Tag: Education

Plastic Waste Management

Introduction

Plastic waste management is a collective term for various approaches and strategies used to recycle plastic materials that would otherwise be dumped into landfills, or bodies of water, or otherwise contaminate the environment. The idea behind this type of waste management is to utilize those discarded materials to manufacture new plastic products without the need to actually generate additional plastic materials. Doing so can help lower production costs as well as protect the environment.

Many different types of industries participate in some type of plastic waste management process. Some are specifically geared toward collecting plastic items for recycling. For example, many supermarkets encourage customers to contribute unwanted plastic bags into a recycling container located near the front of the store. The collected bags are then forwarded to recycling centres where the material is processed for use in the production of new products made from the recycled plastic.

Businesses that produce plastic products also engage in the task of plastic waste management. This often focuses on finding ways to recycle or reuse excess plastic that is discarded as units of different goods are produced. These plastic remnants can often be collected and ran through an internal recycling process to create additional products for sale. Not only does this approach prevent the disposal of the used materials into a landfill, it also allows the company to lower the actual cost associated with manufacturing each unit of its product line.

In some cases, businesses outsource the process of plastic waste management. Contracting with a waste management company makes it possible for unwanted plastic items to be collected and removed from the premises without expending additional company resources. Municipalities sometimes work with a waste management disposal company in creating plastic recycling programs that allow households to conveniently dispose of plastic milk jugs, broken plastic toys, and other plastic items without placing them into the trash. Depending on the nature of the arrangement with the plastic waste management company, the municipality may actually earn a small amount from the arrangement, creating another stream of revenue for the city or town that can be used to fund services offered to residents.

Any type of plastic waste management must be conducted in compliance with regulations set by local, state, and federal governments. This includes using recycling methods that are considered to be environmentally friendly, and that are not likely to create health risks for individuals living and working in the community. Since regulations regarding recycling vary somewhat from one jurisdiction to another, it is important to determine what is and is not allowed before establishing any type of ongoing program to deal with plastic waste.

References : infobloom

Climate Change

Climate change is a long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns. Often climate change refers specifically to the rise in global temperatures from the mid-20th century to present.

Climate is sometimes mistaken for weather. But climate is different from weather because it is measured over a long period of time, whereas weather can change from day to day, or from year to year. The climate of an area includes seasonal temperature and rainfall averages, and wind patterns. Different places have different climates. A desert, for example, is referred to as an arid climate because little water falls, as rain or snow, during the year. Other types of climate include tropical climates, which are hot and humid, and temperate climates, which have warm summers and cooler winters.

Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns in a place. Climate change could refer to a particular location or the planet as a whole. Climate change may cause weather patterns to be less predictable. These unexpected weather patterns can make it difficult to maintain and grow crops in regions that rely on farming because expected temperature and rainfall levels can no longer be relied on. Climate change has also been connected with other damaging weather events such as more frequent and more intense hurricanes, floods, downpours, and winter storms.

In polar regions, the warming global temperatures associated with climate change have meant ice sheets and glaciers are melting at an accelerated rate from season to season. This contributes to sea levels rising in different regions of the planet. Together with expanding ocean waters due to rising temperatures, the resulting rise in sea level has begun to damage coastlines as a result of increased flooding and erosion.

The cause of current climate change is largely human activity, like burning fossil fuels, like natural gas, oil, and coal. Burning these materials releases what are called greenhouse gases into Earth’ atmosphere. There, these gases trap heat from the sun’s rays inside the atmosphere causing Earth’s average temperature to rise. This rise in the planet’s temperature is called global warming. The warming of the planet impacts local and regional climates. Throughout Earth’s history, climate has continually changed. When occurring naturally, this is a slow process that has taken place over hundreds and thousands of years. The human influenced climate change that is happening now is occurring at a much faster rate.

Climate change is impacting human lives and health in a variety of ways. It threatens the essential ingredients of good health – clean air, safe drinking water, nutritious food supply, and safe shelter – and has the potential to undermine decades of progress in global health. Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause approximately 250 000 additional deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat stress alone. The direct damage costs to health is estimated to be between USD 2-4 billion per year by 2030. Areas with weak health infrastructure – mostly in developing countries – will be the least able to cope without assistance to prepare and respond. WHO supports countries in building climate-resilient health systems and tracking national progress in protecting health from climate change. Reducing emissions of greenhouse gases through better transport, food and energy-use choices results in improved health, particularly through reduced air pollution. The Paris Agreement on climate change is therefore potentially the strongest health agreement of this century. WHO supports countries in assessing the health gains that would result from the implementation of the existing Nationally Determined Contributions to the Paris Agreement, and the potential for larger gains from more ambitious climate action.

REFERENCES : WHO, National Geographic Society

The World in 1914

The First World War broke out with the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary upon Serbia on 28 July 1914. Many other countries joined the war within the next few days on one side or the other. The war was fought between the Allied and Associated powers (Allies) on one side and the Central Powers on the other. The principal allies were France, the British Empire and Russia. Italy joined them in 1915. There were many other smaller Allies also. The United States remained neutral for three years but was compelled to enter the war on the side of the Allies in April 1917.

Japan had joined earlier. Russia withdrew from the war after the Bolshevik Revolution in November 1917 (October, according to the old calendar followed in Russia). The Central Powers were Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Turkish Empire. The war ended in November 1918 with the unconditional surrender of Germany. Formal peace treaties were signed after several months.

Events Leading To The First World War

The war between France and Prussia (the future German Empire) that lasted from 1870 to 1871 ended with a humiliating defeat for France. It lost the regions of Alsace and Lorraine, and was forced to pay a huge indemnity to Prussia. The Franco-Prussian War led to creation of a powerful German Empire with a military and industrial potential to further disrupt the European balance of power on the one hand and widespread resentment and desire for revenge among the French (revanchism) on the other.

With the accession of Wilhelm II to the German throne in 1888, the German foreign policy became more bellicose. The new German Emperor dismissed the skillful Otto von Bismarck as Chancellor. He also refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia that maintained the fragile peace between Russia and Austria-Hungary as well as kept France isolated. That way Wilhelm II helped create an alliance between France and Russia (formed in 1892) that became the basis for the future Triple Entente.

Russo-Japanese rivalry over Manchuria and Korea reached its height with the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The outcome of the war against the Japanese was a major blow for the Russians who lost almost entire Baltic and Pacific fleet. The defeat also provoked a serious political crisis that led to the Russian Revolution of 1905. But the Russo-Japanese War also made an end to the Russian ambitions in the Far East and as a result, the Tsarist government focused its attention to Europe, in the first place to the Balkans. This intensified the old rivalry with Austria-Hungary that also had a great interest in the Balkans.

German militarism and especially the build up of naval power convinced Great Britain that Germany may soon establish itself as a dominant power on the Continent. In order to create a counterweight to the German Empire, the British decided to enter into an alliance with France that came to be known as Entente Cordiale. In 1907, Britain also entered into an alliance with Russia that was already in alliance with France. This formed the Triple Entente which in turn became the core of the Allies during World War I.

The Moroccan Crises – the Tangler Crisis (1905-1906) and Agadir Crisis (1911) – brought the European powers on the brink of war. Both crises were provoked by the Germans with an aim to cause tensions between France and Britain that just concluded an alliance. The result, however, was right the opposite. Instead of ‘softening’ Britain and bring it closer to the Central Powers, the Moroccan Crises further reinforced the Entente Cordiale and increased the British hostility towards Germany.

In 1908, Austria-Hungary decided to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina that was formally an integral part of the Ottoman Empire. The annexation of the provinces that were occupied by the Dual Monarchy since 1878 was bitterly opposed by Serbia that was closely related to the provinces both ethically and geographically. Serbia was supported by the Tsarist government and the crisis persisted into 1909. Russia failed to win as firm support from France or Britain as Vienna enjoyed from Germany and accepted the annexation of the provinces. Serbia was forced to back down and the crisis ended. But it permanently damaged the relationship between Russia and Serbia on the one hand and Austria-Hungary on the other. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina caused embitteredness in Serbia, while the way it was carried out humiliated the Russian government that could not afford a similar humiliation during the 1914 July Crisis.

The Italo-Turkish War that took place between 1911 and 1912 did not pose any major threat to peace in Europe. But the Turkish defeat revealed the weakness of the Ottoman army and disagreement between the European powers about the so-called Eastern Questions – the fate of the decaying Ottoman Empire. The war between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire was also a strong incentive for the Balkan League which would capture the Balkan peninsula from the Turks independently from the great powers.

In 1912, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria formed the Balkan League, a military alliance against the Ottoman Empire. Within a few months, the Balkan allies stripped the Ottoman Empire of its possessions in the Balkans and divided the conquered territory among themselves. In June, Bulgaria turned against its allies of Serbia and Greece due to a dispute over partition of Macedonia. But the Bulgarians were defeated within a month and forced to give up their claims in Macedonia. The success of the Balkan League shocked most European powers including the Russian allies of France and Great Britain. But it especially disturbed Austria-Hungary that strongly opposed a strong Serbian state. Vienna saw Serbia both as a rival in the Balkans and as a direct threat because it feared that its small Balkan neighbor may become the core of a future South-Slavic state. The Balkan Wars made Austro-Hungarian statesmen even more determined to take concrete action to prevent further strengthening of Serbia.

On June 28, 1914, a group of conspirators from the revolutionary movement called Mlada Bosna (‘Young Bosnia’) carried out the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian heir presumptive, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife while they were visiting Sarajevo. Since the assassin, Gavrilo Princip and his 5 accomplices were Bosnian Serbs, the Dual Monarchy accused Serbia to stand behind the assassination. The event triggered the course of events that directly led to the outbreak of World War I but it did not cause it. Austria-Hungary was determined to eliminate the ‘Serbian threat’ before the assassination of its heir presumptive and it only needed an excuse to declare war on its Balkan neighbour.

On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia. Vienna, however, intentionally imposed impossible demands to Serbia in order to be able to declare war on its neighbour for ‘orchestrating’ the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. A few days later, the Austro-Hungarian troops invaded Serbia and started the devastating World War I.

Liberalism

Introduction

The most keenly debated issue in international relations has been the pessimistic view of realism and the optimistic view of liberalism. Realism is regarded as the dominant theory of international relations, while liberalism has a strong claim to being the historic alternative. Comparing the two to the main political parties in a democracy, Timothy Dunne wrote, ‘Rather like political parties, realism is the natural party of the government, and the liberalism is the leader of the opposition.’

The liberal tradition in international relations in its is closely connected with the emergence of the modern liberal state. The focus of liberalism has been on freedom, cooperation, peace and progress. It has often been identified with individualism, as it insists on freedom of the individual, his rights and property. It is also closely associated, mainly by its critics, with capitalism. Liberalism is sometimes associated with the views of Mo Ti, who was a contemporary of realist Chinese scholar Sun Tzu. Both gave their opposing views more than 2,000 years ago.

Basic Assumptions Of Liberalism

Liberalism assumes instead portraying lust of power as the international conflict liberalism fights for the basic rights of the people. It insists on pursuing the political reforms establish democracies. It emphasizes on the value of the free trade on the basis that it will help in preventing the conflicts between nations as it reduces the national selfishness and enhances the communication.

Liberalism advocated the formation of the global institutions such as the United Nations which sees any threat to any individual nation as a threat to everyone. The institutions help in resolving the conflicts by mediating the conflicts in the event of any misunderstanding.

Basically liberals assume that states will act in a rational manner and they are a unitary actor.

The liberalists fell into three different groups as classified by the realists: The first group advocated league of the nations was formed with the objective to consider the attack on the nation as an attack on all. The second group formed the Permanent Court of International Justice that would lead to formation of judicial body capable of issuing justices to the disputes. The third group sort to avoid war by advocating “Disarmament“ in order to reduce the international tension.

Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism is a policy model that encompasses both politics and economics and seeks to transfer the control of economic factors from the public sector to the private sector. Many neoliberalism policies enhance the workings of free market capitalism and attempt to place limits on government spending, government regulation, and public ownership.https://a6c140989941be06481216af16f29a9b.safeframe.googlesyndication.com/safeframe/1-0-38/html/container.html

Neoliberalism is often associated with the leadership of Margaret Thatcher–the prime minister of the U.K. from 1979 to 1990 and leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990–and Ronald Reagan, the 40th president of the U.S. (from 1981 to 1989). More recently, neoliberalism has been associated with policies of austerity and attempts to cut government spending on social programs.

Liberalism VS Neoliberalism

At its core, liberalism is a broad political philosophy; it holds liberty to a high standard and defines all social, economic, and political aspects of society, including–but not limited to–the role of government. The policies of neoliberalism, on the other hand, are more narrowly focused. They are primarily concerned with markets and the policies and measures that influence the economy.

Realism

Realism has been the most important approach of international relations over the years. It has been the dominant way of explaining international behaviour. Realism emphasizes relations among nations, as they have been and as they are. It is not concerned with the ideal world. It is the international interpretation of human behaviour. Individuals are essentially selfish, and they seek power to serve their interests and to prevail over others. As Morgenthau wrote in the 20th century, power is the control of men over the minds and actions of other men. And, there is constant strife leading to conflicts and clashes between individuals having divergent interests and seeking to acquire power. Thus, there is an ever-present struggle for power in the society. The same is the tone of nations that are guided by the same considerations as individuals.

Political Realism

Realism, or political realism, as an approach of international relations has evolved over the centuries. Prominent among its earlier advocates were Indian scholar Kautilya, Chinese strategist Sun Tzu, and Greek scholar Thucydides. Much later, Italian scholar Nicolo Machiavelli and English philosopher Thomas Hobbes also contributed to the evolution of realism. Their ideas may be called classical realism, though Morgenthau is now considered the principal classical realist. However, according to the view expressed by Robert Jackson and George Sorensen (1999) and many others, Morgenthau’s theory may be described as neo-classical realism. But, Morgenthau was the most systematic advocate of realism. However, British Professor E.H. Carr, who wrote The Twenty Years’ Crisis (1919-39) had prepared the ground on which Morgenthau developed his theory of realism.

Carr criticized democracies like the UK and France for their failure in defeating the designs of dictators. He blamed the democratic countries for failing to recognize the power realities in the world. Carr divided the scholars of international relations into two groups. These were ‘utopians’, or ‘idealists’, and the ‘realists’. He described the utopians as optimists- children of enlightenment and liberalism. The liberals held the view that reason and morality could structure international behaviour of the states towards peace. Wilson and (his) League of Nations were cited as main examples of utopians. Carr, who himself was a a realist, described realists as pessimists, or children of darkness, who emphasize power and national interest. Commenting on Carr’s views on power, Michael G Roskin and Nicholas O Berry wrote, ‘This does not necessarily mean perpetual war, for if statesmen are clever and willing to build and apply power, both economic and military, they can make the aggressors back down…’

Political realism is a significant theory in the field of international relations that seeks to explain state behavior under a set of specific and rigid assumptions. At its core, political realism is guided by three S’s: statism, survival, and self-help.

Statism asserts that states are the only entity on the international stage that matter and that they are unitary (acting alone) and rational (acting in its best interests) actors. Survival identifies the state’s primary goal is to survive in an international system characterized by anarchy. The final S, self-help, conveys the assumption that states cannot trust others in their pursuit of survival and must secure their security.

Political realism is further delineated into sub-theoretical frameworks, including:

  • Classical realism
  • Liberal realism
  • Neorealism
  • Neoclassical realism

While each sub-framework has its own nuance within the broader political realist theory, all forms of political realism fundamentally believe world politics is a field of conflict among states pursuing power.

Structural Realism

Structural realism, also referred to as neorealism in the academic community, is a major branch of political realism derived from classical realism. While the latter incorporates analysis of human behavior within state decision-making, structural realism focuses predominantly on the anarchic structure of the international system. In other words, structural realists see global conflict as inevitable because there is no supranational body that could prevent or mediate conflict between individual states. Therefore, structural realists assume that states must always be preparing for conflict because war could break out at any time.

Structural realists believe that understanding the international system is guided by the three S’s of political realism. However, they do incorporate analysis of inter-relationships between distinct state entities, particularly regarding power relationships. A key concept in structural realism is polarity, the balance of power within the international system. Today, international theorists often describe the world as unipolar, with the United States acting as the sole superpower endowed with the ability to dominate international relations via their economic, political, and military supremacy.

REFERENCES : International Relations By V.N. Khanna

Planning In India In A Globalizing World

As history has shown, India’s approach to development always remains contextual. This is evident when the nationalist leaders opted for a Soviet type centralized planning as perhaps an effective means for development. The idea was widely acclaimed regardless of the ideological differences among those who presided over India’s destiny following decolonization. The Planning Commission which was constituted in 1950 was hailed as an instrument to bring about quick development in India. India’s trajectory of development however proved otherwise : instead of being instrumental in contributing to a uniform development in the country, the Planning Commission failed to accomplish the goal; it was felt that centralized planning did not appear to be effective in attaining the goal that the nationalist leadership sought to attain.

The impact of the Planning Commission on India’s development cannot be easily ignored since it had been in place for more than six decades following the withdrawal of colonisation in India in 1947 while the NITI Aayog is too new to have any sway on the trajectory of growth in the country.

What is striking is the fact that while the Planning Commission was considered to be a piece of ideological baggage borrowed from the former Soviet Union, the NITI Aayog represents an effort toward articulating India’s neoliberal endeavour for sustainable economic growth. Ideologically drawn, both the planned development of the erstwhile era and its opposite, as conceptualized by the NITI Aayog, remain important pillars of India’s growth trajectory since independence. Centralized planning may have become futile though it undoubtedly had its role in the state directed development era.

Planning And Economic Development

With the formation of the Planning Commission in 1950, India was ushered in the state-led development era in which the state became a critical economic actor. Despite its historical antecedents, the idea of the state directed planned economic development gained significant salience in independent India, especially with Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first prime minister, at the helm of affairs. Given his staunch opposition to the Gandhian model of democratic decentralization, Nehru always preferred the state-driven economy as perhaps the only driving force for India’s rapid socioeconomic regeneration in the aftermath of colonial rule.

There are two fundamental questions that need to be addressed: first, has the idea of the state-driven economic development lost its relevance just because of its failure to accomplish the stated goals or due to its vacuous claim in contrast with the rising importance of a market-driven counter ideology providing an alternative to the erstwhile strategy of the state-directed economic development? There is a connected second question: whether the market – driven strategy shall be useful for peripheral societies, including India, where the proportion of the people living below the poverty line is staggeringly alarming.

The Objective Of Economic Development

The following were the original objectives of economic planning in India:

  • Economic Development: This is the main objective of planning in India. Economic Development of India is measured by the increase in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India and Per Capita Income
  • Increased Levels of Employment: An important aim of economic planning in India is to better utilise the available human resources of the country by increasing the employment levels.
  • Self Sufficiency: India aims to be self-sufficient in major commodities and also increase exports through economic planning. The Indian economy had reached the take-off stage of development during the third five-year plan in 1961-66.
  • Economic Stability: Economic planning in India also aims at stable market conditions in addition to the economic growth of India. This means keeping inflation low while also making sure that deflation in prices does not happen. If the wholesale price index rises very high or very low, structural defects in the economy are created and economic planning aims to avoid this.
  • Social Welfare and Provision of Efficient Social Services: The objectives of all the five year plans as well as plans suggested by the NITI Aayog aim to increase labour welfare, social welfare for all sections of the society. Development of social services in India, such as education, healthcare and emergency services have been part of planning in India.
  • Regional Development: Economic planning in India aims to reduce regional disparities in development. For example, some states like Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are relatively well developed economically while states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and Nagaland are economically backward. Others like Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh have uneven development with world class economic centres in cities and a relatively less developed hinterland. Planning in India aims to study these disparities and suggest strategies to reduce them.
  • Comprehensive and Sustainable Development: Development of all economic sectors such as agriculture, industry, and services is one of the major objectives of economic planning.
  • Reduction in Economic Inequality: Measures to reduce inequality through progressive taxation, employment generation and reservation of jobs has been a central objective of Indian economic planning since independence.
  • Social Justice: This objective of planning is related to all the other objectives and has been a central focus of planning in India. It aims to reduce the population of people living below the poverty line and provide them access to employment and social services.
  • Increased Standard of Living: Increasing the standard of living by increasing the per capita income and equal distribution of income is one of the main aims of India’s economic planning.

REFERENCES : Public Administration By Bidyut Chakrabarty and Prakash Chan Kandpal

Administrative Reforms In India

Public Administration is a continuous process and, in the sense, it is always an undergoing reform. So, in public administration, ‘reform is a journey rather than a destination’. Reforms are an obvious response to the new challenges confronting state institutions managing public affairs. At the root of such an exercise lies the effort at enhancing administrative capability in the changed scenario. The problem of administrative reform has received continuing attention in India, both at the centre and in the states.

Since Independence, there have been a large number of changes in the structure, work methods, and procedures of the administrative organisations. Although these changes have been gradual, at times not too perceptible, they do indicate the efforts made by the government to affect procedural and policy innovation in the administrative system and to keep pace with the changed situations, growing needs, and exigencies of the government. With this background, the present chapter makes an attempt to understand the concept of administrative reform, to analyze the initiatives of reforms after Independence, and understand the changing patterns of administrative reforms in India in the post – liberalization era.

Theoretical Underpinning Of Administrative Reforms

Public administration as an academic discipline was born with a bias toward change and reform. The term ‘reform’ literally means forming again. The Oxford English Dictionary defines ‘reform’ as ‘to convert into another and better form, to amend or improve by some change of form, arrangement or composition; to free from previous faults or imperfection.’ Following this definition, ‘administrative reform’ is to convert public administration into a better, improved form.

As An Academic Discipline

The Public Management and Administration field, in essence, is broad, necessitating a
specific study of theoretical frameworks. A review of conceptual literature and
contemporary case studies material on structural transformation and policy reform was
conducted to enlighten the research question and the statement of research. The existing
knowledge was highlighted in terms of its relevancy to this research, thus enabling the
incorporation of valid citation on previous experiences with civil service reform.
Conceptual definitions by proponents usually do not provide generic approaches on
administrative reform process, hence, the need for a focussed review of literature.

The objective is to consult the theoretical material relevant to public service reform.
For any research, it is important to establish a relationship between theoretical and
research perspectives (Procter, 2002) and identify gaps in the literature (Johnson, J.
1991). Varying views of different schools of thought cited must be contrasted so that
what has happened over time helps to show how others handled similar problems in the
past (Gerstenfeld, 2004). Philosophical or metaphysical nature of the phenomena being
investigated, whether observable or unobservable, has to be proved early before the
scientific knowledge of the object that is theory informed and the paradigms position
used in the research is established, appropriately in the concept definition section.
Research in the Public Administration field must not overlook or underlook the societal
imperatives – dynamics, which are underpinning public service reform. Political, social
and economic imperatives of a given society determine the type of public administration adopted for a particular developmental state. Each societal imperative would obviously contribute differently to the internal environment. This pattern is not common in every country as developed and developing societies likewise experience their unique situation where peace and stability enhance the conditions for reform.

Evolution Of The Cold War

Cold War After The Truman-Stalin Era

In early 1953, there was a change in the leadership of both the superpowers- the US and USSR. In the US, President Truman’s tenure ended in January 1953. He was succeeded by Dwight Eisenhower. an ex-army general who had commanded the Allied forces in Europe during the Second World War. Meanwhile. Soviet leader Stalin died in March 1953. He was succeeded as party chief by Nikita Khrushchev and by Georgy Malenkov as prime minister. The two Soviet leaders were not very comfortable with each other. Malenkov was replaced by Nikolai Bulganin in 1955. He was more acceptable to the party chief.

But in 1958 even Bulganin was dropped and Khrushchev assumed the prime ministership as well. President Eisenhower led US for eight years till he was succeeded by John F Kennedy in January 1961. Khrushchev remained at the helm of affairs till he was overthrown in 1964 by the troika of Leonid Brezhnev, Nikolai Podgorny and Alexei Kosygin. After the Truman-Stalin era, the US-Soviet relations eased considerably, but the Cold war showed no signs of ending. During 1953-64 several steps were taken by both the sides to improve relations, but at the same time tension got accelerated on different occasions.

CRISIS IN POLAND

Poland was the first to ignite. In June 1956, riots in the industrial city of Poznam were brutally suppressed, leaving dozens of people dead and hundreds wounded. A conflict occurred in the Polish Communist Party between two factions – one owing allegiance to Boleslaw Bierut, who had died earlier the same year, and the other led by Gomulka, who was a Nationalist Titoist communist, and had remained in jail since 1949, and was recently released. Gomulka faction succeeded.

In October, Polish Communist Party issued a proclamation that Poland would henceforth pursue a ‘national road to socialism’, and Gomulka was elected Secretary of the Polish Communist Party. The Soviet leaders decided not to use force against Gomulka. This was second set-back to USSR after Yugoslav decision in 1948 to follow Nationalist Communism.

REVOLT IN HUNGARY

Since the end of Second World War, Hungary was governed by an orthodox Communist leader, Matyas Rakosi, a nominee of Stalin. (He had been freed from jail before the War on Stalin’s initiative after the Soviet Union returned old Hungarian flags captured by the Czar in 1849.) The Rakosi regime was severe ‘even by Stalinist standards.’ In 1953, he was summoned to Moscow, reprimanded and replaced by a reformist communist Imre Nagy.

A more intangible effect of 1956 arises with the spread of its talented diaspora. Many thousands of gifted Hungarians left their country and settled as far afield as Australia, the United States, and across Western Europe. The contributions they made to their adopted countries were incalculably beneficial. Nowhere have I heard the kind of objections to Hungarian refugees that one regularly encounters in relation to other refugee and asylum-seeking groups. To some degree this is because everyone knew what the Hungarians had fled from; they received instinctive sympathy. But it also reflects the performance of the Hungarians in their adopted countries. They assimilated well and quickly, and were soon more than repaying their hosts.

Even though assimilated, however, they were eloquent voices critical of communism and the Soviet empire. The eminence many soon achieved in their fields of scholarship and enterprise added weight to their criticisms. And in the United States especially, they formed the influential “captive nations” lobby with other émigré groups, to press for a realistic foreign policy and, in time, to provide Reagan with intellectual heft.

REFERENCES : International Relations By V.N. Khanna

Rise Of China And The International System

Introduction

China has undergone a massive transformation in the last four decades. It has emerged as a major world power within a short span of time and is set to challenge the hegemony of the United States in the coming years. China’s spectacular rise is predominantly due to its unprecedented economic growth which averages nearly 10 per cent for the last forty years. It has to be noted that this achievement has no precedence in recorded human history and even critics of China have acknowledged this grand success. Even the World Bank has noted that China has ‘experienced the fastest sustained expansion by a major economy in history – and has lifted more than 800 million people out of poverty.’

This transformation began in 1979 with the introduction of economic reforms and today China ranks first in the world in terms of economic size on Purchasing Power Poverty (PPP) basis. Many economists are predicting that China is set to emerge as the world’s largest economy in a couple of decades or even sooner. It is notable that when this happens, it will be for the first time in more than a hundred years a non- European country will hold the mantle of being the foremost economic power. This will be a seismic shift in international politics.

History Of China’s Economic Growth

Economist Angus Maddison’s work which studies Chinese economy through centuries notes that China had the world’s largest economy as late as 1820. It is often forgotten that China was one of world’s foremost economic powers before the negative impact of colonialism. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Qing dynasty which was ruling China has serious internal weakness which left the country vulnerable to Western and later Japanese imperialist ambitions. China lost the First Opium War with Britain in 1839 and subsequently signed the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 which was the first of many humiliating unequal treaties which the country would sign. It was a part of this treaty that Hong Kong was ceded o Britain and ports like Shanghai and Guangzhou were opened for British trade.

China also lost the Second Opium War in 1856 which was jointly fought by British and the French with the support of the United States. China was forced to sign the Treaty of Tientsin in 1858. This opened more ports for foreign trade and also granted more rights for foreigners to travel and trade within Chinese territory. By this time, China had already signed the Treaty of Wanghia with the United States in 1844 granting certain privileges to the country. During this phase of Chinese weakness, several European countries including France and Russia signed unequal treaties with China to gain trade privileges.

Implications Of The Rise Of China

With a rising economy, increasing military strength and growing ambitions, there is no doubt that China is set to dominate international politics in the century. This will however have major ramifications on the international system which needs to be discussed.

China’s rise has already caused concerns about whether the post Second World War liberal international political order will be threatened by the emergence of an authoritarian country as a systemic power. Since the end of the Second World War, the United States and its Western allies have set up international institutions like the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, World Bank and the WTO to construct a rule based international order.

Strategically, interdependence amidst economic globalization has eroded the foundation for a “new Cold War”, which would require four conditions.  First, policymaking in both countries would have to be ideologically driven so that, second, the world can be politically divided into two camps against each other. Third, their economies would be independent of each other upon which, fourth, both sides could form alliances to sanction against each other.

However, like most countries today, policymaking in both the US and China are essentially interest oriented, not ideologically determined. Hence it is virtually impossible that the world could retreat to Cold War dynamics, where nations are divided into two camps politically hostile and economically independent of each other. Moreover, although a US-led security system has survived the end of the Cold War, the US allies would be reluctant to join the fight should confrontation take place between the two superpowers. As for China, Xi Jinping made it clear in his speech at the Belt and Road Initiative summit in May 2017 that China would not pursue any alliance but strives to foster partnerships with other countries.

Thus, despite Trump’s high-profile measures against China, it is hard to imagine that either the US or China would go to war against each other. This is not necessarily because they would give up the competition and even rivalry, but because it will be extremely difficult for both Beijing and Washington to achieve a policy consensus at home and form alliance abroad, which are necessary for a confrontation between the two global powers.

However, the US “tough approach” against China will have a far-reaching negative impact on world order and stability, not only because Trump’s anti-China measures are an essential part of his “America first” unilateralism and his anti-establishment impulse in international affairs, but also because China has already become a deep-rooted stakeholder in all the three layers of today’s international order, i.e., the political order centered on the United Nations and its affiliated organizations, the economic and trade order based on WTO and other multilateral trade agreements, and the financial order maintained by the World Bank, IMF and other institutions like the ADB and AIIB.  Thus, it is not surprising that even America’s closest allies in Europe and Asia – despite their substantial differences with China in terms of value and political systems – are reluctant to join the US in its effort to roll back on China.  This does not mean they support China at all.  But like China, they are also deep-rooted stakeholders of the existing international order that based on multilateral arrangements. After all, the essential purpose of reckless unilateralist behavior by the Trump Administration (e.g., withdrawals from the Paris Agreement, the Iranian Nuclear Deal, the UN Human Right Council, levying heavy tariff taxes on almost all important trade partners, and demanding allies to pay more for the US security commitments) is to rewrite the rules of game in America’s term at the expense of the entire international order. It is in this regard that Trump’s “America first” has turned into “America isolated” because such an approach hurts all the stakeholders of the existing international order, including the US allies.

By contrast, China’s response to the US pressure sounds rational and positive.  Xi Jinping made it clear in his speeches at the Bo’ao Forum for Asia in April 2018 that China will resolutely continue its reform and openness policy.  Meanwhile, Beijing will firmly defend the free trade system based on multilateral arrangements on the one hand, and carry on its “peaceful development” strategy on the other hand.  While it remains to be seen whether, and to what extent, China can turn the rhetoric into credible actions, how, and by what means, China can manage the volatile relationship with the US under a highly self-centered and unpredictable Trump Administration will indeed have a far reaching impact on peace and development of the world.  The good news is that Trump’s ego-driven and unilateral behaviour can actually strengthen China’s hand, only if Beijing can handle it appropriately.  The bad news is that the US still is the strongest power on earth.

REFERENCE : Russia in Global Affairs, International Relations by V.N. KHANNA

Public Policy

Public policy is a frequently used term in our daily lives. We often read in newspapers about a public health policy, education policy, environmental policy, agricultural policy, industrial policy, and so on. Public policies are primarily framed by the government to satisfy public needs and demands. They are the means by which ends of a collective community are served. Without a policy, government and administration are rudderless. Successful policies make for successful government and administration, and hence there is a saying that when a policy fails, the government fails.

Theoretical Dimensions : The Context

Public policy is a relatively new subfield in political science. Its development as an area of study emerged out of the recognition that traditional analyses of government decisions were incomplete descriptions of political activities. As the relationships between society and its various public institutions became more complex and more interdependent, the need developed for more institutions became more complex and more interdependent, the need developed for more comprehensive assessments of what governments do – how and why they pursue some policy alternatives over others.

The focus on the public policy process has developed with the emergence of modern society and industrialization. During the nineteenth century, representative governments began to evolve in some parts of the world. With increased political participation by larger portions of the public, government decisions assumed greater importance and legitimacy.

What Is A Public Policy?

The term “public policy” refers to a set of actions the government takes to address issues within society. For example, public policy addresses problems over the long-term, such as issues with healthcare or gun control, and as such, it can take years to develop. Public policy addresses issues that affect a wider swath of society, rather than those pertaining to smaller groups. To explore this concept, consider the following public policy definition.

For example, public policy might tackle the problem of student loans by creating a student loan forgiveness program that affects several students at once, rather than paying off the loan of one student. Something important to remember about public policy is that it does not just refer to the government’s actions, but also to the behaviours and actions that result from those actions.

Significance Of Public Policy

It is evident that the public policy is the significant factor in the democratic government and it
emphasizes on the public and its problems, in fact it is a discipline which is branded as
public. The concept of public policy assumes that there is an area of life which is totally
individual but said in public. Likewise, public policies have a significant purposes to work in
the society where the democracy is prevails.

The important role of the public policy is to make the society to lead a better life and to maintain the delivery of the goods and services are significant, it is regarded as the mechanism for developing economic-social system, a
procedure for determining the future and so on.

REFERENCES : Public Administration by Bidyut Chakrabarty and Prakash Chand Kandpal

World System And Dependency

Structural approaches of international relations, also known as ‘neo-radical approaches’, are of recent origin. Theories in support of these approaches were advocated by leftist writers who were deeply influenced by Marxism-Leninisim. The structural approaches, including the ‘World System Approach’ and the ‘Dependency Theory’, consider the world structure from the class point of view, based largely on the level of development and accumulation of capital. Western capitalist countries, having huge accumulation of capital, are termed as the centre or core of the world system, while third world countries, lacking development and capital, are called the periphery. We shall examine the concept of development and underdevelopment with reference to the centre versus periphery.

A reference may be made here to neo-realists, who also examine the international structure, but from the political angle. They describe the international structure as chaotic or anarchic because there is no all powerful central authority to discipline the nation states, and to resolve their disputes and maintain world peace. The leftists, on the other hand, largely concentrate on economic relations between the rich industrialized nations of the capitalist world on the one hand and the poor developing third world countries on the other. This chapter will discuss the centre-periphery aspect of development as advocated by the neo-radicals.

Economic Accumulation : The North-South Divide

There is enormous gap today between income levels in the world’s industrialized regions and those in the third world. The rich industrialized countries generally lie in the northern parts of the world, while the poor developing countries are in the south. This difference in the income levels has caused differences in the overall prosperity between the rich North and the poor South. How can this gap be explained? This may be done with the help of the liberal view and also with reference to the revolutionary or radical world view.

The liberal view explains the problem by stressing that the capitalist countries have overall efficiency in maximizing economic growth. This view holds that the poor countries are merely lagging behind the industrial north. The liberals would make us believe that more wealth creation in the North is a good thing, as is wealth creation in the South. According to this view, there is no conflict between the two, as eventually the South will also acquire more wealth.

The leftist, or socialist, view is that the divide may be viewed not only in terms of creation of wealth but also with regard to its distribution. According to this view, the creation of wealth in the North often comes at the expense of the South.

The World System Approach – Centre And Periphery

The system of regional class divisions has been viewed by scholars of international relations with Marxist orientation as the ‘ world system’ or ‘capitalist world economy.’ The world system approach is a leftist theory and it relies on global system of analysis. Marx himself had limited his theory to domestic class conflict only, but Marxist scholars apply the same logic in their world system approach. In this system, class divisions are regionalized. The third world countries (exceptions apart) generally produce raw materials, including agricultural products.

These activities need large manpower but not much of capital. The peasants working in agriculture, mining and other sectors are paid low wages. The industrialized countries, on the other hand, mostly produce manufactured goods. This requires large amount of capital, and needs more skilled workers who are paid high wages. The industrialized manufacturing regions are called ‘centre’ of the world system; and the extraction regions (producing raw materials and agricultural items) are known as ‘periphery’.

Reference : International relations by V.N Khanna

The Upper Paleolithic World

Introduction

After about 40,000 years ago, we see many significant changes in the archaeological record, reflecting important changes in cultural and social life. We see art, many new inventions, and considerable increases in the population. This period of cultural history in Europe, the Near East, and Asia is known as the Upper Paleolithic and dates from about 40,000 years ago to the period known as the Neolithic (beginning about 10,000 years ago, depending on the area). In Africa, the cultural period comparable to the Upper Paleolithic is known as the Later Stone Age and many have begun much earlier.

In many respects, lifestyles during the Upper Paleolithic were similar to lifestyles before. People were still mainly hunters, gatherers, and fishers who probably lived in small mobile bands. They made their camps out in the open in skin-covered huts and in caves and rock shelters. And they continued to produce smaller and smaller stone tools.

But the Upper Paleolithic is also characterized by a variety of new developments. One of the most striking developments is the emergence of art – painting on cave walls and stone slabs, and carving tools, decorative objects, and personal ornaments out of bone, antler, shell and stone. (Perhaps for this, as well as other purposes, people began to obtain materials from distant sources.) Because more archaeological sites date from the Upper Paleolithic than from any previous period and some Upper Paleolithic sites seem larger than any before, many archaeologists think that the human population increased considerably during the Upper Paleolithic. And the new inventions, such as the bow and arrow, the spear thrower, and tiny replaceable blades that could be fitted into handles, appear for the first time.

The Last Ice Age

The Upper Paleolithic world had an environment very different from today’s. The earth was gripped by the last ice age, with glaciers covering Europe as far south as Berlin and Warsaw, and North America as far south as Chicago. To the south of these glacial fronts was a tundra zone extending in Europe to the Alps and in North America to the Ozarks, Appalachians, and well out onto the Great Plains. Environmentally, both Europe and North America probably resembled contemporary Siberia and northern Canada. Elsewhere in the world conditions were not as extreme but were still different from conditions today.

For one thing, the climate was different. Annual temperatures were as much as 50 °F below today’s, and changes in ocean currents would have made temperature contrasts (i.e., the differences between summer and winter months) more extreme. The changing ocean currents also changed weather patterns, and Europe experienced heavy annual snowfall. Not all the world was cold, however; still, the presence of huge ice sheets in the north changed the climate throughout the world. North Africa, for example, appears to have been much wetter than today, and South Asia was apparently drier. And everywhere the climate seems to have been highly variable.

Upper Paleolithic Europe

With the vast supplies of meat available from megafauna, it is not surprising that many Upper Paleolithic cultures relied on hunting, and this was particularly true of the Upper Paleolithic people of Europe, on whom we focus here. Their way of life represents a small pattern throughout the Old World. But as people began to use more diverse resources in their environments, the use of local resources allowed Upper Paleolithic groups in much of the Old World to become more sedentary than their predecessors. They also began to trade with neighbouring groups to obtain resources not available in their local territories.

Reference : Anthropology by Ember and Ember

Habits of successful people that you can take up. 

Getting ahead or wealthy in life can be challenging. There are certain daily habits one must follow to achieve success. These habits enable people to use their potential and get things done on time. Many successful and wealthy people are said to have followed or maintained these habits to get to where they are today. So let us do ourselves a favor today by learning about some of these habits. 

1.Positive Attitude

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Everyday isn’t going to be a bliss in our lives. Instead, each day brings with it a challenge and problem of its own. But we don’t have to be upset or defeated by them. A positive attitude is one of the key habits of successful people that you can adopt. It is the habit of finding positive attributes in every challenge you face. 

You might be overwhelmed and swamped with problems in your lives, but the idea that one day you will emerge as a resilient and a strong person after going through them can be relatively less draining.

After all, we can only control our reactions and not our circumstances. 

2. Sharing

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The path to success is not always about solitude. It requires you to share your ideas with others and even help others. One doesn’t have to be super rich to help or share with people around them. You can share your ideas with people that can benefit you as well as them. Volunteering for a cause is also a great idea of helping and sharing with your community. 

3. Reading

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J.K. Rowling says that she used to read anything that comes her way as a child. She states that one must read as much as possible as nothing is as rewarding as reading. Today there are books, e-books and blogs being written on every possible field. You can read from a wide range of reading materials based on your fields of interest. 

Reading also helps you develop your vocabulary. You can post or publish your own writings based on the knowledge and vocabulary you have gained by your readings. 

4. Being frugal

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Frugality is the habit of being cautious with expenditures. Successful people are very thrifty with their money and resources. They draw comparisons while making deals or purchases and find ways to save money. It is also known as being economical. Economically spending can result in reduction of wastage on resources and money. Thus leading to efficiency. 

5. Rising Early

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Success and wealth has often been associated with the habit of rising early. Early risers can devote more time to their work and get more things done. It is again one of the key habits of successful people that you can adapt. There are several benefits of rising early in the morning such as:

  1. Enhancement of organisation skills as you plan your day ahead under a peaceful and calm environment in the mornings. 
  2. Rising early gives you enough time to prepare a healthy breakfast which is important to carry on the following tasks of the day. 
  3. Rising early puts you at the advantage of being on time. You get the following tasks of the day done without any delay. 
  4. Finally, early rising also helps you sleep early without leaving you watching your phone during midnight. 

These are some of the habits of successful people you can adopt to be successful yourself. 

New skills you can start learning today.

 

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There’s a curiosity in all of us that acts as a driving force for learning new things. There are a variety of fields of specializations in the 21st century that kindle the curious cat inside us. Our desire can influence us to learn about almost everything that exists in this world. But the constraints of time and lengthy periods of learning a course can put the curious cat inside you to sleep. 

However, the 21st century that brought along with it the various fields of specializations has also brought some simple means of learning. There are several apps and websites that enable learning from the comfort of your home. You can begin learning online and learn at your own pace. Free demo lectures are also offered by many institutions to help you understand what you are signing up for. 

Following are some of the skills you can start learning today from the comfort of your home. 

1.Photography

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Whether you want to learn some basic photography skills to post beautiful shots on your status, or you want to dive deep into the world of photography. Educational platforms such as Coursera, Skillshare and Shawacademy are here to offer both free and value added photography courses to aspirants. 

2. Try filmmaking

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With video streaming platforms like YouTube welcoming small scale content creators and beginners, filming and editing has become much easier. Your mobile phone or a handycam is enough to get you started. You can start by looking for what’s trending and film a short video explaining your take on it. 

There are filming courses available on educational platforms like Udemy, Coursera and edX that you can learn from to gain more knowledge in this field. 

3. App making

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If you have an idea that can be transformed into an app, or simply want to learn how to make an app. There are several app building courses available online that have got you covered. 

4. Writing a book

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Every reader dreams of writing his or her book which they can publish someday. So why not begin chasing that dream with a few pages at a time? Start by writing an outline based on the idea you have in mind. You can further add other interesting elements to it with the help of your feelings, emotions and experiences. 

5. Learning a new language

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There’s nothing more sassy than being able to speak in a foreign language, at a foreign place. Being well-versed with a few more languages other than your mother tongue puts you at ease with different people from different places. It also gives you the privilege of visiting different places without the fear of the unknown. 

There are several online applications such as Duolingo and Babbel that can aid you with your efforts. 

6. Learn Typing

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Nothing wastes your time like having to search for the keys you need to press while typing an important document. Learning to type familiarises you with the positioning of the keys that can help you type faster than before. I would recommend the Typing Master portal to learn typing. It comprises tutorials, tests, and games to get you better acquainted with your keyboard. 

7. Learning a new sport

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Unless you are looking up some tricks and moves of the game on the internet, this activity might require you to go beyond what an electronic device can offer. Learning a new sport can help build a rapport between you and your team. It improves your skill of coordination and sportsmanship. The pleasure of seeing the shuttlecock soaring in the air after swinging a badminton racket at it has always been incompatible for me.  

These are some of the activities you can start learning today. 

 

Digital And Text Based Literacy

Meaning And Introduction

The field of literacy studies has made many of us take a deeper look into the similarities and differences between text based and digital literacy. It seems not only through the literature but also by observation as a classroom practitioner that there are certain elements and conflicts between digital literacy and text based literacy that need to be combed through by educators in the field.

One of the most powerful lessons we’ve learned through our work with schools is the importance of doing the work we ask our students to do. Nothing helps us anticipate misunderstandings or understand the strategic support our students will need as much as stepping into their shoes, and doing the reading, writing, and thinking they will do as part of upcoming instruction. The approach to these said instructions is what one may categorize into digital literacy and text based literacy.

Similarities And Dissimilarities

There are a number of similarities between digital and text based literacy, one of them being, both have a common goal, which is, to gather information and communicate effectively. Digital literacy means having the skills you need to live, learn, and work in a society where communication and access to information is increasingly through digital technologies like internet platforms, social media, and mobile devices. While, text literacy is the ability to gather information to communicate using text. The common goal in both the cases is clearly somewhat similar, just the catalyst is different.

From school to the workforce, digital literacy is vital in many areas of life — but simply, having it is an absolute necessity for anyone who uses the internet. Sometimes forms and applications are only available online, so you’ll need to be comfortable accessing and using them. In short, digital literacy is a necessary skill for navigating in our modern, digital world.

Advantages And Disadvantages

Text based literacy has many advantaged over digital literacy. Text based materials are available all the time, regardless of not being in a good internet zone. Text based materials are not as expensive, But its limitation says, they are not as interactive as digital literacy might be. Also, text based literacy works merely on facts and memorization and has zero scope of innovations and ideas, unlike digital literacy.