical Framework

The major theories considered in this work include routine activity theory and differential-association theory. Routine activity theory is a crime of opportunity theory that focuses on situations of crimes. It was developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen in 1979. This theory attempts to show that crime rates are not generally affected by macro changes such as economic recessions, unemployment rates, poverty, etc. This theory stipulates three necessary conditions for most crime: a likely offender (cybercriminals), a suitable target (victims) and the absence of a capable guardian (unprotected information), coming together in time and space. That is, for a crime to occur, a likely offender must find a suitable target in the absence of capable guardians. According to Felson and Cohen (1979), the reason for the increase is that it offers more opportunities for crime to occur, as there is much to steal. Routine activity theory provides a simple and powerful insight into the causes of cybercrime. The idea is that in the absence of effective controls, offenders will prey upon attractive targets. To have a crime, a motivated offender must come to the same place as an attractive target. For property crimes, the target is a thing or an object (usually cash in the case of cybercriminals), while for personal crimes, the target is a person (wealthy people). If an attractive target is never in the same place as a motivated offender, the target will not be taken, damaged or assaulted. There are controllers whose presence can prevent internet crime, such as anti-virus, password or encryption, but if the controllers are absent or present but powerless, cybercrime is possible, as posited by Eric (2016).

According to Sutherland (1939; 1960), of differential association theory, criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication. This would mean an individual is influenced to participate in criminal behaviour through watching and interacting with other individuals who are engaging in the criminal behaviour. The principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups. When criminal behaviour is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated and sometimes simple, and they learn the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalisations and attitudes for committing a crime. Differential association theory asserts that an individual is more likely to commit crime when the individual learns favourable definitions towards violations of the law in excess of the definitions unfavourable to violations of the law. That is, people learn to engage in crime, primarily through their association with others, and weigh the benefits between. They learn beliefs that are favourable to crime and, as a result, are exposed to criminality (McLeod, 2016). Differential Association theory views crime as something that is desirable or at least justifiable in certain situations. It explains both the process by which a given person(s) learns to engage in crime and the content of what is learned. According to Sutherland (1960), an individual’s environment influences one to learn appropriate behaviours to survive within the environment. This mostly occurs in groups where people within a specific reference group or association display norms of deviance or conformity (Siegel, 2013). According to Siegel (2013), the differential association theory applies to several types of behaviours, including cybercrime. This is because they view themselves as young and innovative; therefore, they commit crimes, such as hacking, advance fee fraud, identity theft, malicious coding and outside or inside espionage as a way to express their creativity cum the anonymous nature of the cyber realm (Moore, 2012). Thus, in relation to the study, the undergraduate student views himself as young and innovative; therefore, he commits cybercrimes such as hacking, advance fee fraud, identity theft, flash bank credit alerts, coding and outside or inside espionage as a way to express his creativity through the anonymous nature of the cyber realm. This theory is relevant in explaining the emergence of cybercrimes among undergraduates because they learn these deviant behaviours from their interactions with others and the environment around them. Cybercriminals acquire deviant behaviour on cyber or computer-related crimes from people they associate with within their daily lives. Today, people rely on computer devices to do almost every daily activity, including communicating, studying, researching and working. Consequently, this environment provides a suitable environment for undergraduates to engage in cybercrimes. Routine theory and differential association theory have been adopted as the theoretical framework in this study because they are the most suitable, adequate, appropriate, and relevant and best explain the phenomenon of cybercrimes.

Results

Motivating Factors and Evaluating the Performance of Institutional Frameworks and Proactive Measures that could Ameliorate the Menace of Criminality Among University Undergraduates

There are various factors that influence the prevalence of cybercrimes among undergraduate students of universities in Nigeria. The founding fathers of the internet, when the Internet was developed, were not willing to misuse the internet for criminal activities. Nowadays in cyberspace, there are numerous troubling events. Scholars have nevertheless attributed the world’s causes of cybercrime to the following: unemployment, the negative role model, insufficient police facilities and social gratification are causes of cybercrime. All these reasons, according to him, are used in most parts of the world to facilitate cybercrime. The major causes of cybercrime in most countries around the world are widespread corruption, harsh economic conditions, disregard for the law, and lack of transparency and accountability in governance. Two primary and secondary causes could be associated with cybercrime. Poverty prevailing and the weak education system are the main causes (Folashade and Abimbola, 2013). Habitat, corruption and rapid syndrome are the secondary causes.

In Nigeria, for example, the high level of corruption and the spread of poverty are seen by university undergraduates as the principal cause of cybercrime. The majority of Nigerian students live below the poverty line (less than one dollar a day (#360.50)). Over five million university undergraduates in Nigeria have no hope of what they will do when they are university graduates; as a means of paving the way forward, they use cybercrime (Szde, 2014). Nigeria was ranked the third most corrupt country in the whole world until 1999, when Nigerians created some financial crime monitoring agencies like EFCC (Economic and Financial Crime Commissions, etc.). Again, Nigeria is regarded globally as a third-world country due to its high poverty rate index, which is alarming. This poverty rate is increasing day by day; the rich are getting richer while the poor are getting poorer. Inadequate provision of basic amenities and an epileptic supply of power have put the small and medium enterprise into a pause.

· Peer group influence: This is usually showcased in certain environments where everyone wants to belong to a certain group or upper class without consideration of his/her background, and this is grinding the moral upbringing of many youth in Nigeria. They try to emulate their mate in how to defraud individuals and organisations without consideration of its negative effect on them. All they want is that I am driving life without the consideration that they say that “the ends justify the means”.

·         Negative role models and parental influence: This is caused by some parents who compare their children with other children and think that all they need from them is to make money, whether good or bad. Money is all they want; money speaks. This usually lures these children into committing crimes.

·         Security men collaborating with fraudsters: Many security men and women, instead of looking at how to arrest this cybercrime operator, serve as bodyguards to them and cover them up in order to gain cash rewards. They go a long way to teach them the best way to invest this illegally acquired wealth without being arrested by the government. According to Ebeleogu, Ojo, Andeh and Agu (2019), the occurrence of a high economic condition and bad educational system also contributes immensely to the proliferation of cybercrime in Nigeria. Other causes of cybercrime in Nigeria as a society include a high rate of urban migration, poor infrastructure, weak laws, and quick-money syndrome.

Evaluating the performance deals with security awareness as an essential part of the fighting and prevention of cybercrimes. Edwards et al. (2016) suggested that the frequency of data breaches has increased over time and continues to expose the personal information of hundreds of millions of people. Wiley et al. (2020) suggested that organisations should focus on security culture rather than organisational culture to improve information security awareness and save time and resources, which depends on the importance of leaders in the encouragement of positive security behaviours through strategic management and planning, communication, and transparent decision-making processes. Sabillon et al. (2019) estimated that a cybersecurity awareness programme must include adequate training aligned with the organisation’s objectives and long-term investment to help create a cybersecurity culture if training is delivered continuously. Security awareness training programs’ success depends on how they are delivered. The security awareness approach may differ from one country to another. Tambo and Adama (2017) estimated that 11 out of 54 African countries had taken concrete actions essential in preventing and counteracting cybercrimes by implementing laws and regulations about cybersecurity. Moreover, the continent has seen cybercrimes and mobile money fraud increase significantly over time due to the absence of laws and regulations in that regard and the rise of internet penetration, which has contributed to enormous financial losses in terms of cyberattacks for countries like South Africa, Morocco, and Uganda. In that regard, the need to increase cybersecurity capabilities and cooperation by investing in building safe, reliable, and persistent cyberspace decision-making platforms and frameworks and releasing the cybersecurity leadership role and commitment is essential to create cybersecurity and operating platforms for all stakeholders that include Microsoft, Google, Apple, Facebook, banks, governments, and other private sectors on cyberattack incidents that affect the local and global market and share losses (Bouveret, 2019). Furthermore, the cybercrimes can be reduced by building public and community cybersecurity communication and engagement resilience, readiness, and capability to promote public and community cybersecurity and cyber-wellness policy and capabilities, awareness campaigns, meetings, and empowerment. Person-Centred Information Security Awareness (PCISA) is helpful to maintain information security and protect data assets for organisations. Ki-Aries and Faily (2017) suggested the PCISA contributes to the identification of the audience needs and security risks and enables a tailored approach to business-specific awareness activities, which contributes to the reduction of information security risks through security and allows a better adaptation to the time and resources needed for its implementation within the organisation. Information security can be maintained by building a security-conscious culture, providing end-user training to reinforce security awareness, developing proper guidelines for disposal of storage media, performing audits of security systems regularly and testing staff, and developing procedures that will help to report an incident. Policies and Procedures. With the rise of cybercrime activities, the adoption of policies and procedures becomes relevant in fighting and preventing such a phenomenon. Aldawood and Skinner (2019) suggested that policies and procedures play a huge role in the security awareness education training by demonstrating the ability of the organisation to provide training to employees through a general session on security awareness for all the new employees by focusing on commitment to ethical business behaviour. Kayser et al. (2019) suggested the importance of having solid policies and procedures related to cybercrime protection and the necessity of working with private and government entities to ensure that human rights standards will be applied in the cyberspace environment. Addressing any change in policies and procedures and intensive training for specific employees for areas of responsibility is helpful to refresh from time to time exposed employees of the organisation by explaining any committed crimes and monitoring and reporting them (Aldawood & Skinner, 2019).

·         Cyber Detection: Daily routines characteristic of a population affect the quantity and location of crime by determining how frequently potential offenders are victimised. The development of the Internet changed the lifestyle and routine activities of the population and opened a decrease in traditional police-based crime prevention strategies (Caneppele & Aebi, 2017). Malik and Younis (2016) suggested that cyber detection techniques such as checking mistakes from many authorities’ claims, the email inspection through internet protocol, and the use of a network intrusion detection system to track and detect incoming and outgoing traffic on the network system help in the prevention of cybercrimes. Malik and Younis (2016) suggested that imposing local law regarding the report of cyber incidents to the state police allows them to fight more efficiently against cybercrimes by collecting information about the victims to develop an incident response plan to manage cyber risks better. Chavez and Bichler (2019) suggested that the increasing disadvantages over anticipated rewards would lead potential offenders to refrain from committing a specific crime, influencing the rational decision-making process to prevent crime. As businesses start to take into account very seriously the impacts of cybercrimes on their daily activities, it becomes more vital for them to make that issue a priority as part of their social change culture, which will contribute to waking up and making their employees aware of the necessity to keep their eyes open for security threats that they may face on a daily basis. Positive Social Change Implication. Many researchers have addressed the importance of positive social change in the reduction of cybercrimes. Payne et al. (2019) suggested that the evolution of cybercrimes is the result of building a broad effort and the use of a category of presumption as a guide in the understanding of traditional crime, white-collar crime, international crime, and socially constructed crime as part of positive social change. According to Barosy (2019), social change can be viewed positively when it includes a safe and secure environment in which business and consumer confidence are increased, strengthened by protecting personal and confidential information.

·         Safe Internet Environment: Having a safe internet environment is essential to prevent cybercrimes. Barosy (2019) suggested that establishing and sustaining a secure Internet environment may create a climate of trust and safety for the online community. Kakucha and Buya (2018) indicated that establishing a comprehensive framework to enable the development, institutionalisation, assessment, and improvement of an information security programme is a way to develop a typical information security strategy. Besides, there should be a need to deploy countermeasures that will block all attacks on the organisation, which can be used to avoid information leakage (Kakucha & Buya, 2018).

·         Network Protection: Cyber attackers infiltrate organisation networks that are not protected from committing cybercrimes. Malware is any software used to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, gain unauthorised access to private computer systems, and make illegal profit for malware owners (Bai et al., 2019). Holt et al. (2018) suggested that wireless networks as part of any organisation’s network infrastructure should be secured to prevent malware from spraying when users engage in downloading activities that are not securely monitored. Critical elements contribute to cybercrimes and different approaches to mitigate them through a culture of prevention and security awareness that is very useful. Leukfeldt et al. (2017) suggested that cybercriminals can use malware such as viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and spyware to access credentials or manipulate the entire system sessions. Although there are many tools to detect and prevent malware, it remains, however, one of the most common ways that cybercriminals infiltrate and cause significant harm to businesses and organisations computers around the world, which needs to be taken into account when building and implementing security strategies in the prevention of cybercrimes.

·         Artificial Intelligence in the Prevention of Cybercrimes: Artificial intelligence applications are being found efficient in the prevention of cybercrimes. According to Hamet and Tremblay (2017), artificial intelligence is a general term that implies using a computer to model intelligent behaviour with minimal human intervention. Siddiqui et al. (2018) suggested that artificial intelligence is helping humanity in addressing the issues of cybersecurity because of its intelligent nature and flexibility. Artificial intelligence techniques and applications such as heuristics, data mining, neural networks, and artificial immune systems have proven efficient in preventing and mitigating cybercrimes (Siddiqui et al., 2018).

·         Situational Prevention Factors and Social Bond Factors: Safa et al. (2018), by examining information security concerns for organisations, suggested that situational prevention factors and social bond factors such as a commitment to organisational policies and procedures, involvement in information security activities, and personal norms for organisations promoted the adoption of negative attitudes toward misbehaviour, which influenced the employees’ intentions towards engaging in misconduct positively, and this, in turn, reduced insider threat behaviour. In addition, surveillance in cyberspace may contribute to preventing situational crime. Testa et al. (2017) suggested that a situational deterring indication reduced the probability of system trespassers with fewer administration privileges on the attacked computer system entering activity commands. In contrast, these indications in the attacked system did not affect the probability of system trespassers with the administration level of privileges to enter activity commands. Moeller et al. (2016) suggested that gaining access to counter-surveillance information and human capital by cybercriminals that directly affect people’s success in online forums reduces the likelihood of capture and diminishes informal threats of burglaries. They also proposed that the fear of sanctions may motivate some criminals to cut off their ties to unfamiliar people and reinforce ties to other criminals due to restrictive prevention that emphasises a behaviour change.

·         Data Privacy Prevention: Data are valuable assets for an organisation and represent constituents that are the most targeted by cybercriminals. Fraudulent access to organisation data without authorisation can lead to data breaches. Martin et al. (2017) estimated that data breaches are bad for performance, and the effect of data breaches reaches a worse level when a firm is affected more than one time. Thomas et al. (2017) also estimated that data breaches at primary online services had become a regular occurrence in recent years. Based on a survey, 26% of adults affirmed that they had received a notice related to a data breach in the past year. Alotaibi et al. (2016) suggested that the very high cost of cybercrimes affects many consumers through the breach of data privacy and may drive them to use mobile gaming applications in the creation and learning of cybersecurity awareness. Therefore, it is vital to limit access to sensitive data by granting access only to authorised entities and monitoring any existing data storage system access. Besides, organisations should adopt an information assurance approach to ensure data protection regarding confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and availability. Muller and Lind (2020) suggested that compliance with information security rules among information assurance professionals may prevent organisational data from risks.

·         Alerts and Anti-phishing: Anti-phishing methods are more used and taught in security awareness training, such as interactive game methods to allow users to identify risky emails and websites. The importance of human factors in the fight against cybercrimes is essential in reducing cyberattacks by learning security best practices and security awareness training. Phishing is an activity that consists of stealing sensitive information online, such as usernames, passwords, and online banking details, from its victims (Arachchilage et al., 2016). Martin et al. (2018) suggested that understanding and quantifying end-user phishing susceptibility relative to their failure to incorporate expectation factors are crucial preconditions for developing adequate protection. Besides, Arachchilage et al. (2016) suggested that cybercriminals use the technique of phishing to attack victims. Therefore, alerting end-users about any phishing activity may prevent them from opening any phishing emails (Jansen & Leukfeldt, 2016). Thus, alerts are a way to avoid phishing, which contributes to the prevention of cybercrimes.

·         Honeypot: A honeypot is a system intentionally initiated to probably target cyberattacks and designed to attract intruders’ attention and gather and report information. Litchfield et al. (2016) suggested that honeypots derive much value from their ability to fool attackers into believing they are authentic machines. According to the Pothumani and Anuradha (2017) decoy method, a new technique to detect the insider attacker and reduce the amount of focus information to the attacker and redirect the attacker from the original data appears as the best method to solve the threats of data security. Honeypots are vital in terms of keeping away data from any inside or outside intrusion.

Conclusion

In conclusion, cybercrime is a trend and still very rampant among youths or students in Nigerian universities, considering what it has contributed negatively to the society. Though it cannot be eradicated, it can be adequately controlled if law enforcement agencies are trained on the use of technology, as the constraints confronting them in doing the needful should be critically addressed by the policymakers. Nigerian law enforcement agencies are endowed with certain responsibilities in controlling the spread of cybercrime among youths or students in Nigeria, as this will sensitise them to collaborate with other sister agencies in controlling cybercrime effectively. With the increase of cybercrimes, individuals, organisations, businesses, and governments are seeking relevant and efficient solutions to prevent or fight against their data being compromised.

Recommendations

1. To reduce the prevalence of cybercrime among youths or students at Nigerian universities, there should be adequate technological training for law enforcement agents in the forensic department. Nevertheless, in the process of recruiting law enforcement agents, those with computer know-how should be enlisted adequately. It is important and timely to adopt and create new law enforcement agencies that will be saddled to regulate and control certain cyber activities, as apprehending cybercriminals becomes difficult due to the complexity in cyberspace.

2. There should be a more proactive approach that will allow law enforcement agencies to track and investigate students involved in cybercrime within and outside the institution. Besides, most of these students that practice such acts can be easily tracked within their hostels in the institutions.

3. School management should be allowed to report students detected to be involved in cybercrime to avert its escalation, because by doing so it will reduce the perpetration of cybercrime within the school. This can only be achieved through effective collaboration between school management and law enforcement agencies.

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Citation

Anand, P. (2026). Western Political Thought: A Critical Study from a Marxist Framework. International Journal of Research, 12(12), 683–688. https://doi.org/10.26643/rb.v118i8.7507

Prem Anand

MA, UGC NET (Political science)

Sahebganj Sonarpatti Chowk, Chapra, Saran, Bihar, 841301

royale.prem@gmail.com

Abstract

Western political thought constitutes a vast intellectual tradition spanning from ancient Greece to contemporary liberal and post-liberal theory. It is commonly presented as a progressive unfolding of rational ideas concerning justice, the state, sovereignty, citizenship, liberty, and democracy. However, from a Marxist standpoint, political thought is not an autonomous realm of abstract reasoning but a historically conditioned superstructural formation shaped by material relations of production and class struggle. This paper offers a detailed and critical examination of Western political thought through the framework of Marxism, drawing upon the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and extending the analysis through later Marxist thinkers such as Antonio Gramsci, Louis Althusser, Nicos Poulantzas, and Ralph Miliband.

The paper argues that Western political theory has functioned historically as an ideological expression of dominant class interests corresponding to successive modes of production—slave society, feudalism, mercantilism, and capitalism—while also containing internal contradictions that give rise to emancipatory possibilities. By situating canonical thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, G W F Hegel, and modern liberal theorists within their socio-economic contexts, this study demonstrates how political ideas both reflect and reproduce relations of domination.

Keywords: Western Political Thought, Marxist Framework, Historical Materialism, Dialectical Materialism, Class Struggle, Base and Superstructure, Ideology Bourgeois Democracy, Hegemony.

Introduction: Re-reading the Canon through Historical Materialism

The conventional historiography of Western political thought presents it as a continuous conversation about justice and the good polity. From the polis to the modern nation-state, political philosophy is often depicted as a rational inquiry into normative principles. Marxism, however, challenges the autonomy of ideas. According to Marx’s theory of historical materialism, articulated most clearly in The German Ideology and the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, the mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political, and intellectual life. The economic base—constituted by productive forces and relations of production—shapes the superstructure, including political institutions and ideologies.

This framework does not imply crude economic determinism. Rather, it emphasizes dialectical interaction between base and superstructure. Political ideas emerge within definite historical conditions and serve, consciously or unconsciously, to legitimize or contest prevailing social relations. The history of political thought is thus inseparable from the history of class struggle.

Marx’s famous claim in The Communist Manifesto that the state is “but a committee for managing the common affairs of the bourgeoisie” encapsulates the critical orientation of Marxist political theory. Political institutions are not neutral mediators but instruments embedded in class structures. Later Marxists refined this claim by analyzing the relative autonomy of the state and the role of ideology in securing consent.

Ancient Greek Political Thought: Philosophy within a Slave Mode of Production

The origins of Western political thought lie in classical Greece. The works of Plato and Aristotle are foundational to the canon. Yet their philosophies were produced within a slave-based economy in which a minority of citizens depended upon the labor of slaves and women excluded from political life.

In The Republic, Plato constructs an ideal state organized around a tripartite class structure. Justice consists in each class performing its designated function. From a Marxist perspective, this organic model of hierarchy mirrors the structural stability desired by the Athenian aristocracy during a period of crisis. Plato’s hostility to democracy reflects elite anxiety about popular rule. Although Plato criticizes wealth accumulation among the guardian class, he does not challenge the fundamental division between those who labor and those who rule.

Aristotle’s Politics offers a more empirical analysis of constitutions and defends the concept of citizenship. However, Aristotle’s justification of “natural slavery” exemplifies ideological rationalization. By presenting slavery as rooted in nature rather than economic necessity, Aristotle naturalizes a relation of exploitation fundamental to the ancient mode of production.

A Marxist analysis thus reveals that classical political philosophy, while intellectually profound, remains embedded in the social relations of slave society. The exclusionary definition of citizenship corresponds directly to the economic structure. Political participation is possible only because surplus is extracted from slaves.

Medieval Political Thought: Feudal Hierarchy and Divine Legitimacy

Medieval political thought developed within the feudal mode of production, characterized by land-based hierarchy and obligations between lords and serfs. Political authority was intertwined with religious authority. Thinkers such as Augustine and Aquinas articulated a vision of political order grounded in divine will.

Feudal society’s material base consisted of agrarian production and localized power. Political thought reinforced this structure by presenting hierarchy as natural and ordained by God. The doctrine of the divine right of kings sanctified monarchical power. The Church functioned as an ideological institution legitimizing the feudal order.

From a Marxist viewpoint, medieval political theology obscured material exploitation by translating social hierarchy into spiritual necessity. Yet contradictions within feudalism—growth of commerce, urbanization, and monetary exchange—generated new social forces. The rising bourgeoisie would soon demand political theories suited to emerging capitalist relations.

Early Modern Thought: Social Contract and Bourgeois Revolution

The early modern period witnessed the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Political theory during this era reflects the needs of a rising bourgeois class. Social contract theory, articulated by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, conceptualizes political authority as derived from individual consent rather than divine ordination.

Hobbes’s Leviathan defends absolute sovereignty to prevent civil war. Although Hobbes emphasizes security over liberty, his theory presupposes individuals as possessive and competitive, reflecting emergent market relations.

Locke provides the clearest ideological expression of bourgeois interests. His theory of property, grounded in labor-mixing, justifies private accumulation. By framing property as a natural right, Locke legitimizes capitalist ownership relations. Marx later critiques this conception in Capital, demonstrating that under capitalism, labor does not create property for the worker but surplus value for the capitalist.

Rousseau complicates this narrative. In The Social Contract and Discourse on Inequality, he criticizes private property as the origin of inequality. Marx admired Rousseau’s democratic impulse but argued that Rousseau’s solution remained within the framework of political, not economic, emancipation.

German Idealism and Marx’s Materialist Turn

The culmination of classical German philosophy in Hegel profoundly influenced Marx. Hegel’s Philosophy of Right conceptualizes the state as the realization of ethical freedom. Civil society mediates particular interests, while the state embodies universality.

Marx’s early Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right rejects Hegel’s idealism. Marx argues that Hegel mystifies the state by treating it as the source rather than the product of social relations. For Marx, civil society, structured by property relations, determines political forms.

Marx’s shift from philosophy to political economy marks a decisive methodological break. In Capital, he analyzes the commodity form, surplus value, and the dynamics of accumulation. Political institutions are understood as mechanisms for reproducing capitalist relations. Liberal rights guarantee equality in exchange but conceal exploitation in production.

Marx distinguishes between political emancipation and human emancipation in On the Jewish Question. Liberal rights create formal equality while preserving material inequality. True emancipation requires abolition of class relations.

Marxist Theories of the State in the Twentieth Century

Twentieth-century Marxists developed more sophisticated theories of the state. Gramsci’s Prison Notebooks introduce the concept of hegemony, emphasizing cultural and ideological leadership. The bourgeoisie maintains dominance not only through coercion but through consent, shaping common sense and civil society institutions.

Althusser advances the theory of ideological state apparatuses, arguing that institutions such as schools, churches, and media reproduce capitalist relations by interpellating individuals as subjects.

Miliband and Poulantzas debated the nature of state power. Miliband emphasized the instrumental control of the state by elites, while Poulantzas argued that the state’s structure ensures capitalist dominance even without direct personal control. These debates refine Marx’s original claim about the state’s class character.

Liberal Democracy and Neoliberalism

Modern liberal democracy, celebrated for universal suffrage and constitutional rights, coexists with vast economic inequality. Marxists argue that political equality does not eliminate class domination. Electoral competition occurs within parameters defined by capital accumulation.

In the late twentieth century, neoliberalism emerged as a dominant ideology associated with thinkers such as Hayek and Friedman. It promotes deregulation, privatization, and market supremacy. From a Marxist perspective, neoliberalism represents a response to the crisis of Fordist capitalism and the decline of profit rates. It reasserts capitalist class power by dismantling welfare institutions and labor protections.

Contemporary Western political thought often emphasizes identity, recognition, and multiculturalism. While important, Marxists caution that these frameworks may overlook the structural logic of capital. Critical theorists continue to analyze globalization, imperialism, and financialization as extensions of capitalist accumulation.

Conclusion

A Marxist critical study of Western political thought demonstrates that political ideas are historically situated within specific modes of production. From ancient slavery to modern capitalism, dominant political theories have tended to legitimize prevailing class relations while presenting themselves as universal reason.

Yet the tradition also contains resources for critique. Democratic aspirations, egalitarian impulses, and revolutionary movements have emerged from within Western political discourse. Marxism does not reject this tradition wholesale but reinterprets it through the lens of class struggle and historical materialism.

Ultimately, Marx’s eleventh thesis on Feuerbach remains instructive: philosophers have only interpreted the world; the point, however, is to change it. A Marxist framework transforms the study of Western political thought from a purely intellectual exercise into a critical engagement with the material conditions that shape human freedom.

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