A properly planned research is necessary to collect data and analyse it. Framing a proper research plan does not always guarantee its smooth execution in practice. When it comes to social research, the practicalities of doing a research is different from the textual model. It is not possible to always adhere to the normative text. For example, text book model suggests not to collect data before planning(for surveys & experiments).However, it is not possible to follow this suggestion in long and complex projects. Text model suggests a linear procedure to conduct researches. However, this is an ideal way and cannot be followed always. The way of doing research in real world differs a lot from the normative approach. Practical alternatives for researching in real world include methods like garbage can model. This methods suggests a messy way of doing things or randomly following the combination of theory, method, resources, solutions etc. Research paper often does not represent the actual idea of research.

Access needs to be negotiated: It is important to have people supporting throughout the research. Research is a time consuming process, and it is necessary to allow time for it.  Friends, relatives, etc… can be used to gain access to data. When conducting researches, it is important to use alternative vocabulary for normal research terms according to different people. It is important to explain the work to people. It is important to negotiate with right people and prepare an outline of study. Formal request and discussion with gatekeepers about your study is important to gain access to data.  Another practical issue is to discuss the study with participants and that will help one to modify his study. It is advisable to use fully informed consent form(with all details regarding the study)

External vs Internal Access: Insiders have a prior knowledge about the organisation they are intending to study. They possess historical knowledge, political knowledge, about people in the organisation etc. It minimizes cost and burden as there is no travel. Insiders have the credibility among people in the organisation and that helps in collecting data. There are also disadvantages of insider access like additional burden of research to actual job. Insiders also have the problem of communicating freely with people in different order of hierarchy. Prior knowledge among people in the organization about the insider may hinder the conversation. Insider researches also face the problem of insider bias. It is difficult to maintain objectivity in such researches. The insider has to live with consequences in case of disappointing parties involved. 

Other issues: Other practical issues include organizing(meetings,arranging equipments), piloting designs(for questionnaires aand surveys), working on one’s relationships etc. It is important to revisit the place in cases of inadequate data, mistakes etc. It is important to be prepared to modify the model and get some data(in case of not matching with model).

Writing Up Research

It is important that the study conducted takes the form of a write up. It is important to report the research to make it public. The format of research depends on nature and purpose(it has to be catered to the intended audience). Examples include scientific journal format, technical report(for a client), poster, pamphlet, press release etc. Other ways of reporting research incude alternative literary presentations like portrayal, adversarial, dialogue etc..(interesting to read). It is important to consider the needs of the project and formatting it accordingly. In all cases, it is important to adhere professional standards(grammar, spelling, layout, design). 

Typical Scientific Journal Format

Each journal has a different format. For example, one journal follows the format of title, abstract(short summary of the project), introduction, methods, results, discussion, and bibliography. Introduction tells the need of the project and our current knowledge of the field. Method explains how the research was done. Result states the outcome of the study. Discussion section deals with the actual study done with research conclusion of the study. It is important to give references in the bibliography section. Language of such journals is in the impersonal, past tense and passive voice. However, some recent journals use active voice. 

Tehcnical Report

In technical reports(for clients), it is important to conform to the expectations(imp. to. meet proffesional standards). It is advisable to refer to other good reports. This format requires an executive sumary(conveys more than an abstract). It is important to fill it with details(methods) in appendices. Revising the draft helps in rewriting and restructuring. This helps in the overall quality of the report. This process includes rereading and asking questions to oneself. Asking others(colleagues, students) for comments can help in this correcting errors. 

Ethics of Doing Research

The purpose of doing a research is for better understanding of the world of we live in. A research has to be considering its benefits and harms. The basic ethics of research include involving people after getting their consent(random observation is an exception,informed consent is important not just mere consent), not coercing people into participation), not being redundant in informations etc. Other unethical activities include doing covert research(deceiving participants), inducing people to commit acts(degrading their self esteem), manipulating people’s behaviour(studies seeking individual change), putting people in risks(physical or mental), fair treatment of people, forcing people to participate even if they unwilling, withholding benefits from some people, not allowing them to act freely etc. Some of these ethics can be sacrificed to a certain extent in case of greater good. It is important to adhere to the codes of practice. People can be given benefits to balance the costs they incur. 

Ethics of Publication 

The legitimate expectation is that the findings get published. It is important to change the names of sources by using pseudonyms. It is important to consider this fact when giving the rights to a different publisher. Interests of the sponsors and gatekeepers before publishing. 

Productivity refers to the ratio between the volume of output and volume of inputs. Inputs here refer to factors of production like land, labor, capital etc. According to definitions, productivity is the residual output that is not explained by the direct contribution of input resources. It refers to goods and services produced in relation to resources used in their production. High productivity indicates that the resources are being used efficiently. If resources are economically the overall production will increase. This also decreases cost of production. It leads to higher production using minimal resources. It is an important critical indicator of economic performance. Residual output is called as Total Factor Productivity (TFP). Increase in productivity benefits the economy by making it possible to start new industrial units and generating more employment opportunities. Higher productivity is necessary for the growth of any nation.

Higher productivity helps in producing quality goods at lower cost. This will lead to lower prices increasing the standard of living.  Profit maximization is possible because of higher productivity. This facilitates internal financing of expansion programmes. Factors of production can be used efficiently. This also increases income for workers. Higher productivity determines the standard of living. Lower productivity means low standard of living. GDP measures the total output. So, the total output is equal to the economy. This is the reason why American workers are richer than workers of any other developing nation. For example, let us consider Munro as  an  economy. He catches his own fish, grows his one vegetables, and makes his own clothes. His production and consumption can be considered as a simple economy. If he is bad at doing these things, he lives poorly. The standard of  living of his economy depends on productivity. A country’s standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services.

The two variants of productivity are labor productivity and total factor productivity. Labour productivity measures the amount of output per worker. Total factor productivity measures the amount of  output per unit of  total input. Total factor productivity is total product output divided into index of all inputs like land, labor, capital etc. Output growing faster than inputs is higher productivity. Productivity increases as a result of advancement of technology, invention of new methods, newer processes etc.  Increasing returns to scale, larger inputs and production will lead to higher productivity.  Even with other factors remaining constant, economies of scale would contribute to productivity. If a product can be produced more efficiently when produced together than apart it creates a different kind of efficiency. It happens in the presence of economies of scope. For example, this happens in the software industry.  When consumers buy software to prepare their federal income taxes the CD-ROM usually contains several other modules, including a link to a Web page, government documents, and a tax preparation manual. This shows economies of scope because the different modules can be more inexpensively produced, packaged, and used together than separately. Economics of scope are like the specialization and division of labor that increase productivity as economies become larger and more diversified. Economies of production and scope are also reasons for increasing productivity. Economies of scale and mass production have been important elements of productivity.

There are other factors that determine Robinson Crusoe’s standard of  living other than productivity. From the example mentioned above we can call other determinants as physical capital, natural resources, and technological knowledge. These factors have a role in real economy.  

Physical capital: physical capital per worker is important as workers will be more productive if they are provided with proper tools. Tools, equipment and structures used in the process of production of goods and services is called physical capital. The processes become easier and simpler with more tools and equipments. A worker with basic tools cannot produce more. Inputs to production are called factors of production. Physical capital is produced factor of production. Capital is an input into the production process that in the past was an output from the production process. Capital is a factor of production that is used to produce all kinds of goods.

Human capital: It includes the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training and experience. The skills and experiences are a result of time spent in schools, programs, colleges, job trainings etc. It is an intangible capital. Like other determinants human capital also contributes to nation’s productivity. Human capital is a produced and completed determinant of productivity. Proper human capital which has effective and efficient workers requires proper educational facilities, teachers and institutions etc. Students are the future workers. They are the human capital that will be used in future production. 

Natural Resources: Natural resource is another determinant of productivity. It includes rivers, land, minerals and other resources provided by nature. Natural resources are of two types: renewable sources and non renewable resources. Renewable resources are sources that can be created again or replaced easily. The supply is infinite. Examples include trees, fresh water, solar energy, biomass etc. Non renewable resources are sources that cannot be created again or replaced. The supply is limited. Examples include oil, gas, coal etc. Natural resource disparities are responsible for some of the differences in living standards around the globe. The historical success of USA was driven in the part by the large supply of land well suited for agriculture. Other examples are countries like Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. They are well off because of oil resources. Though natural resources are important, they are not solely responsible for higher productivity. Japan is a good example for this. Despite having low natural resources, it is one of the richest countries in the world. It imports many natural resources from other countries and exports manufactured goods to those countries.

Technological knowledge: Another important determinant of productivity is technological knowledge. It simply means using the best ways to produce goods. Technological advancements have made production process simpler. Once farming required a high input of labor to produce food for the entire population. Now, it has been made possible to produce for the entire population by employing a small proportion of the population. This has allowed labor to focus on other sectors. Technological knowledge has many forms. Common knowledge spreads to everyone after one uses it. For example, Henry Ford introduced production in assembly lines, other carmakers followed it. Rest is proprietary. Only the company that discovers or invents it knows it. Example: Coco Cola recipe. Some inventions are proprietary for short time. They become available to everyone after the patent expires. These forms of are important for the production of goods and services. Important difference between human capital and technology is technological knowledge refers to society’s understanding about how the world works. Human capital refers to the resources expended transmitting this understanding to the labor force.

Let us discuss about other determinants for better understanding of this. Other determinants of productivity are innovation, education, market efficiency and institutional infrastructure.

Innovation: Invention of new technology leads to development of high value added activities and improves the performance of existing economic activities. When we look back at the past we can know that only few countries have created new technology. They have invested heavily in research and development (R&D). Studies have revealed that creation of new technology is associated with higher TFP. 

Education: There is a positive relationship between productivity and education. It is evident when we look at developing and developed countries. Studies show that the number of schooling years and completion rate of secondary and tertiary education is important in explaining the improvement of TFP for many countries.

Market efficiency: Studies have shown that market efficiency s related to variation in productivity across countries. Inefficiency in the allocation of human and physical capital is the main explanation for a low income among many countries. Estimates reveal that if capital and labor had been allocated at the same level as USA productivity in India and China could have been 1.6 times and 1.3 times higher than USA respectively.

Institutional infrastructure: Quality of governance that includes political stability, rule of law, the absence of corruption and so on is positively related to TFP and economic growth. Governance works as a channel for geographical endowments, such as temperate locations and proper growing environment for grains, to contribute to the growth of economy. Government size is also related to economic growth. It paves way for well executed government investment.

By studying productivity and its determinants we can understand the importance of productivity to an economy. Productivity ensures higher standard of living. It improves the income of labors and helps in developing the economy of a country. Determinants should be strengthened to increase productivity. Government should invest on infrastructure and education. Resources should be used properly. Higher productivity is essential for all nations.

When a running business is taken over from a date prior to its incorporation/commencement, the profit earned up to the date of incorporation/commencement (incorporation, in case of private company; and commencement, in case of public company) is known as ‘Pre-incorporation profit’.

The same is to be treated as capital profit since these are profits which have been earned before the company came into existence. In short, the profit earned after the date of purchase of business is called ‘Post-incorporation or Post-acquisition profit’ and the profit earned before the date of purchase of business is termed as ‘Pre-incorporation profit’.

Thus, any profit/loss made before the incorporation is known as “Profit (Loss) Prior to Incorporation” which is treated as a capital profit and the same cannot be distributed as business profit. Hence, it cannot be distributed by way of dividend.

The same is to be transferred to Capital Reserve or may be adjusted against Goodwill. “Loss prior to incorporation” is treated as a capital loss and, hence, the same is shown under the head “Miscellaneous Expenditure” in the assets side of the Balance Sheet.

A Profit and Loss Account is prepared at the end of the year and thereafter the profits (or losses) between the two periods are allocated:

(i) From the date of purchase to the date of incorporation or pre-incorporation period;

(ii) From the date of incorporation to the closing of the accounting year or post-incorporation period.

Farmer suicide is the intentional taking of one’s life by a person who relies on farming to earn a living. Farmer suicide is a serious issue in many states. Surveys reveal that suicide rate in farming is forty seven percent higher than any other profession. Farming was once considered a prosperous and peaceful way of living but now things have changed.Farmers` suicide rate varies with countries. 

In recent years, farming has become a vulnerable livelihood option.  According to reports, one farmer dies in every thirty minutes. By looking at the plight of farmers, it won’t be wrong to say that farmers are on the verge of extinction. Of late, it has become a global concern. According to statistics, more than three lakh farmers have killed themselves since 1995. Farmer suicide rate (FSR) was 16.3 which is almost 5 more than the suicide rate for the rest of the population in 2011.The phenomenal increase in the suicides committed by the farmers is becoming a social calamity and a drag on the quality of life of the farmers and their dependents. Various reasons attributed to farmer suicides are: indebtedness, poverty, natural calamities, low produce prices, marriage related issues etc. Surveys reveal that only twenty five percent of the suicides are due to farm related issues.In agrarian countries like India, important reasons are monsoon failure, unseasonal rains, lack of irrigation etc. Three important characteristics of high risk farmers are cash crop cultivators, people that own small lands(less than one hectare) and those who have debts with informal sources. These reasons cause seventy five percent of the suicides. The suicide rate among agricultural workers is also high due to low wage rate growth.  In countries like India, the majority of the population is dependent on agriculture. Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood in India. So, government policies that are ineffective affects people. The declining rate of agriculturalist population shows the lack of profits and support by government. These negative stats and reports question the effectiveness of government plans and highlights the flaws in policies framed by policy makers. Surveys reveal that small land owners are the most vulnerable ones.

Failure to fix proper produce prices, inefficient policies, loan waivers have resulted in the decline of farming as an occupation and it has also caused an increase in farmer suicide rates. This shows how the state has failed to concentrate on an important occupation like farming. Lower levels of the farmers welfare and prosperity shows the failure of a welfare state. Misconception of technology contributing to increased outputs has also been a factor. Over emphasis on technology has made no change. This shows the poor understanding of farmers issue by the policy makers and the government. Technology helped in increasing the output in earlier years but technology’s contribution in recent years has not been great.

Important reasons causing the decline in farmers and increased suicide rates of farmers are low produce price, indebtedness, ineffectiveness of loan waivers, inefficient policies, lack of profits, mental disorder, drug use, physical illness etc.  Indebtedness and deterioration in economic status were stated as the major reasons in recent studies. The reasons are context specific.  The agrarian crisis has had a huge impact on landless farmers and small farmers. The output from farming related activities has also decreased. The beginning of controlling seed supply has also been a reason. Seed monopoly robs farmers of life. The shift from farm saved seeds to corporate monopolies of seed supply is also a shift from biodiversity to monocultures in agriculture. This increases the risk of crop failure. 

Various attempts by the Government to understand the issue and implement policies have been ineffective. These policies have focused on credit and loan rather than improving the livelihood of farmers. Farmers not only borrow for meeting the cost of production but also for meeting the cost of living. They borrow from both formal and informal sources. Victim farmers have borrowed mostly from informal sources such as money lenders, land lords, relatives etc.  Studies reveal that victim farmers were pressurized by both formal and informal sources. Farmers avoid banks due to lengthy procedure.

Farmers have lost faith in the government due to its failure to make policies that support the poor. Policies implemented by the government have failed to reach farmers in many cases. The public investment on agriculture has decreased from thirty seven percent in first plan to seventeen percent in tenth plan in India.  Economic reforms have failed to fulfill their motives. Farmers have struggled to avail loans despite government’s action to increase credit to farmers and decreasing interest rate to nine percent from fourteen percent. Many farmers are not aware of availability of credit. Banks and cooperatives have also failed in lending money to farmers. Banks have decreased interest rates for car and home loans and have kept it high for agriculture. Despite government’s measures to increase rural credit, farmers borrow money from money lenders. Rural investment has also declined over the years. There is a requirement of for a strong and flexible structure of rural banks still exists. 

The burden of indebtedness is high in India.  The situation has not changed much even after structural changes in credit institutions. Minimum Support Prices have increased steadily on par with the inflation rate in recent years. But the prevailing market structure has several inadequacies and various interlocking process leaving a majority of farmers selling the agricultural produce at a lower price than expected.

The agriculturalist to total population ratio has declined from twenty three percent to seventeen percent from 1951 to 1991.  Farmers are selling their lands to other farmers as the occupation is becoming unviable. The implementation of policies has been pathetic.  This indicates the need for innovative agricultural development policies to solve this issue.  Loan waivers have been identified as the worst solution for decreasing farmer suicides.

RBI recently said that loan waivers can also effect credit culture.  Loans and loan waivers in no way increase the income of farmers. The first loan waiver was announced in 1990. Loan waivers prove to be a burden on banks and economy.  Loan waivers are announced with the motive of eliminating indebtedness and helping farmers.  It is announced to help farmers cope up with the situation due to lack of monsoon rains.  It is also seen as an initiative to retain the farmers. Loan waivers affect the discipline of the financial system. Farmers begin to expect loan waivers due to continuous announcements of loan waivers. Loan waiver also affects the tax payers. Loan waivers do not solve the fundamental problems causing farmer suicides. Lack of accountability and transparency affects the effectiveness of loan waivers.It is being used as a mere political strategy than a proper measure.

Recent studies have raised doubts over National Policy on Farmers 2007 and four percent agricultural growth solution. These policies aim to increase the net income of farmers and improve their economic status. The combined budgetary allocation for agriculture was 20,874 crores in 1990 and it has become 4,35,689crores in 2015-16. These policies have failed to reach the poor. The policies focus on urban farmers than rural farmers. Imposing price controls during price rise and its withdrawal during price stability is an example to this. 

Agriculture became a burden due to poverty. Liberalization of the economy shifted the focus to industrial development from agricultural development. The government increased agricultural imports, reduced rural credit and stopped subsidies contributing to poverty. Agricultural sector is being neglected by the policy makers. Policies are framed without consulting farmers. There are no farmers present in the policy making committee. It was found that the state governments in states like Kerala had adopted neo liberal policies. These policies had decreased institutional credit, reduced public investment on agriculture, avoided irrigation facilities, commercialized agricultural inputs and increased the non-institutional credit.

Farmers are not able to recover their investments due to low produce price. “The WPI (wholesale price index) of food articles was lower than that of agricultural inputs for most years, indicating that farmers received lower market prices for agricultural commodities than the prices paid for the inputs,” according to the report, based on analysts of data from 1981-82. This is a result of increase in input costs like irrigation, electricity, pesticides and fertilizers. The rates of food articles have increased at a faster rate since 2008-09. This explains why farmers are making less money.

Loan waivers introduced by government regularly have failed to reach the needy. Reports reveal that actual sufferers have not benefitted from these waivers. Majority of farmers borrow from informal sources even today. These loan waivers are of no use to farmers who have borrowed from informal sources. Large land owners benefit from subsidies. Minimum prices have caused over-supply. Despite perks like loan waivers, low interest loans, high taxes to block food imports, seeds, fertilizers etc farming as an occupation has declined. Agriculture’s contribution to the GDP has reduced. It is mainly because of  low produce prices. The tax exemption is not useful as many farmers earn less than the taxable income. 

Agricultural development in economic theory has been regarded as a prerequisite for rapid economic transformation of the capitalist  economy.  Seventy percent of the population of the country is involved in agriculture. So, the per capita income of the country will increase significantly only when net income of farmers increases. Agricultural sector contributes about 17-18% to the GDP. It provides employment oppurtunities to 60% of the population. 

Agricultural sector is the source of raw materials for many large scale industries. Many small scale industries depend on this sector for raw materials. Agriculture contributes significantly to the country’s exports. So, agricultural development is vital for a country like India’s development. 

The government should frame effective policies to support agriculture. It should make provisions for easy availability of loans. It should recommend proper fertilizers according to the nature of soil. It should ensure just prices for produces that gives profits for farmers. Introduction of technology and awareness about modern farming can also help farmers.  

 Suicide of farmers has become an alarming and sensitive issue. Agriculture plays a major role in economic development. For a sector which provides sixty percent job opportunities and contributes significantly to the GDP proper government attention is necessary. Proper policy measures should be taken to curb this issue. Policies should aim to solve fundamental issues. Infrastructure and technology in rural areas should be developed. This projects shows the failure of implantation of policies. It also shows how improper policies fail to solve the core problem. Many suicides are due to indebtedness, low produce prices and lack of profits. Reliance on non formal sources for credit is also an issue that needs to be addressed. Efforts should be taken to increase the net income of farmers. Improper policy making and poor implementation is also a concern.