Tag: planning

Leadership in Education

 Leadership in education is pivotal for shaping the direction, effectiveness, and culture of educational institutions. Educational leaders, which can include principals, superintendents, department heads, or educational policymakers, play multifaceted roles:


  1. Vision Setting: Effective leaders establish a clear vision and direction for the school or educational institution. They articulate goals and objectives that guide the community toward a common purpose.

  2. Instructional Leadership: They focus on improving teaching and learning practices. This involves supporting and developing teachers, implementing effective curriculum strategies, and ensuring student engagement and success.

  3. Creating a Positive School Culture: Educational leaders foster a positive and inclusive school environment that encourages collaboration, innovation, respect, and a sense of belonging among students, teachers, and staff.

  4. Strategic Planning and Management: They are responsible for strategic planning, resource allocation, budget management, and decision-making that aligns with the institution’s goals and needs.

  5. Community Engagement: Leaders build partnerships with parents, communities, and stakeholders to create a supportive network for the institution. They understand the importance of involving the community in the educational process.

  6. Adaptability and Innovation: Effective leaders stay updated with educational trends, research, and innovations. They encourage experimentation and innovation to adapt teaching methods and technologies for better outcomes.

  7. Advocacy and Policy Implementation: Educational leaders advocate for policies and practices that benefit students and educational quality. They implement and oversee policies that comply with educational standards and regulations.

  8. Professional Development: They support the continuous growth and development of teachers and staff by providing opportunities for professional learning, mentorship, and skill enhancement.

Leadership in education is not limited to formal administrative roles; it can also involve teachers who take on leadership roles within their classrooms or across departments. Effective leadership is crucial for fostering a conducive environment for learning, supporting students and staff, and achieving educational goals.

PM GatiShakti National Master Plan in States/UTs

 To promote wider adoption of PM GatiShakti National Master Plan (NMP), Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry conducts weekly review meetings with States and Union Territories to monitor and extend support for efficient and effective utilization of their State Master plan (SMP) portals for infrastructure planning and implementation.

A review meeting was convened for the Western and Central Zones States/UTs of India, chaired by Special Secretary (Logistics), DPIIT, Ms. Sumita Dawra at New Delhi on August 31, 2023. The meeting witnessed active participation from States/UTs i.e. Maharashtra, Goa, Rajasthan, Daman & Diu and Dadar & Nagar Haveli, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.

During the meeting, Special Secretary (Logistics) stressed upon the importance of utilising the GatiShakti NMP/SMP portal and adopting ‘whole of government’ approach for infrastructure and social sector planning.

The chair mentioned various benefits of PM GatiShakti National Master Plan (NMP) by leveraging data layers and tools for effective, data-driven decision making, that includes:

  1. Optimized Route Planning
  2. Enhanced visibility of intersections from forest, economic zones, archaeological sites etc.
  3. Enabling time and cost saving for planning and implementation of infrastructure projects, such as, use of digital surveys on NMP to streamline the preparation of Detailed Project Reports (DPR) with higher accuracy.

She also mentioned that the States/UTs are extensively using the PM GatiShakti approach for planning connectivity to Industrial Regions; for selecting the location of social infrastructure assets, such as anganwadis, schools, hospitals, etc.

States/UTs are integrating their existing development programmes/schemes with the GIS-based NMP/SMP to achieve better planning. For instance, the State of UP, integrated its Pahunch portal with the SMP, for effective decision-making about site suitability of new schools, based on various parameters like population, connectivity, teacher-pupil ratio, etc. Similarly, the Gujarat Government used the PMGS for planning its coastal corridor to promote tourism. State of Goa planned the disaster management/ evacuation route during floods to minimize loss of life, using the PMGS NMP/SMP portals.

It was further emphasised that the States/UTs must look after the following parameters for wider adoption of PM GatiShakti NMP:

  1. regular meeting/workings of institutional mechanism at States/UTs level;
  2. ensure quality of data layers on NMP/SMP portal;
  3. usage of SMP for project planning and implementation to facilitate Ease of Logistics, Ease of Living, and Ease of Doing Business; and

The States/UTs are being encouraged to formulate State Logistics Policy (SLPs) aligned with National logistics policy (NLP) to bring holistic focus on ‘logistics’ in public policy at State level. So far, 22 States have notified their State Logistics policies.

The States/UTs were sensitized about the advantages of utilizing PM GatiShakti NMP/SMP at the district level for planning purposes. To enable area-based development, it is essential to adopt PM GatiShakti principles for gap identification, project planning, etc. at grass root level. This is where the involvement of district-level officers becomes crucial in implementing the area-based approach for social and economic planning within their districts.

The approach can streamline several challenges, such as land acquisition, approvals, utility shifting coordination, administrative assistance, and more, expediting and ensuring time-bound project implementation. States/UTs were recommended to identify pilot areas for implementation of planning and analysis through the PM GatiShakti NMP/SMP.

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Planning and Management in Companies

 by Shashikant Nishant Sharma 

Planning and management play crucial roles in the growth and success of a company. Here are some ways in which planning and management can help a company in its growth:

Setting Clear Goals: Effective planning and management involve setting clear and achievable goals for the company. These goals provide direction and focus, enabling the company to work towards specific objectives. By defining growth targets and milestones, planning and management help align the efforts of employees and resources towards the company’s expansion.

Strategic Decision-making: Planning and management facilitate strategic decision-making processes. They involve assessing market trends, analyzing competition, and identifying opportunities for growth. Through comprehensive planning and effective management, a company can make informed decisions regarding product development, market entry, expansion strategies, and resource allocation.

Resource Allocation: Planning and management help allocate resources effectively, ensuring they are used efficiently to support growth. This includes managing financial resources, human capital, technology, and other assets. By carefully planning and managing resources, a company can optimize its operations, streamline processes, and minimize waste, ultimately contributing to its growth.

Risk Management: Planning and management involve identifying and managing risks that may impede growth. By conducting thorough risk assessments, developing contingency plans, and implementing risk mitigation strategies, a company can navigate uncertainties and minimize potential setbacks. Effective risk management enables the company to seize opportunities while safeguarding its assets and reputation.

Organizational Structure and Alignment: Planning and management play a critical role in establishing and maintaining an effective organizational structure. They define roles, responsibilities, and reporting lines, ensuring clarity and alignment within the company. A well-structured organization promotes efficient communication, collaboration, and coordination, enabling the company to adapt to growth and scale operations effectively.

Monitoring and Evaluation: Planning and management involve continuous monitoring and evaluation of the company’s performance. By setting key performance indicators (KPIs) and regularly assessing progress, management can identify areas for improvement and take corrective actions. This data-driven approach enables the company to optimize processes, capitalize on growth opportunities, and adapt strategies as needed.

Adaptability and Flexibility: Effective planning and management foster adaptability and flexibility, crucial traits for sustained growth. Companies that can adjust their plans and strategies based on changing market conditions and customer needs are more likely to thrive. By regularly reviewing and updating plans, management can ensure the company remains responsive to evolving trends and remains agile in its operations.

In summary, planning and management provide a structured approach to growth by setting clear goals, making strategic decisions, optimizing resource allocation, managing risks, establishing organizational structures, monitoring performance, and promoting adaptability. By leveraging these practices, companies can position themselves for sustainable growth and long-term success.

Top 10 Train Accidents in India


Train accidents can have devastating consequences, leading to loss of life, injuries, and damage to infrastructure. While I can provide information on notable train accidents in India, it’s important to note that this list may not be exhaustive and may not include the most recent accidents. It’s always advisable to refer to reliable news sources and official reports for the most up-to-date and accurate information. Here are details about ten significant train accidents in India:

Gaisal Train Disaster (1999): On August 2, 1999, the Gaisal Express derailed in Gaisal, Assam, resulting in a collision with an incoming freight train. The accident claimed the lives of 285 people and injured more than 300.

Khanna Rail Accident (1998): On November 26, 1998, near Khanna, Punjab, the Jammu Tawi-Sealdah Express collided with two derailed wagons, causing a massive fire. The accident resulted in the loss of 212 lives and injuries to several others.

Firozabad Train Collision (1995): On August 20, 1995, in Firozabad, Uttar Pradesh, the Purushottam Express collided with a stationary Kalindi Express due to a signal error. The accident caused the deaths of 358 people and injured over 400.

Rafiganj Train Derailment (2002): On September 10, 2002, near Rafiganj, Bihar, the Rajdhani Express derailed after hitting a derailed goods train. The incident resulted in the loss of 130 lives and injured several passengers.

Kanpur Train Derailment (2016): On November 20, 2016, the Indore-Patna Express derailed near Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. The accident led to the deaths of 150 passengers and injured many others. The exact cause of the derailment was under investigation.

Pukhrayan Train Derailment (2016): On November 20, 2016, near Pukhrayan, Uttar Pradesh, the Indore-Patna Express derailed, resulting in one of the deadliest train accidents in recent times. The accident claimed the lives of 152 passengers and caused injuries to numerous individuals.

Howrah-New Delhi Rajdhani Express Accident (1991): On September 6, 1991, the Howrah-New Delhi Rajdhani Express collided with a derailed freight train near Khanna, Punjab. The accident led to the deaths of 57 people and injured many others.

Awadh-Assam Express Collision (1995): On April 21, 1995, the Awadh-Assam Express collided with the Brahmaputra Mail near Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh. The accident resulted in the loss of 57 lives and caused injuries to several passengers.

Midnapore Train Derailment (2010): On May 28, 2010, the Howrah-Kurla Lokmanya Tilak Gyaneshwari Express derailed near Midnapore, West Bengal. The accident was caused by sabotage, resulting in the deaths of 148 passengers and injuries to many others.

Kalka Mail Train Accident (2011): On July 10, 2011, the Howrah-Delhi Kalka Mail derailed near Fatehpur, Uttar Pradesh. The accident led to the loss of 69 lives and injured numerous passengers.


The death toll in the three-train accident at Bahanaga Bazar station in Odisha’s Balasore rose to 288 on Saturday and left over 1,000 injured, with a preliminary probe implying human error in the deadliest railway tragedy in 30 years. Railway minister Ashwini Vaishnaw who reviewed the restoration work at the Balasore triple train collision site on Sunday, said that the accident that claimed the lives of 288 passengers happened due to a change in electronic interlocking. 

It’s important to note that these accidents are tragic events that highlight the need for continuous efforts in improving railway safety, infrastructure maintenance, and implementation of advanced technologies to prevent such incidents in the future.

Strategies for eCommerce Business Management

 by Shashikant Nishant Sharma 

In the digital age, ecommerce has revolutionized the way businesses operate, providing a platform for buying and selling products and services online. However, the management of an ecommerce business requires careful planning, execution, and adaptation to succeed in a highly competitive market. This article discusses key management strategies that can help businesses thrive in the ecommerce landscape.

Customer-Centric Approach: Successful ecommerce businesses prioritize customer satisfaction. Understanding customer needs, preferences, and expectations is crucial for tailoring products, services, and overall user experience. Implementing robust customer relationship management (CRM) systems, gathering customer feedback, and analyzing data can provide insights into customer behavior, enabling businesses to personalize offerings and enhance customer loyalty.
Seamless User Experience: A seamless and user-friendly website or mobile app is vital for ecommerce success. Businesses must invest in responsive design, intuitive navigation, fast page loading times, and secure payment gateways to ensure a smooth shopping experience. Regular usability testing, optimization, and incorporating user feedback help identify and address any usability issues, improving customer satisfaction and conversion rates.
Effective Inventory Management: Efficient inventory management is essential for ecommerce businesses to meet customer demands while minimizing costs. Employing inventory management systems and implementing demand forecasting techniques can help optimize stock levels, avoid stockouts, reduce holding costs, and streamline order fulfillment processes. Real-time inventory tracking ensures accurate product availability information, minimizing the risk of disappointing customers with out-of-stock items.
Streamlined Order Fulfillment: Timely order fulfillment and reliable shipping processes are critical for customer satisfaction. Ecommerce businesses should establish partnerships with reliable logistics providers to ensure prompt delivery and order tracking. Integration between the ecommerce platform and the fulfillment process, along with automated order processing, can improve efficiency and reduce errors. Providing customers with transparent shipping updates and clear return policies further enhances their experience.
Data-Driven Decision Making: Effective management of an ecommerce business relies on leveraging data insights. By utilizing analytics tools, businesses can track key performance indicators (KPIs), analyze sales trends, customer behavior, and website performance. This data-driven approach helps identify areas for improvement, fine-tune marketing strategies, optimize pricing, and enhance overall business operations.
Marketing and Customer Acquisition: To stand out in the competitive ecommerce landscape, businesses must invest in marketing and customer acquisition strategies. Utilizing search engine optimization (SEO) techniques, paid advertising, social media marketing, and content marketing can increase brand visibility, drive traffic to the website, and attract potential customers. Effective use of data analytics and customer segmentation allows businesses to target their marketing efforts, maximizing the return on investment.
Mobile Optimization: As mobile usage continues to rise, optimizing ecommerce websites and applications for mobile devices is crucial. Mobile responsiveness, intuitive navigation, and mobile-friendly payment options ensure a seamless experience for customers accessing the platform through smartphones and tablets. Mobile optimization strategies also include leveraging mobile apps, push notifications, and location-based marketing to engage with customers and enhance their mobile shopping experience.
Cybersecurity and Data Protection: With the increasing risk of cyber threats and data breaches, ecommerce businesses must prioritize cybersecurity and data protection. Implementing robust security measures such as encryption, secure payment gateways, and secure user authentication helps safeguard customer information and build trust. Compliance with data protection regulations, such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), is essential for ensuring customer privacy.
Continuous Innovation and Adaptation: The ecommerce landscape evolves rapidly, and successful businesses must adapt to changing trends and technologies. Continuous innovation in product offerings, customer experience, and technology implementation is vital to stay competitive. Monitoring market trends, keeping an eye on competitors, and actively seeking customer feedback enables businesses to identify opportunities for improvement and implement necessary changes.

Management By Objectives (MBO) – Peter Drucker MBO

 

The Concept Of Management By Objectives (MBO)


The concept of MBO is closely connected with the concept of planning. The process of planning implies the existence of objectives and is used as a tool/technique for achieving the objectives. Modern managements are rightly described as ‘Management by Objectives’ (MBO). This MBO concept was popularized by Peter Drucker. It suggests that objectives should not be imposed on subordinates but should be decided collectively by a concerned with the management. This gives popular support to them and the achievement of such objectives becomes easy and quick.


management by objectives


Management by Objectives (MBO) is the most widely accepted philosophy of management today. It is a demanding and rewarding style of management. It concentrates attention on the accomplishment of objectives through participation of all concerned persons, i.e., through team spirit. MBO is based on the assumption that people perform better when they know what is expected of them and can relate their personal goals to organizational objectives. Superior subordinate participation, joint goal setting and support and encouragement from superior to subordinates are the basic features of MBO. It is a result-oriented philosophy and offers many advantages such as employee motivation, high morale, effective and purposeful leadership and clear objectives before all concerned per-sons.


MBO is a participative and democratic style of management. Here, ample a scope is given to subordinates and is given higher status and positive/participative role. In short, MBO is both a philosophy and approach to management. MBO concept is different from MBC (Management by Control) and is also superior in many respects. According to the classical theory of management, top management is concerned with objectives setting, directing and coordinating the efforts of middle level managers and lower level staff. However, achievement of organizational objectives is possible not by giving orders and instructions but by securing cooperation and participation of all persons. For this, they should be associated with the management process. This is possible in the case of MBO and hence MBO is different from MBC and also superior to MBC.


MBO is an approach (to planning) that helps to overcome these barriers. MBO involves the establishment of goals by managers and their subordinates acting together, specifying responsibilities and assigning authority for achieving the goals and finally constant monitoring of performance. The genesis of MBO is attributed to Peter Drucker who has explained it in his book ‘The Practice of Management’.


red squareDefinitions Of Management By Objectives MBO :-


  1. According to George Odiome, MBO is “a process whereby superior and subordinate managers of an Organisation jointly define its common goals, define each individual’s major areas of responsibility in terms Of results expected of him and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members.”
  2. According to John Humble, MBO is “a dynamic system which seeks to integrate the company’s needs to clarify and achieve its profits and growth goals with the manager’s need to contribute and develop himself. It is a demanding and rewarding style of managing a business.”


red squareFeatures Of Management By Objectives MBO :-


  1. Superior-subordinate participation: MBO requires the superior and the subordinate to recognize that the development of objectives is a joint project/activity. They must be jointly agree and write out their duties and areas of responsibility in their respective jobs.
  2. Joint goal-setting: MBO emphasizes joint goal-setting that are tangible, verifiable and measurable. The subordinate in consultation with his superior sets his own short-term goals. However, it is examined both by the superior and the subordinate that goals are realistic and attainable. In brief, the goals are to be decided jointly through the participation of all.
  3. Joint decision on methodology: MBO focuses special attention on what must be accomplished (goals) rather than how it is to be accomplished (methods). The superior and the subordinate mutually devise methodology to be followed in the attainment of objectives. They also mutually set standards and establish norms for evaluating performance.
  4. Makes way to attain maximum result: MBO is a systematic and rational technique that allows management to attain maximum results from available resources by focussing on attainable goals. It permits lot of freedom to subordinate to make creative decisions on his own. This motivates subordinates and ensures good performance from them.
  5. Support from superior: When the subordinate makes efforts to achieve his goals, superior’s helping hand is always available. The superior acts as a coach and provides his valuable advice and guidance to the subordinate. This is how MBO facilitates effective communication between superior and subordinates for achieving the objectives/targets set.


red squareSteps In Management By Objectives Planning :-


  1. Goal setting: The first phase in the MBO process is to define the organizational objectives. These are determined by the top management and usually in consultation with other managers. Once these goals are established, they should be made known to all the members. In setting objectives, it is necessary to identify “Key-Result Areas’ (KRA).
  2. Manager-Subordinate involvement: After the organizational goals are defined, the subordinates work with the managers to determine their individual goals. In this way, everyone gets involved in the goal setting.
  3. Matching goals and resources: Management must ensure that the subordinates are provided with necessary tools and materials to achieve these goals. Allocation of resources should also be done in consultation with the subordinates.
  4. Implementation of plan: After objectives are established and resources are allocated, the subordinates can implement the plan. If any guidance or clarification is required, they can contact their superiors.
  5. Review and appraisal of performance: This step involves periodic review of progress between manager and the subordinates. Such reviews would determine if the progress is satisfactory or the subordinate is facing some problems. Performance appraisal at these reviews should be conducted, based on fair and measurable standards.


red squareAdvantages of Management By Objectives MBO :-


  1. Develops result-oriented philosophy: MBO is a result-oriented philosophy. It does not favor management by crisis. Managers are expected to develop specific individual and group goals, develop appropriate action plans, properly allocate resources and establish control standards. It provides opportunities and motivation to staff to develop and make positive contribution in achieving the goals of an Organisation.
  2. Formulation of dearer goals: Goal-setting is typically an annual feature. MBO produces goals that identify desired/expected results. Goals are made verifiable and measurable which encourage high level of performance. They highlight problem areas and are limited in number. The meeting is of minds between the superior and the subordinates. Participation encourages commitment. This facilitates rapid progress of an Organisation. In brief, formulation of realistic objectives is me benefit of M[BO.
  3. Facilitates objective appraisal: NIBO provides a basis for evaluating a person’s performance since goals are jointly set by superior and subordinates. The individual is given adequate freedom to appraise his own activities. Individuals are trained to exercise discipline and self control. Management by self-control replaces management by domination in the MBO process. Appraisal becomes more objective and impartial.
  4. Raises employee morale: Participative decision-making and two-way communication encourage the subordinate to communicate freely and honestly. Participation, clearer goals and improved communication will go a long way in improving morale of employees.
  5. Facilitates effective planning: MBO programmes sharpen the planning process in an Organisation. It compels managers to think of planning by results. Developing action plans, providing resources for goal attainment and discussing and removing obstacles demand careful planning. In brief, MBO provides better management and better results.
  6. Acts as motivational force: MBO gives an individual or group, opportunity to use imagination and creativity to accomplish the mission. Managers devote time for planning results. Both appraiser and appraise are committed to the same objective. Since MBO aims at providing clear targets and their order of priority, employees are motivated.
  7. Facilitates effective control: Continuous monitoring is an essential feature of MBO. This is useful for achieving better results. Actual performance can be measured against the standards laid down for measurement of performance and deviations are corrected in time. A clear set of verifiable goals provides an outstanding guarantee for exercising better control.
  8. Facilitates personal leadership: MBO helps individual manager to develop personal leadership and skills useful for efficient management of activities of a business unit. Such a manager enjoys better chances to climb promotional ladder than a non-MBO type.


red squareLimitations of Management By Objectives MBO :-


  1. Time-consuming: MBO is time-consuming process. Objectives, at all levels of the Organisation, are set carefully after considering pros and cons which consumes lot of time. The superiors are required to hold frequent meetings in order to acquaint subordinates with the new system. The formal, periodic progress and final review sessions also consume time.
  2. Reward-punishment approach: MBO is pressure-oriented programme. It is based on reward-punishment psychology. It tries to indiscriminately force improvement on all employees. At times, it may penalize the people whose performance remains below the goal. This puts mental pressure on staff. Reward is provided only for superior performance.
  3. Increases paper-work: MBO programmes introduce ocean of paper-work such as training manuals, newsletters, instruction booklets, questionnaires, performance data and report into the Organisation. Managers need information feedback, in order to know what is exactly going on in the Organisation. The employees are expected to fill in a number of forms thus increasing paper-work. In the words of Howell, “MBO effectiveness is inversely related to the number of MBO forms.
  4. Creates organizational problems: MBO is far from a panacea for all organizational problems. Often MBO creates more problems than it can solve. An incident of tug-of-war is not uncommon. The subordinates try to set the lowest possible targets and superior the highest. When objectives cannot be restricted in number, it leads to obscure priorities and creates a sense of fear among subordinates. Added to this, the programme is used as a ‘whip’ to control employee performance.
  5. Develops conflicting objectives: Sometimes, an individual’s goal may come in conflict with those of another e.g., marketing manager’s goal for high sales turnover may find no support from the production manager’s goal for production with least cost. Under such circumstances, individuals follow paths that are best in their own interest but which are detrimental to the company.
  6. Problem of co-ordination: Considerable difficulties may be encountered while coordinating objectives of the Organisation with those of the individual and the department. Managers may face problems of measuring objectives when the objectives are not clear and realistic.
  7. Lacks durability: The first few go-around of MBO are motivating. Later it tends to become old hat. The marginal benefits often decrease with each cycle. Moreover, the programme is deceptively simple. New opportunities are lost because individuals adhere too rigidly to established goals.
  8. Problems related to goal-setting: MBO can function successfully provided measurable objectives are jointly set and it is agreed upon by all. Problems arise when: (a) verifiable goals are difficult to set (b) goals are inflexible and rigid (c) goals tend to take precedence over the people who use it (d) greater emphasis on quantifiable and easily measurable results instead of important results and (e) over-emphasis on short-term goals at the cost of long-term goals.
  9. Lack of appreciation: Lack of appreciation of MBO is observed at different levels of the Organisation. This may be due to the failure of the top management to communicate the philosophy of MBO to entire staff and all departments. Similarly, managers may not delegate adequately to their subordinates or managers may not motivate their subordinates properly. This creates new difficulties in the execution of MBO programme.


red squareEssential Conditions for Successful Execution / Implementation of MBO Or…


red squareQ.How To Make MBO Effective?


  1. Support from all: In order that MBO succeeds, it should get support and co-operation from the management. MBO must be tailored to the executive’s style of managing. No MBO programme can succeed unless it is fully accepted by the managers. The subordinates should also clearly understand that MBO is the policy of the Organisation and they have to offer cooperation to make it successful. It should be a programme of all and not a programme imposed on them.
  2. Acceptance of MBO programme by managers: In order to make MBO programme successful, it is fundamentally important that the managers themselves must mentally accept it as a good or promising programme. Such acceptances will bring about deep involvement of managers. If manages are forced to accept NIBO programme, their involvement will remain superfluous at every stage. The employees will be at the receiving-end. They would mostly accept the lines of action initiated by the managers.
  3. Training of managers: Before the introduction of MBO programme, the managers should be given adequate training in MBO philosophy. They must be in a position to integrate the technique with the basic philosophy of the company. It is but important to arrange practice sessions where performance objectives are evaluated and deviations are checked. The managers and subordinates are taught to set realistic goals, because they are going to be held responsible for the results.
  4. Organizational commitment: MBO should not be used as a decorative piece. It should be based on active support, involvement and commitment of managers. MBO presents a challenging task to managers. They must shift their capabilities from planning for work to planning for accomplishment of specific goals. Koontz rightly observes, “An effective programme of managing by objective must be woven into an entire pattern and style of managing. It cannot work as a separate technique standing alone.”
  5. Allocation of adequate time and resources: A well-conceived MBO programme requires three to five years of operation before it provides fruitful results. Managers and subordinates should be so oriented that they do not look forward to MBO for instant solutions. Proper time and resources should be allocated and persons are properly trained in the philosophy of MBO.
  6. Provision of uninterrupted information feedback: Superiors and subordinates should have regular information available to them as to how well subordinate’s goal performance is progressing. Over and above, regular performance appraisal sessions, counseling and encouragement to subordinates should be given. Superiors who compliment and encourage subordinates with pay rise and promotions provide enough motivation for peak performance.

Planning First Primary Important Function Of Management

1. What is Planning?
A plan is a determined course of action for achieving a specific objective. An individual may prepare a plan for his journey or tour or for a family function. Similarly, a business unit may prepare a plan to achieve a particular objective. It is called a business plan which includes production plan, sales plan, and so on. A business unit prepares a master plan for the whole unit. Such master plan is again divided into departmental plans for actual execution. Planning is a process of thanking to action. It is a means to achieve well defined objectives. Business plan and business planning move together.
Planning is the primary function of management and occupies the first position in the management process. It is the starting point of the whole management process as other management functions are related to planning function. Planning, in simple words, means to decide the objectives clearly and to prepare a plan. Thereafter to take suitable steps for the execution of the plan. Planning function is performed by managers at all levels. It is deciding the objective to be achieved and taking suitable follow-up steps for achieving the same.

Planning is, now, universally accepted as a key/passport to success, progress and prosperity in business as well as in all other aspects of life. It acts as a base of all purposeful human activities. The concept of planning is old enough. Planning was advocated by Confucius almost 2500 years ago. He said “A man who does not think and plan long ahead will find trouble right at his door”. Thus, planning is the centre around which all business activities move.
In planning, various business problems are studied, decisions are taken regarding the future course of action and business activities are adjusted accordingly. Thus, planning means deciding in advance the objectives to be achieved and preparing plans/programmes for achieving them. In other words, planning is the process of foreseeing desired objectives – anticipating problems and developing solutions. It serves as a core of the whole management process.

Planning bridges the gap from where we are to where we want to go. In the absence of planning, events are left to chance. A plan is to-day’s projection for tomorrow’s activity.


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2. Definitions of Planning

  1. According to Koontz and O’Donnell, “Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who is to do it. Planning bridges the gap between where we are and where we want to go. It makes it possible for things to occur which would not otherwise happen”.
  2. According to George R Terry, “Planning is the selecting and relating of facts and the making and using of assumptions regarding the future in the visualization and formulation of purposed activities believed necessary to achieve desired results”.
  3. According to Philip Kotler, “Planning is deciding in the present what to do in the future. It is the process whereby companies reconcile their resources with their objectives and opportunities”.

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3. Need of Planning

The need of planning is universally accepted in the business as well as in other aspects of life. The following points justify the need of business planning/planning in business:

  1. Planning is needed for survival and growth of a business unit in an orderly manner.
  2. Planning is needed in order to face new problems/difficulties developed due to growth of markets, market competition, changes in consumer expectations and so on.
  3. Planning is needed in order to face challenges created by changing environmental factors/forces.
  4. Planning is needed as it acts as a pre-requisite to good management. It is needed as it is the core of the whole management process.
  5. Planning is needed in order to achieve the objectives decided by the management. It is also needed as it ensures accuracy, economy and operational efficiency in busin6s management.

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4. Importance of Planning in Business Management

The importance of planning as an element in the management process is universally accepted. It plays a positive role in the management of a business unit. Planning brings stability and prosperity to a business unit. It brings unity of purpose and diverts all efforts in one direction for the achievement of certain well defined objectives. Planning also improves the performance of a business unit. In fact, in the absence of planning there will be disorder, confusion, inefficiency, wastage of human efforts and material resources. Planning is rightly treated as the pre-requisite to efficient management. The fact that large majority of business units use planning as a tool of management indicates its utility and importance. Planning brings safety to business operations. It is the only way for survival in the competitive business world.

Planning is important as it is more than a mere theoretical exercise or paperwork. It has practical utility and creative value. Planning is also a rational and intelligent activity. It is, now, rightly treated as a highly professionalized aspect of business management.

Planning is important but planning alone is not adequate. It should be supplemented by suitable follow-up actions on the part of managers. Planning may not be able to solve all managerial problems, but it certainly helps the thoughtful managers in overcoming various managerial problems. A plan will remain on paper if suitable follow-up steps are not taken at different levels for its execution. Thus, planning is a means and not the end in itself

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5. Advantages of Planning

  1. Facilitates quick achievement of objectives: Planning facilitates quick achievement of business objectives. In the planning process, the objectives to be achieved are clearly decided / finalised and plans are prepared and executed for achieving such well defined objectives. Planning ensures achievement of objectives in an orderly and quick manner.
  2. Brings unity of purpose and direction: Planning brings unity of purpose and direction before the entire organisation as it is for achieving certain well defined goals. Planning diverts all resources in one direction for achieving well defined objectives.
  3. Ensures full utilisation of resources: Planning ensures effective/maximum utilisation of available human and material resources. It eliminates wastages of all kinds (of material resources and human efforts) and this ensures fuller utilisation of available resources.
  4. Avoids inconsistency in efforts: Planning avoids inconsistency in efforts and also avoids possible frictions and duplications. It ensures economy in business operations.
  5. Raises competitive capacity/strength: Planning raises competitive potentialities of a business unit. It enables a business unit to stand with confidence in a competitive market. It keeps ready solutions for possible problems and enables a business unit to function with confidence.
  6. Promotes managerial efficiency: Planning promotes managerial efficiency. It covers all managerial functions and helps management to execute future programmes in a systematic manner. It makes managerial direction and control effective.
  7. Avoids hasty decisions and actions: Due to planning, hasty decisions and haphazard actions by managers are avoided. It also encourages systematic thinking by the managers. Planning facilitates effective delegation of authority, removes communication gaps and thereby raises overall efficiency. It even encourages innovative thinking among managers.
  8. Ensures effective control on the Organisation: Planning ensures effective control on the whole organisation. It fixes targets in clear terms and draws plans and programmes for achieving them. This facilitates effective control on the functioning of the business unit.
  9. Acts as an insurance against future uncertainties: Planning acts as an insurance against future uncertainties. It takes care of all business uncertainties. In fact, in planning, future problems and situations are studied in advance and alternative solutions are kept ready. This enables management to face any type of critical situation with ease and confidence.
  10. Facilitates other managerial functions: Planning facilitates other managerial functions. It is the basic managerial function and other managerial functions such as organising, etc. move as per the plans prepared. It acts as a motivating force behind other managerial functions.
  11. Improves motivation: Planning facilitates participation of managers and workers in the normal functioning of an enterprise. It develops team spirit and raises morale and motivation of employees. Workers know what is expected from them. This ensures high degree of efficiency from them. Planning also provides training to managers. It serves as a tool for manpower development in an Organisation.

    1. Planning ensures survival, stability and progress of a business unit.
    2. Ensures uniform decision-making.
    3. Acts as a key to solve problems and challenges faced by a business unit.
    4. Sets performance standards for functional departments.
    5. Planning enables a business unit to adjust itself with ever changing business environment.

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6. Limitations of Planning

  1. Time-consuming and costly: It is argued that planning is a lengthy process as it involves collection of data, forecast, research and analysis. Similarly, planning is essentially the job of highly paid experts. As a result, planning is a time-consuming and costly activity. Only large firms can undertake planning due to heavy cost and lengthy procedure involved in it.
  2. Ineffective due to environmental changes: Business environment changes frequently and plans are required to be adjusted as per the changes in the situation through suitable modifications. However, such revision/modification creates a number of problems. Such adjustments in the operational plan are always costly, time-consuming.
  3. Dangers of unreliable data: Planning needs accurate data from internal and external sources. The quality of planning depends on such accurate feedback. If the information supplied by various departments is unreliable, the planning process will be adversely affected. Planning based on incomplete information may prove to be even dangerous. In brief, plans based on unreliable data are not useful /effective. Securing reliable information is always difficult and this brings deficiencies in the entire planning process.
  4. Encroachment on individual freedom and initiative: Planning is a centralized process. At the lower levels, plans are to be executed as per the directives issued. This affects individual freedom and initiative at the lower levels. Employees at the lower levels act as instruments for the execution of plan prepared by the top level managers. People are asked to become cogs in the machine with little scope for initiative or independent thinking.
  5. Delays actions: Planning is a lengthy process. As a result, the actions to be taken for execution are delayed. Planning is not useful when quick decisions and actions are required.
  6. Unsuitable to small firms: Small firms prefer to function without long term comprehensive planning as they find planning rather costly and time-consuming. They prefer to face the situations as they come. Similarly, quick decisions and prompt actions are necessary in the case of certain business activities. Here, long term planning is not suitable.
  7. Limited practical value: It is argued that planning is too theoretical and has limited practical utility. Planning takes long time for preparation and the situation changes when such plans are ready for execution. Planning for example, is not suitable in the case of speculative business. It is also not useful for taking quick benefits of business opportunities. In brief, planning has limited practical value.
  8. No guarantee of expected results: Planning is for achieving certain well defined objectives. However, there is no guarantee that the objectives will be achieved within the specific time limit by using planning as a tool. Actual performance may not be as per the expectation due to various reasons. Thus planning has an element of uncertainty. Planning leads to probable results and not the expected results. It gives benefits but may not be exactly as per the expectation. Thus, there is no guarantee that planning will give 100 per cent positive/expected results.
  9. Generates frustration: At the lower levels, plans are imposed on the employees. No consideration is given to their difficulties, views and opinions. The targets may be too ambitious and the employees may not be able to achieve them in spite of best efforts. This leads to frustration among employees at lower levels.
  10. Involves huge paper work: Planning involves huge paper work in the preparation of master plan and departmental plans.
  11. Danger of overdoing: Sometimes, planners overload the work. Elaborate reports are prepared without practical utility.

The advantages of planning are more important/significant while its limitations are few and also not of serious nature. Moreover, these limitations can be minimized. The practical utility of planning is universally accepted. It is not fair to give up the concept of planning due to certain limitations. The better alternative is to make it more effective, purposeful and result oriented.

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7. Steps in Planning Process

Planning is a lengthy process which moves gradually and step by step approach is usually adopted. These steps are like stations in the journey of planning process. Usual steps in the planning process are as briefly explained below:

  1. Classifying the problems: The planning process starts with clear understanding and classifying business problems faced by a business unit. Identification of problems or opportunities by managers justifies the need for action. It is like the diagnosis of the health problem of a patient by his doctor. Planners have to understand the problems of the Organisation first and, then, prepare a plan to deal with the problems in the light of the prevailing business environment.
  2. Determining the objectives: In this second stage in the planning process, the planners decide the overall objectives to be achieved. Planning is always for achieving certain well defined objectives and naturally objectives must be spelt out precisely. Objectives act as pillars of the entire planning process. Business objectives may be decided in terms of profit, sales, production or market reputation. Objectives may be defined in quantitative or qualitative terms.
  3. Collecting complete information and data: The planners have to collect information relating to problems facing the business unit. Such information is necessary and useful for analyzing the problems in depth and also for accuracy in planning. Information can be collected from internal and external sources. Reliable, updated and adequate data make planning process result-oriented.
  4. Analyzing and classifying the information: At this stage, the information collected is analyzed and interpreted systematically for drawing specific conclusions. This facilitates purposeful use of information, while preparing alternative plans. Irrelevant information can be discarded through such analysis.
  5. Establishing planning premises: Planning premises are various assumptions and predictions about the future business situation. Such premises act as background for planning activities. The planning premises are expected to supply relevant facts, information and data on the basis of which forecasts are prepared and future trends are indicated. Planning premises reduce uncertainties in the planning process. Planning premises are three in number viz., (a) Controllable permises, (b) Semi-controllable permises, and (c) Uncontrollable premises.
  6. Determining alternative plans: Here, the planners prepare and keep ready alternative plans suitable for use under different situations. The best among the available alternative plans is used for actual execution. The preparation of alternative plans is essential as one plan is normally not adequate under all types of situations. It is a type of stand-by arrangement useful for meeting any emergency situation.
  7. Selecting operating plan and preparing derivative plans: After study of the business environment and the alternative plans available, the planners select the best plan for actual execution. This decision is a delicate one and must be made with proper care. After the selection of operating plan, the planners have to prepare derivative plans. Such plans are related to different departments/activities and constitute sub-sections of the operating plan. The division of overall plan into derivative plans is necessary for effective execution.
  8. Arranging timing and sequence of operations: Timing involves fixation of starting and finishing time for each job or piece of work. Sequence of operations ensures proper flow of work. This step in planning process is important as it brings coordination in the activities of different departments. The timings and sequence of operations must be communicated to concerned departments, managers and staff for implementation of the plan.
  9. Securing participation of employees: Planning needs willing participation of all employees and departments. For this, information regarding the operative plan should be given to employees well in advance. Here, the internal communication system should be used extensively. For such participation, employees should be associated with the planning process.
  10. Follow-up of the proposed plan: The purpose of follow-up is to make periodical review of the execution process. It is useful for understanding actual progress and deficiencies in the process of execution of the plan. This also facilitates adoption of suitable remedial measures as and when required.

RATIONAL COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF PLANNING

 1.0 INTRODUCTION:

Theory -of- planning is concerned with the process by which decisions are taken. Focus of planning process began in several fields after the Second World War and has involved contributions mainly from the social and economic sciences. Planning can be referred to as a set of methods designed to prepare information in such a way that decisions can be made  more rationally.(Friedmann and Hudson,1974:8 in Marios,1979). Rational comprehensive theory is one of the major streams in planning theory that has since been developed . It is based on a normative model which values higher rationality in the face of multiple organisational and political pressures. (Grant,1985)
Development of Rational Comprehensive(Synoptic) theory can be traced back to Auguste Comte(1798-1857).Comte applied the methods of observation and experimentation to the field of sociology and believed that persistent social problems might be solved by the application of certain hierarchical rules and that with the aid of science of sociology mankind would progress towards a superior state of civilization.(Raine,2005) .These key ideas introduced by Comte were adopted by Max Webber and Talcott Parsons, the main proponents of rational comprehensive theory that gained ground in the 1950s and 1960s.
Max Webber argued that the process of rationalization, once unleashed upon the world, transformed social life forever and for the better and that rationalization led to new practices that were chosen based on their efficiency. (Lippman.S and Aldric.H,2002 )
Parsons believed that all lasting social systems strive for stability with a strong sense of social order and institutional interdependence. His early theorizing on social action, influenced by Weber, focused on active, creative mental processes that have an important subjective component (Ritzer 2000)in Lippmman.S 2002. For Parsons, the basic unit of study is the unit act, which involves the following criteria: an actor/agent motivated to action; an end toward which action is oriented and means to reach this end; a situation where the action takes place; and norms and values that shape the choice of means to ends. Actions consist of the structures and processes from which humans are motivated to form meaningful intentions (through available goal-attaining means) that are put into practice within the social system.
Early 1970s Andrea Faludi came into play. He provided important contributions towards clarifying the procedural aspects of planning. Faludi viewed planning as a decision making process aimed at solving some of the varied problems which planners face. He argued that planning should be rational by evaluating comprehensively all possible action in the light of their consequences; and ensuring that these considerations include alternative goals and that planning should also respond flexibly to new situations. In planning efforts also need to made to relate operational decision to each other. (Faludi, 1986 ) .
1.1  DISCUSSION
The concept of rationality greatly influenced policy analysis on planning. Techniques and entire methodologies were dependent upon assumptions that clear objectives could be defined to guide the emergence and evolution of policy, that the full costing of alternative strategies could be identified, that the alternative strategies could be implemented, and that detailed monitoring of selected strategies was possible.(Lawless,P 1986). This systems approach was to have a profound influence on methodological thinking in planning and on the legal framework within which it operated.
It can therefore be concluded that rational comprehensive theory has two main characteristics.The first is the aspect of rationality, having specific cognitive skills which can be mastered, coupled with administrative expertise and appropriate aesthetic understanding for the planner to study options and present worked solutions to decision makers for choice.(Dror1968 in Grant,1985).The second characteristic of the rational approach is comprehensiveness ,the desire to analyse all rational alternatives available. According to Marios 1979, comprehensiveness implies the following; an attempt to satisfy all goals of various interest groups present in a pluralistic –democratic society that is to attain the general goals of the public interest (planning solutions that are of common benefit), and having a comprehensive view of a future desired state of affairs ,that is a view of a total utopian system for the future. It also refers to the idea of giving equal importance to all elements of the area of concern and the examination of these elements. Proponents of rational comprehensive planning thought that the more comprehensive the analyses of the problem were the better the plan would be. The planner-analyst regarded as the neutral observer of the problem would formulate and undertake analyses and provide valid knowledge of problems out there and that through profound analyses, one may predict the long term master plan with great accuracy to steer development.
                                               
These two main characteristics of rational comprehensive planning makes it to be perceived as a necessary rational tool to safe guard public interest and guide communities into the desired long range future. To effect rational comprehensive planning, the proponents outlined a procedural framework of operation (Hobbs and Doling 1981) outlined them as follows:
1.      Formulation of goals and objectives.
2.      Generation and examination of all possible alternatives open to a decision maker for achieving the set goals and objectives.
3.      The prediction of all consequences that would follow from adoption of each alternative.
4.      The comparison of the consequences in relation to the agreed set of goals and objectives.
5.      The selection of the alternative whose consequences correspond to a greater degree with the goals and objectives.
6.      Implement the preferred alternative.
7.      Monitor and evaluate outcomes and results.


       It is important to verify, define, and detail the problem in order to come up with common goals and objectives. This process ensures that every group member with conflicting opinions gain understanding to have the same definition and as Hobbs &Doling(1981) records, the process is important as it ensures that action is not without purpose.
       Having generated all possible solutions planners encloses on a few final solutions to the problem. Generation of alternative ways of achieving the desired goals is important in order to ensure that potentially useful plans are not overlooked.
       Objective assessment is undertaken to determine success and failures of each alternative. This process contains secondary analysis and evaluation of the information and possible options to anticipate the consequences of each and every possible alternative that is thought of. This process ensures that the best option is identified and chosen.
       The best solution having been chosen for implementation, different strategies of how to apply the solutions to the site are developed based on criteria assessment and analysis and finally implementation of the preferred alternative. After implementation monitoring and evaluation of outcomes and results is undertaken to ensure that the plan is working successfully.
One important aspect of rational planning is its cyclic nature (Hobbs et al.1981) The planning process is considered to be on going as a result of the dynamic and changing nature of society. Though an action may be seen to be working successfully, there is no guarantee that it will continue to work. Goals identified may also change with time, further more once goals have been achieved; new goals may have to be identified necessitating further planning. Another important aspect of this process is that at any stage it may be necessary to re-examine previous stages for example when at evaluation stage, it is found that the alternatives chosen do not meet the set goals. At this point it would be necessary to go back to the formulation of goals or the generation of alternatives stage. The monitoring of the process may also indicate it is not working well calling for a review of the entire process.
Rational model has also been likened to the approach of systems analysis (Hobbs et al. 1981).Systems consist of individual parts which interact with one another and with the outside world to make a complete whole. Thus the rational planning process can be described as a system where individual issues cannot be resolved in isolation from others but rather issues are dealt with in a comprehensive manner considering all the alternatives available.
1.2 ASSUMPTIONS
Various assumptions are taken into consideration such as; the decision maker having adequate information on all the alternatives and the consequences of the alternatives chosen, and that the decision maker can rank the alternatives and choose the most desired and preferred choice.
                                               
1.3 STRENGTHS
Comprehensive rationality holds great appeal as a model of choice over other models. The approach lays out a logical and deliberative framework for planning practice marking one of its core strengths.(Hudson,1979). These include identifying a particular problem, setting goals, articulating aims and objectives, predicting and projecting outcomes, testing and implementing plans of action. (Alexander, 1986, Branch 1975) in Raine 2005. The model also considers a wide range of alternatives and ensures that only the best plan of action is chosen and implemented.
   1.4 CRITISISM
Even though rational comprehensive was for a long time the predominant planning model, a number of accusations of its failures were made by its opponents. They relied on a number of reasons in support of their arguments.
The opponents argue that it is naive to assume a stable and widely accepted values to structure goal setting. (Berry, D 1974). It is difficult to have each person agree on common goals as each and every person perceives issues differently and have different interests. Incorporating all this differences would pose a big challenge to the planners. More over not everyone can, and should, accept and adopt one form of universal values and beliefs.
The assumption of comprehensive intellectual human abilities is also in question. Human beings cannot comprehend everything nor can they even fully comprehend one planning aspect. (Lindblom, 1959). No matter how rational we would hope to be there is no way anyone can gather all the facts and take into account every consideration.
Concerning the need to develop alternative approaches, critics censor comprehensive rationality. The nature of the problems and the complexity of the environment would generate an unmanageable number of alternatives to consider.
The uncertainty and ambiguity of the environment would also undermine any confidence in determining consequences if a particular alternative is chosen. Critics argue that all decisions are taken in ignorance of the future but rather based on assumptions. The planners cannot predict abrupt changes and new expectations which arise between decision making and implementations. Only a short term future can be predicted with confidence (Grant, 1985).
Rational comprehensive planning also requires a great deal of time .Time, more often than not is limited. Not all relevant  information required for a decision can be  acquired within a limited time period and therefore most decisions can only be satisfactory solutions ;in March and Simons(1957) terminology ‘Satisficing occurs’.(Grant, 1985). Achieving the optimum balance therefore becomes elusive.
It is important to note that all activities directed towards allocation and reallocation of the scarce resources is essentially political. Rational decision making model tend to ignore this dimension of social planning. Decisions in the political arena are influenced far more by the perception of the situation than by any rational concept of objective reality (Raine, 2005). Critics argue that the lack of political interest and commitment to implement policies challenges the planner’s agenda of rationality in planning.
Another charge levelled against rational comprehensive approach is that it is ‘a costly and protracted exercise in futility’ (Wenocur, 1976).The argument is that while social and economic costs are well considered by rational planners, they ignore the enormous impact their planning has on budget allocations.
Critics also censure rational comprehensive planning for solidifying new forms of authority and power. The process places power and trust in the hands of the planner who is seen as an expert bearing all the information required to solve problems. This ignores public consultation which is paramount in the decision -making process.
1.5 CONCLUSION
Despite the criticism levelled against rational comprehensive approach to planning, the approach has taken root in most countries as the paradigm of choice and is the most utilised approach in decision –making. For it has the goal of maximising efficiency by picking the best alternative based on specific criteria and also provides a structured way to address a problem and arrive at a solution.
However in order to realise total success it is important to incorporate political interactions and public participation in the planning and decision-making process.
REFERENCES
  1. Raine. M  Approaches to participation in Urban Planning Theories ,2005
Retrieved on 25th oct 2012 from  http://0125.myteran.ir/portals/0102/documents/App
  1. Marios,Camhis  Planning Theory and Philosopy 1979
Tavistock Publications Ltd,USA
  1. Barclay.M.Hudson  Comparison of Current Planning Theories; Counterparts and Contradictions 1979 Retrieved on 24th oct 2012 from http://classweb.gmu.edu/erodger1/prls531/Hudson.pdf
  2. Stanly Wenour  ‘A pluralistic planning model for united way organisations’.,Social Service Review,50(4); 586-600 (1976) P.586.
  3. Lawless P,(1986).The evolution of spatial policy. A case study of inner urban policy in the United Kingdom (1968-1981).Pion Limited London.
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  5. Grant L, (1985).Urban innovation, The transformation of London’s Docklands(1968-1984).Gower Publishing Company, Brookfield Vermont USA.
  6. Lippmann s and Aldric H (2002).The Rationalisation of everything? Using Ritzers Mc Donald Thesis to teach Weber.Published in Teaching sociology,31,2(April2003):134145.Retrieved on 26th oct 2012 from http://www.unc.edu/.healric
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Critical Rationalism and Planning Methodology
Research in Planning and DesignAuthorAndreas FaludiPublisherRoutledge, 1986ISBN0850861179, 9780850861174Length144 pagesSubjects

What is Land Suitability Analysis

and suitability assessment is a method of land evaluation, which identifies the major limiting factors for planting a particular crop. Land suitability assessment includes qualitative and quantitative evaluation. In the qualitative land suitability evaluations, information about climate, hydrology, topography, vegetation, and soil properties is considered and in quantitative assessment, the results are more detailed and yield is estimated. At present study we prepared land suitability assessment map for rain-fed wheat and barley crops based on FAO “land suitability assessment framework” using parametric method and machine learning algorithms in Kurdistan Province, located in west of Iran. This is a unique study that compared two machine learning-based and traditional-based approaches for mapping current and potential future land suitability classes. Moreover, potential yield of rain-fed wheat and barley crop were computed by FAO model.

1. Introduction

Rapid population growth in developing countries means that more food will be required to meet the demands of growing populations. Rain-fed wheat and barley, as major grain crops worldwide, are planted under a wide range of environments and are a major staple source of food for humans and livestock [1][2][3][4]. The production of such staple crops influences local food security [5]. Rain-fed wheat and barley are cultivated on approximately 6 and 0.64 million ha in Iran, respectively [6]. They are well adapted to the rain conditions of western Iran, where mean precipitation is 350–500 mm. The production of rain-fed wheat and barley per unit area in Iran is low compared to developed countries worldwide [2]. One of the main causes for this low yield is that the suitability of land for their cultivation has not been determined. To overcome this problem, land suitability assessment is needed, which can help to increase crop yield by growing these crops in the locations that are most suited to their growth [7].

The first step in agricultural land use planning is land suitability assessment which is often conducted to determine which type of land use is suitable for a particular location [8]. Land suitability assessment is a method of land evaluation, which identifies the major limiting factors for planting a particular crop [9][10]. Land suitability assessment includes qualitative and quantitative evaluation. In the qualitative land suitability evaluations, information about climate, hydrology, topography, vegetation, and soil properties is considered [11] and in quantitative assessment, the results are more detailed and yield is estimated [12]. The FAO land evaluation framework [13][14] and physical land evaluation methods [15] have been widely used for land suitability assessment.

Land suitability maps provide the necessary information for agricultural planners and are vital for decreasing land degradation and for assessing sustainable land use. There is a lack of land suitability mapping and associated information in Iran because land suitability surveying and mapping in Iran have followed the traditional approach [16][17][18][19][20]. In the traditional approach, abbreviation of the soil variability through a soil map unit to a representative soil profile may cause the precision of the land suitability maps to be lacking and ignores the continuous nature of soil and landscape variation, resulting in the misclassification of sites and discrete and sharply defined boundaries [21][22]. Moreover, the traditional approach is time-consuming and costly [23].

Machine learning (ML) models are capable of learning from large datasets and integrate different types of data easily [24][25]. In digital soil mapping framework, these ML models have been applied to make links between soil observations and auxiliary variables to understand spatial and temporal variation in soil classes and other soil properties [24][26][27][28]. These ML models include artificial neural networks, partial least squares regressions, support vector machines, generalized additive models, genetic programming, regression tree models, k nearest neighbor regression, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system, and random forests [26][27][28]. It should be noted that random forests and support vector machines have been the most commonly used techniques in the digital soil mapping community in the last decade due to their relatively good accuracy, robustness, and ease of use. The auxiliary variables can be obtained from digital elevation models(DEM), remotely sensed data (RS), and other geo-spatial data sources [24][29][30][31][32][33][34][35].

2. Discussion

Although in recent years, ML models have been widely used to create digital soil maps [24], little attempt has been made for using ML models to digitally map land suitability classes [36][37]. For instance, Dang et al. [38] applied a hybrid neural-fuzzy model to map land suitability classes and predict rice yields in the Sapa district in northern Vietnam. Auxiliary variables included eight environmental variables (including elevation, slope, soil erosion, sediment retention, length of flow, ratio of evapotranspiration to precipitation, water yield, and wetness index), three socioeconomic variables, and land cover. Harms et al. [39] assessed land suitability for irrigated crops for 155,000 km2 of northern Australia using digital mapping approaches and machine learning models. They concluded that the coupling of digitally derived soil and land attributes with a conventional land suitability framework facilitates the rapid evaluation of regional-scale agricultural potential in a remote area.

Although Kurdistan province is one of the main agriculturally productive regions of Iran and holds an important role in the country’s crop production rank, the mean yield of rain-fed wheat and barley in these regions is lower than 800 kg ha−1 [40]. Land suitability maps can classify the areas that are highly suitable for the cultivation of the two main crops and can help to increase their production. However, such information is commonly scarce in these semi-arid regions.

References

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Types Town Planning

 To maintain the continuity in the planning process, the following five forms of planning are to be considered.

1.    Local planning
2.    Country planning
3.    Regional planning
4.    National planning
5.    International planning
1) Local Planning
  • The development plan of a city or town is prepared by keeping in view the local conditions.
  • It aims at proper distribution of population densities, regulation of traffic, location of shopping and recreational centres, provision of green belt, suitable division of area in various zones, etc.
  • Local planning is influenced by economic conditions and finances available for the development of the town.

2) Country Planning
  • The area surrounding a town cannot be allowed to develop in a haphazard way.
  • Generally, a town is surrounded by villages and rural planning becomes necessary for proper functioning of the town.
  • The surrounding village is linked up with suitable transport system in country planning.
  • Village industries such as dairy, poultry farming, basket and rope making, weaving, etc. are encouraged.
  • A proper balance between the agricultural and industry should be maintained without disturbing the character of rural area.
  • Country planning and town planning are related to each other and cannot be treated as two separate entities. 

3) Regional Planning
  • It includes proposals in a region for the distribution of population, industry, transport facility, rural services, etc.
  • The regional planning helps in controlling and reshaping the growth of major towns in the region.
  • In general, a region may be defined as an area within which interaction is more intense than its interaction with other areas and the modern practice is to include the following in regional planning.

1.      Agricultural regions.
2.      Industrial areas.
3.      Large hydro-electric power stations.
4.      Resort and recreational areas.
5.      Suburban zones of cities.
The regional planning is necessary for the following reasons.
  • To ensure profitable utilization of the resources at minimum expense for maximum benefit.
  • It gives the information regarding the economic functions.
  • It gives the local planners knowledge of relationship between the areas of the region, which will help them in planning.
  • It allows planned and harmonious development of the national economy.
  • It reveals new town planning and building principles.
  • It serves as a link of co-operation and co-ordination between the areas of the region.

4) National Planning
  • It suggests the setting up of the planning procedure on a national level.
  • By proper and careful national planning, the resources of national importance like railways, irrigation projects, heavy industries, hydro-electric works, etc. can be utilized in the best possible manner.
  • Developments is from top level to bottom level, that is international level to local level or vice-versa.
  • Developments in terms of various economic sectors such as agricultural, fishing, forestry, mining, quarrying, etc.
  • Developments in terms of various social sectors such as clothing, housing, food, education, health, employment, recreation, etc.

 5) International Planning
  • With the establishment of United Nations Organization (UNO), the international planning has come into existence and efforts are made at international level to promote goodwill and co-operation between different countries of the world.
  • The various agencies appointed by UNO conduct surveys in various fields of human life such as education, health, housing, food, etc. such surveys helps in finding out remedies and solutions of complicated problems at an international level.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable Development has been the buzzword for a while now. People are constantly asking what it looks like and how to implement it. There have been many differing opinions on what sustainable development actually is, however some key principles remain:

  • The concept of sustainable development is about making sure that you live in a world where people are able to stay self-sufficient and thrive indefinitely.
  • Sustainable development does not need to take the form of major changes, but rather building upon what we already have.
  • A major component of any successful Sustainable Development project is social-justice based thinking.

The Principles of a Sustainable Development Project:

A sustainable development project is one that will allow you to reach the following principles:
-Managing resources efficiently.
-Responsible consumption.
-Treating others with respect and dignity.
These four principles are what make up an overall healthy and productive society. The management of resources, responsible consumption, and treating others with respect and dignity can be applied to almost anything we do; whether it is being environmentally conscious, being respectful of your parents, or being a good soccer player. The real issue here is that these principles go hand in hand. If we constantly abuse a resource and consume in a way that hurts the environment, we are not being respectful of the Earth. If we are being very selfish in our consumption, then we are not being respectful of our fellow human beings. Lastly, if we do not treat people with respect and dignity, then they will not be treated with respect and dignity by their neighbors.

These four principles allow us to have a healthy society. This can be seen clearly in the following quote by E. F. Schumacher: “The great first commandment is to love the Earth and that means loving it enough to take care of it for the sake of future generations”.

The way we approach development affects everyone. The decisions that we make also impacts the society, and has very real consequences for people’s lives. Poor planning of communities, for example, reduces the quality of life for the people who live in them.

Sustainable development provides an approach to making better decisions on the issues that affect all of our lives. By incorporating health plans into the planning of new communities, for instance, we can ensure that residents have easy access to healthcare and other facilities.

Sustainable development should provide a solution in terms of meeting basic human
needs, integrating environmental development and protection, achieving equality,
ensuring social self-determination and cultural diversity, and maintaining ecological
integrity. Although the concept of sustainable development has undergone certain
changes during the past, its fundamental principles and goals have contributed to a
more conscious behaviour adapted to the limitations of the environment. This is the
reason of adopting the concept in different areas of human activities. Numerous international organizations have been involved in implementation of the concept, while
it has found positive implementation locally, but it did not produce significant results
on a global scale. This fact proves environmental problems which, 30 years after the
introduction of the concept, are still ongoing. Contemporary understanding of the
concept of sustainable development is considered through the United Nations Millennium Development Goals focused on a complex global situation, such as population
growth, hunger and poverty, wars and political instability, and further degradation
of the environment. There is a huge gap between developed and underdeveloped country and many of the countries are not even close to sustainable development. Fundamental constraints of the implementation of the concept of sustainable development are the degree of socio-economic development that many countries have not yet achieved, associated with a lack of financial resources and technology, but also the diversity of political and economic goals on a global scale.

Source: https://www.unesco.org/en/education/sustainable-development

What is Zoning

 Zoning describes the control by authority of the use of land, and of the buildings thereon. Areas of land are divided by appropriate authorities into zones within which various uses are permitted. Zoning is the process of planning for land use by a locality to allocate certain kinds of structures in certain areas. Zoning also includes restrictions in different zoning areas, such as height of buildings, use of green space, density (number of structures in a certain area), use of lots, and types of businesses. Levels or types of zoning include open space, residential, retail, commercial, agricultural, and industrial. 

Zoning is the application of common sense and fairness to public regulation governing the use of private land. Zoning can be defined as the creation by law of the zones such as residential, commercial, industrial, civic, institutional and recreational in which regulations prevent misuse of lands and buildings and limit their height and densities of population differing in different zones. Zoning sets apart different areas in the town for specific purposes. It prevents encroachment of one zone upon another adjacent to it. While planning a city the area of town can be divided into following zones.

1. Industrial zone 

2. Administrative zone 

3. Business zone 

4. Open space 

5. Residential zone 

    a) Different zone for different height 

    b) Zone for single family 

    c) Zone for two family 

    d) Zone for apartment houses 

6. Recreational zone 

7. Local administrative zone 

8. Agricultural zone 

Objectives of Zoning 

The objects or purposes of zoning are as follows. 

  • To lessen congestion in streets. 
  • To secure safety of fire and other hazards. 
  • To promote health and general welfare. 
  • To provide adequate light and air. 
  • To protect the value of property. 
  • To prevent over-concentration of population. 
  • To facilitate transportation, water supply, sewerage, schools, parks etc. 
  • To encourage the most appropriate use of land. 
  • The town planner gets ample opportunities for designing the future growth and development of town. 
  • Zoning proves to be an effective instrument in case of any review or modification in order to make town planning scheme more effective and successful.

Principles of Zoning 

The main principles of zoning can be briefly summarized as follows.
 
1. Arrangement of zones 

The usual pattern of zones is in central area and undeveloped area. The other pattern of zones would be to provide blocks or units for various uses in different parts of the town.
2. Boundaries 
The design of boundaries for different zones should be carefully made. A railway line or a park or an open green space may prove to be satisfactory boundary. 
3. Existing towns 
When zoning is to be applied to an existing town, the information regarding the existing use of land is gathered and as far as possible, the town is divided into zones by considering the predominant use in the particular areas. 
4. Flexibility 
The principles of zoning may be rigidly enforced. But at the same time, care should be taken to observe flexibility in working out the details for zoning. For instance, homes should be very near to places of work to reduce time of travel. Similarly, the small shopping centres for day today requirements should be allowed in residential zone. 
5. New towns 

For designing a new town of known population, the areas required for residence, industry and business are worked out with the help of suitable methods. The town is divided into suitable zones. 

Advantages of Zoning 

Following are the advantages of zoning. 
  • Business or commercial areas are separately located with their garages and service stations at a distance from the residential areas. 
  • The industrial area is located away from the residential area so it is not affected by dangerous gases, smoke etc. 
  • The population is distributed throughout the town by zoning, so there will be no concentration of population in any one particular zone. 
  • Height zoning regulates the height of the buildings. Hence high rise buildings will not be allowed to construct near small houses. 
  • The zoning permits the economic use of various public utility services such as water supply, drainage lines, and telephone lines etc. 
  • A land in the form of recreational area is provided to use as playgrounds, stadiums, parks, talkies, etc. 
  • Zoning promotes health, safety, prosperity, orderly development and overall welfare of community. 
  • The zoning results into minimum chances of fire occurrence. 
  • If zoning is adopted, it results into controlled future development of the town.

Densities of a Town 

  1. Overall town density = Total population / Total town area 
  2. Developed area density = Total population / Total developed area 
  3. Gross residential area density = Total population / Total residential area 
  4. Net residential area density = Total population / Net residential area 
  5. Accommodation density = Number of habitable rooms / Area 
  6. Occupancy rate = Number of persons / Number of habitable rooms 
  7. Floor Space Index = Total built up area / Plot area

Types of Zoning 

1) Density Zoning 

In density zoning, the density of population in the residential areas is controlled by means of suitable rules and regulations. The density of population per unit area may either be expressed as gross density or net density. The gross density is the average density of population per unit area of the whole area. The net density is defined as the average density of population per unit of the housing area, including local roads only, excluding open spaces, public institutions, shopping centres etc. 
The following are the indirect measures adopted to have effective density zoning. 
  • The front, side, and rear margins from the boundaries are specified. 
  • The maximum height of the building is specified. 
  • The minimum size of allotment for each house is specified. 
  • The number of houses per unit area is limited. 
  • The ratio of total site area to the total built-up floor area is specified. 
The advantages of density zoning are as follows. 
  • It promotes healthy conditions, as population is distributed throughout the town. 
  • It prevents over-crowding. 
  • It facilitates the proper layout and designing of various public amenities and services. 
  • The land values are stabilized. 
  • It ensures enough light and ventilation to the residences.

2) Height Zoning 

The main objects of height zoning are as follows. 
  • To supply enough daylight to the buildings 
  • To cause reasonable traffic movement 
It aims to control the height of buildings with due consideration of the following. 
  • Bulk and cubical contents of the buildings 
  • Street width and other adjacent marginal open spaces 
Due to height zoning, there is considerable setback in the design of high rise buildings or skyscrapers. The restriction on the height of buildings will depend on nature of building, type of zone and climatic conditions. 
Advantages of height zoning are as follows. 
  • It does not allow tall buildings to come up nearby smaller buildings. 
  • It establishes minimum standards in terms of light, air and space, thereby creates healthy conditions. 
  • It controls the setback from roads. 
  • It helps to construct the buildings with uniform height, which gives aesthetic appearance. 
  • It controls the land values. 

3) Use Zoning/Land Use Zoning 

  • The main principle of use zoning is to divide the city into different zones, in correct location with respect to the others. 
  • It avoids the encroachment of one zone upon another adjoining it.
  • Utilization of each zone according to the purpose for which it is allocated. 
  • Factories and industries on the residential areas can be completely avoided. 
  • This zone provides open spaces, privacy and good health for the inhabitants of the town. 
  • It results into stabilization of land values. 
  • It provides better traffic facilities, water lines, sewer lines and use of other public utility and amenities in an efficient way. 
Under the Use zoning the town is divided into the following. 

a) Residential Zone 

This is very important zone of the town, where the people of the town live together in large number. This zone covers an area of 40 – 50% of total land. The buildings coming under this zone are single family houses, semi-detached houses, group housing, chawl, flats, skyscrapers etc. 
The following are the points considered while locating residential zones. 
  • Near to the market, free from noise and smoke, parks and playgrounds should be close by. 
  • It should have certain amount of privacy and separated from other zones by wide strip of green belt which may consists of parks and parkways etc. 
  • Speedy travel and communication facilities. 
  • Peaceful surroundings, as far as possible from industries and business zones. 
  • Healthy environment with respect to hygienic and sanitary requirements.

b) Industrial Zone 

This zone covers an area of 5 – 20%. This is next to the residential zone in terms of importance. Hence great care should be exercised in locating the industries. The following are the points considered while locating industrial zones. 
  • Minor industries like bakeries, dairies, laundries may be grouped and located close to the residential zone for the benefit of inhabitants. 
  • Light industries and factories like manufacture of glass, porcelain, and ice etc. which use only electric power can be located anywhere on the periphery of the town. 
  • Heavy industries giving out obnoxious (or harmful) gases and the industries causing noise such as manufacture of cement, steel and other such material should be located on the outskirts of the town. 
  • The special industries producing undesirable trade wastes and by-products may be located far away from town in spacious grounds.

c) Commercial Zone 

This zone covers an area of 2 – 5%. This zone consists of markets, banks, ware-houses (go downs) and business offices. These should be located near centres of traffic and as far as along the road sides. 

d) Civic Zone 

This zone covers an area of 2 – 3%. This contains all public buildings like town hall, court, public libraries, post office, museum, auditorium, bank, showrooms, stores and houses for the employed under the government. 

e) Institutional Zone 

This zone covers an area of 1 – 2%. This zone contains schools, colleges, institutions etc.

f) Recreational Zone 

This is planned in the remaining area of the town, usually 15 – 20%. This is an important zone since it provides healthy environment for the people. It mainly includes parks, playgrounds, stadiums, cinemas, community centres. Generally, the various units of recreational zone are scattered throughout the town. 
In urban planning as well as transportation planning, land use is the object of zonal characterization. Each land use zone is subject to a series of regulations depicting what can be built in terms of nature, function and density, giving tools to municipal governments to influence urban development. Single use zoning, also known as Euclidean zoning, is a tool of urban planning that controls land uses in a city. 
There are four major types of land use zoning. 

1) Functional Zoning 

The most prevalent form of zoning where land use zones are defined according to their function such as commercial, residential or industrial. Each zone type is subject to specific rules and regulations concerning the type of activities that can be built. 

2) Form Based Zoning 

Define zones according to their physical characteristics, mostly from an urban identity perspective such as the downtown area. This form of zoning is usually easier to relate to the general population since it uses zonal definitions that are well known. 

3) Intensity Zoning 

Defines land use zones by the level of permitted intensity, such as the number of residential units per unit of surface or allowed commercial surface. Such regulation enables a level of flexibility in urban development since it permits developers to select which types of development takes place as long as this development abides by density constraints. 

4) Incentive Zoning 

Often part of revitalization or development plans where developers are allowed to build residential, commercial or industrial (manufacturing, warehousing) projects in specific areas through the provision of various incentives such as tax abatement or basic infrastructure (road, utilities, public transport services). 
It is common that more than one type of zoning will be applied to a city, which can lead to some conflicts and discrepancies between stakeholders. The issue is to try to establish a balance between the restrictions imposed by zoning regulations and the dynamic market forces of urban development.

Uses of land 

The use of land in town planning can broadly be classified in to following two categories. 

1) Profit Making Use 

The land which is developed with profit making motives, for e.g. sites developed for offices, residences, industries etc. 

2) Non Profit Making Use 

The land which is developed without any motive of making profit. It includes roads, parks, playgrounds, educational buildings and government offices. The main nonprofit making use in urban area will naturally be the roads.

How to properly plan out your week

Become more organized

To be successful and reach your goals, you need to be organized.
One first step in this direction refers to starting your day planning: choosing the agenda that works best for you can be a game-changer.

Practice a lot

Acquiring organizational skills, as in getting better at planning, can take a while. While finding the appropriate agenda is essential, making a habit out of using it is just as important.

Plan important moments monthly

When preparing your schedule monthly, make sure to add not only the daily tasks and objectives but also the big moments.
For instance, integrating your friends’ birthdays can prove both useful and time saving for the future.

Establish a day for planning your schedule

Establishing a certain day, when you can sit and plan your next week can prove extremely useful.
For instance, choosing Friday to be that day, seems pretty clever, as this day marks both the end of a working week and, why not, the beginning of another one.

Manage priorities first

To have successful days at work and not only, make sure you keep track of your tasks. Furthermore, taking care first of the priorities should be on everybody’s calendar.

Necessities are the real thing

Whenever you plan your schedule, write down whatever you need to do, but not everything you need to do.
Some tasks do not require being noted down, as they have become part of a daily ritual and can not be forgotten.

Use colours to plan your agenda or not

You choose how you want your planning to look like, therefore avoid trusting too much others’ opinions, but rather choose to prioritize your own.
For instance, using colour appeals to many individuals, but not to everybody. Just choose your style and get started.

reference

https://www.domino.com/content/how-to-plan-your-week/