River Narmada in Madhya Pradesh and Heavy Metal Poisoning of Fish

by Sangeeta Shrivastava

Abstract:

As the biggest west-flowing river in Madhya Pradesh, the Narmada (also spelt Rewa) is also one of India’s three holiest rivers. In the Maikal hillocks, which are located in the eastern highlands of the Vidhyas Mountains, the river’s source is said to be at a height of 1051 metres, according to the Gazetteer of Hoshangabad (1979). In the Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh, it is close to Amarkantak. When thinking about fish farming, it’s important to examine the water’s physical, chemical, and biological properties. To effectively manage fish populations, one must have a thorough grasp of water quality. Researchers in the Narmada River took water samples from four different locations and analysed them for physicochemical characteristics and heavy metal content. The following variables were recorded: thermal, pH, salinity, electrical conductivity, chemical oxygen demand, and biological oxygen demand. In every one of the locations tested, Mn and Zn were found. Interestingly, levels were much higher in three of these places compared to the World Health Organization’s advised limit of less than 0.500 mg/L for manganese. The amounts of Cr and Cd were greater than the norms in two of the three samples. All of the samples tested negative for lead, and in two of the locations, the copper levels were also below the acceptable range. The following categories were used to categorise the physicochemical properties that were studied: Various factors that make up environmental conditions include temperature (C), pH (ranging from 5.8 to 8.2), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (0.3-20 mg/L), total dissolved solids (TDS) (37-249) (26-29 mg/L), electrical conductivity (EC) (73.67-498 µS/cm), total hardness (0.8-5.7 mg/L), salinity (0.03-0.22 psu), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (2.9-9.7 mg/L). Most of these metrics were within what the World Health Organisation considers to be acceptable ranges. The results imply that high metal loads in water may impact people and fish in the long term, hence it is critical to regularly assess water quality.

Keywords: Heavy metals, Physicochemical analysis, Chemical oxygen demand, Biochemical oxygen demand, Narmada River, Bioaccumulation

· INTRODUCTION

The Narmada River valley has been home to humans for aeons. Several texts from ancient India describe the Narmada as a sacred river. This river is mentioned in a number of folktales and musical works. Along the banks of the Narmada River have developed a wide variety of cultures and lifestyles, from those of the independent Aadivasi people who live in the forests to those of non-tribal rural groups. Several human-caused activities are leading to a steady decline in the aquatic biodiversity of the Narmada River. The danger that freshwater biodiversity presents to all of Earth’s ecosystems is a typical argument against it.

At 9 billion strong, human countries were struggling to fulfil even the most fundamental demands by mid-century (FAO, 2018). Since fisheries and aquaculture are closely linked to several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), prioritising them is essential in any effort to address this worldwide problem. Sustainable Development Agenda Goal 14 focuses on taking care of the world’s oceans and seas in an eco-friendly way. Director general Jose Graziano da Silva of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) asserts that the fishing and aquaculture sector is crucial to realising the FAO’s goal of a world free of hunger and malnutrition (2018). Since 1961, the global population has not kept pace with the increase in fish consumption. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) projects a more than 20% surge in fish consumption by the year 2030. Regardless of the global fish supply, Asia’s food supply would be jeopardised since fewer people would consume fish per person. An increase in interest in aquaculture is being seen throughout the country, including in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. Across the country, this trend is more apparent in the north and south. According to Amenyogbe et al. (2018), subsistence fishermen often use semiintensive and extensive techniques to raise fish in artificial settings such reservoirs, rivers, dugouts, and earthen dams. Some farmers keep their cattle in floating cages, while others use concrete tanks or clay rivers. Fish rely on the readily available grain bran. Bran is a component that is found in many grains, such as maize, wheat, and rice. Sandre et al. (2017) and M’balaka et al. (2012) state that the main factors influencing the production of fish in aquaculture include biotic factors such as sex, age, and genetic variation, and abiotic factors such as water chemistry, temperature, photoperiod, and oxygen level. Abiotic factors that affect water quality include things like temperature, biological oxygen demand (BOD), dissolved oxygen (DO), colour, clarity, turbidity, carbon dioxide (CO2), pH, alkalinity, hardness, unionised ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, and plankton population. Understanding these factors is critical for the efficient administration of the Narmada River. Since water is the natural environment of farmed fish, keeping it clean is crucial to their health and production (Mandal et al., 2017; Oluyemi et al., 2010). Water quality is the biggest issue with fish farming, according to Boyd (1990). Keeping tabs on various water quality indicators is crucial for fish welfare (Jaeger and Aubin 2018; Sehar et al. 2014). Heat, acidity, pH, CO2, ammonia, hardness, nitrites, total solids in solution, and oxygen in solution are some of the many factors that have a role. Any of these characteristics might have an impact on farmed fish health in certain contexts (James, 2000). While alkalinity and hardness tend to remain relatively constant, dissolved oxygen and pH tend to change more. Changing one set of circumstances may influence the emergence of another. For example, alkalinity and hardness are two factors that impact pH (Klontz, 1993). Fish populations might be negatively impacted by human-introduced contaminants such as metals and pesticides (Biney, 1986). Heavy metals in sediments, water, and food may be absorbed by fish, according to recent studies (Adeeye, 1996). At safe levels, certain heavy metals have practical use, while others pose serious health risks to humans and aquatic organisms. Consider how zinc is fundamental to the cytoplasm’s proper operation. In low zinc concentrations, fish develop and grow more slowly, while in high zinc concentrations, they die. Sehar et al. (2014) found that zinc overdose may lead to skin irritation, nausea, vomiting, pancreatic injury, and alterations in protein metabolism. The great majority of aquaculturists rely on water from natural sources such springs, rivers, and lakes, however a small number use artificial techniques. In an ideal setting, most farms use river management methods to breed zoo fish, according to Eze and Ogbaran (2010). In order to identify the best water quality criteria for fish farming, the researchers compared the results of investigations on heavy metal pollution on the Narmada River with other companies’ findings.

· MATERIAL AND METHODS STUDY AREA

As the biggest west-flowing river in Madhya Pradesh, the Narmada (also spelt Rewa) is also one of India’s three holiest rivers. In the Maikal hillocks, which are located in the eastern highlands of the Vidhyas mountains, the river’s source is said to be at a height of 1051 metres, according to the Gazetteer of Hoshangabad (1979). In the Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh, it is close to Amarkantak. The basin encompasses a considerable amount of land, including a large portion of Gujarat (12%), a tiny portion of Maharashtra (2%), and 86% of Madhya Pradesh. Gujarat is where the Narmada River meets the Gulf of Cambay. Though Gujarat receives the lion’s share of the residual flow, over 90% of it flows to M. P. It passes into Maharashtra for a short distance. Because of the abundance of nutrients in this soil, staple crops such as corn, yams and cocoyams grow well.

· SAMPLING

We took water samples at random from four different locations and analysed the results over three weeks. Two or three samples were collected from each site. We took the readings in a controlled lab environment as well as out in the field.

· PHYSICOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS

At the location, we used a Hanna HI 9829 multiparameter metre to measure the total dissolved solids (DDS), pH, conductivity, salinity, and temperature of each sample. When measuring each parameter, we adhered according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Turbidity, biological oxygen demand, and chemical oxygen demand were determined in accordance with the methods published by APHA (1992).

· HEAVY METAL ANALYSIS

Following the standard procedures described in previous studies (Sehar et al., 2014; Mensah et al., 2016), the materials were digested. Finally, the concentrations of manganese, cadmium, copper, chromium, lead, and zinc were determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The proportion of HNO3 to water in a 250 mL beaker is 5 mL to 100 mL according to the conventional formula. By heating the combination, the volume was reduced to around 20 ml. The digestion process was extended by heating and adding HNO3 to guarantee a clear solution. Chilling and filtering the solution was followed by a cautious transfer to a 50 ml volumetric flask. In cases where the sample could not be located, a blank solution was prepared by following the same procedure. The atomic absorption spectrometer NovAA 400 P from Analytik Jena was used for a repeat measurement to determine the concentrations and standard deviations of lead, cadmium, manganese, copper, and zinc.

· RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Harmful metals According to Sehar et al. (2014), there are a variety of natural and human-induced processes that discharge metals into water bodies. Some metals are necessary for life, yet they are also harmful to the environment. Because of their toxicity and bioaccumulation potential in water sources, these metals are of utmost concern (Soylak and Erdogan, 2006). Omega-3 fatty acids and other polyunsaturated fats, as well as copper, iron, and zinc, are just a few of the important elements found in fish, which is why it is so popular (Sehar et al., 2014). It is very important to ensure that fish is safe for human consumption. Each of the eight rivers tested positive for six different heavy metals. Table 1 summarises the findings.

Table 1: Heavy metal Concentrations in waters of three ecosystems (mg/I)

Pre-monsoon

0.09±01

BDL

1.43±0.19

0.003±0

0.03±0

0.12±001

BDL

0.002±0

0.01±0

0.02±0

BDL

0.02±0.005

BDL

1.18±0.27

0.002±0.0001

0.001±0.0001

0.05±0.004

0.12±0006

0.002±0

0.001±0

0.01±0

0.02±0.002

BDL

4.32±0.27

0.01±0

0.004±0

0.18±0.04

0.65±06

0.01±0

0.13±0.02

0.07±0.01

0.001±0

Monsoon

0.08±0

BDL

4.19±0.34

0.005±0

0.001±0

0.07±0

0.18±002

BDL

0.002±0

0.02±0.002

0.04±0.006

BDL

0.09±0.02

BDL

2.89±0.19

0.004±0

0.001±0

0.05±0.01

0.18±0009

BDL

0.001±0

0.02±0.004

0.03±0.006

BDL

0.009±0

BDL

12.05±0.63

0.02±0

0.007±0

0.43±0.02

10.02±1.5

0.001±0

0.01±0

0.12±0.01

0.10±0.01

0.002±0

Post Monsoon

0.03±0.007

BDL

0.05±0.003

0.003±0

0.002±0

BDL

0.003±0

0.001±0

0.003±0

0.01±0.002

BDL

0.03±0.003

BDL

0.06±0.01

0.003±0

0.001±0

0.04±0.004

0.001±0

0.01±0

BDL

0.002±0

BDL

0.07±0.007

0.003±0.001

0.003±0

0.03±0.01

0.004±0

0.0003±0

0.004±0

0.06±0.01

BDL

There was a detectable amount of zinc and manganese present in each and every one of the sample locations. During the monsoon season, the concentrations of zinc were at their greatest, measuring 0.04 mg/L, while the concentrations of manganese were at their lowest, measuring 0.03 mg/L. If you look in Table 1, you will see these statistics. Previous research (Adeyemi and Ugah, 2017; Onuoha, 2017) has shown that this particular study did, in fact, discover a number of locations that have higher amounts of manganese, cadmium, and chromium.

In light of the increased levels of carcinogens, it is imperative that concerns be expressed. Copper was found in other areas, although at levels that were far below than the permissible threshold established by the World Health Organisation (0.0233 mg/L and 0.0108 mg/L, respectively). Lead was not found in any of the tests that were conducted. With a higher position in the food chain, these elements have the potential to biomagnify, even in little quantities, and to bioaccumulate. Among these chemicals is the element lead. There is also a trace amount of copper and zinc present in the materials. Rahman et al. (2012) state that both benthic and pelagic fish have the potential to accumulate cadmium, lead, copper, and zinc in their gills, liver, and meat inside their bodies. According to the findings of Sehar et al. (2014), zinc has the potential to bioaccumulate in gills and to become more concentrated as it travels down the food chain.

According to the findings of Abumourad et al. (2013) and Healey (2009), hazardous metals like lead, cadmium, and mercury may accumulate more quickly in the tissues and bodies of aquatic animals than they do in the water itself. As a consequence of this, individuals experience signs and symptoms of serious health concerns. According to the findings of study conducted by Sarty and Gupta (1979), cadmium may decrease the kidneys’ capacity to filter waste. Cyanide and chromium are two examples of pollutants that may be identified in some water samples. These toxins pose a threat to aquatic life as well as to people. Given that these metals are often found in pesticides and fertilisers, it is not out of the question that runoff from farms that are next to the water source might potentially pollute the water supply.

Table-2: Physico-chemical characteristics of fresh water.

Parameters	Pre monsoon	Monsoon	Post monsoon
pH	7.6 ± 1.87	6.62 ± 1.61	6.81 ± 1.23
Temp (⁰C)	27.5 ± 2.59	25.6 ± 4.94	23.6 ± 1.84
Ec (µs/cm)	660 ± 36.96	500 ± 101.50	724 ± 121.63
Salinity (ppt)	0.3078 ± 0.01	0.2332 ± 0.06	0.337 ± 0.03
DO (mg/l)	7.9 ± 0.69	8.8 ± 2.22	7.6 ± 1.23
BOD (mg/l)	3.2 ± 0.22	1.95 ± 0.48	2.29 ± 0.36
TS (mg/l)	1004.45 ± 213.95	868.61 ± 81.65	882.4 ± 80.30
TDS (mg/l)	960 ± 220.80	850 ± 214.20	816 ± 187.68
TSS (mg/l)	44.45 ± 6.36	18.61 ± 4.58	21.4 ± 3.06
Cl^– ( mg/l)	186 ± 21.84	122 ± 11.47	116 ± 13.92
TH (mg/l)	182 ± 32.76	204 ± 15.91	210 ± 37.80
Ca H (mg/l)	24.5 ± 4.46	19.7 ± 3.31	23.86 ± 1.86
Mg H (mg/l)	157.5 ± 38.27	184.3 ±18.06	186.14 ± 31.27
TA (mg/l)	204 ± 39.37	163 ± 26.41	182 ± 17.84

· TEMPERATURE

Many amphibians and reptiles have core temperatures that are quite close to those of the water they inhabit. This is also true of fish. Fish may die from the consequences of rapid temperature fluctuations. Fish metabolism and respiration are influenced by temperature, which in turn influences the amount of oxygen that is dissolved in the water. Boyd (1990), Chang et al. (2019), and Devi et al. (2017) are among the research that have shown this to be a cause of mental anguish and mortality. According to Table 2, the water temperature of the Narmada River ranged from 26 to 29 degrees Celsius. Studies support the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommendation that the optimal temperature range is fifteen to thirty degrees (Zanatta et al., 2010).

pH

It is the hydrogen ion activity of water that is indicated by its pH. Changing the pH level by one unit indicates a tenfold change in the concentration of hydrogen ions. The pH of surface water systems is found to fluctuate during the day, reaching a minimum just before dawn and a high in the middle, as reported by Kestemont et al. (2015). Table 2 shows that across the three weeks of the experiment, the pH values of the Narmada River varied between 5.80 and 8.20. At the start of the day, the ideal pH range for fish culture is between 6.62 to 7.6, according to Swingle (1967) and Hepher and Pruginin (1981). Even if fish can survive in environments with pH values as low as 4 or as high as 11, the productivity of fish would still be significantly reduced, according to Devi et al. (2017). The river’s pH was below the ideal range for fish production during the third week of sampling. There may be a high rate of fish mortality because of garbage that has accumulated in the river, such as organic matter that has decomposed.

· ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

The measureable attribute of water’s conductivity is its capacity to convey electrical current. In their 2004 study, Stone and Thomforde found that electrical conductivity levels ranging from 30-500 μS/cm are suitable for the culture of river fish. This is so even though there are currently no recommendations for EC in rivers from the World Health Organisation. All along the river, the results showed an EC that was well within the allowed limits. Increasing the amount of dissolved salts and inorganic elements in water, such chlorides, sulphate, and carbonate compounds, would raise the electrical conductivity of the water since conductivity is directly related to the concentration of conductive ions in it. Electrical conductivity is useful for identifying early changes in the water system and also provides the basis for calculating total dissolved solids (TDS) and salinity (Langland and Cronin, 2003).

· SALINITY

It is said by Jamabo (2008) that salinity influences the quantity and pace of population increase of aquatic species. The term “salinity” refers to the overall concentration of ions in water that have electric charges. The electrical conductivity of water is therefore significantly altered by the presence of salt. According to the World Health Organisation, the typical range is 0 to 1 psu, and the results from the Narmada River were within this range.

· TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Each river had a different total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration, with values ranging from 37 to 249 mg/L (Table 2). The TDS concentrations differed from river to river. Both River A1 and River A2 have a relatively low level of chemical contamination in their water. There is a correlation between this discovery with the low EC values that were reported for the River. These values were much lower when compared to what is considered to be safe for the Narmada River.

· HARDNESS

Only the concentrations of calcium and magnesium are taken into account when attempting to determine the overall hardness of water. A material’s hardness might be enhanced by the presence of additional divalent and trivalent ions; however, these ions are often present in negligible amounts. A significant drop in total hardness was seen during the third week of sampling. It was shown by the data. Research found levels below the World Health Organization-recommended limit of 50-100 mg/L for aquaculture. For aquaculture purposes, this range is suitable. The water must be very smooth if this is correct. Research has shown that fish may experience stress and a decrease in mineral content when the overall hardness value falls below 20 mg/L (Dinesh et al., 2017). The reason for this is because stress might have a greater impact on fish. However, liming the river might be a solution to this problem.

· BOD & COD

Under aerobic conditions, at a specific temperature and for a specific amount of time, the amount of dissolved oxygen that organisms need to digest the organic matter in a specific water sample is determined by the biological oxygen demand (BOD). The majority of freshwater species typically need a biological oxygen demand (BOD) range of 3 to 20 mg/L, according to Boyd and Thunjai (2003). The BOD of the different samples ranged from 0.3 to 2.0, as shown in Table 2. All of the reported values were under the lower bound of the specified range. If there are too many fish in the river, oxygen levels would drop, which might explain the phenomenon. Aquaculture animals are more likely to experience stress, loss of appetite, slow growth, vulnerability to disease, and mortality when the concentration of dissolved oxygen is low (Makori et al., 2017). However, mechanical aeration may increase the river’s biological oxygen demand (BOD) (Warish et al., 2017). Results showing COD levels between 2.9 to 9.7 mg/L were within the range of what the World Health Organisation (WHO) considers to be acceptable. Levels of COD in the Narmada River have been shown to be below 20 mg/l in previous investigations (Warish et al., 2017).

· CONCLUSIONS

There have been a few Narmada Rivers in the state of Madhya Pradesh that have been tested for their water quality, and it has been decided that these rivers have been reviewed. At each of the four sample sites, it was discovered that the levels of temperature, salinity, COD, and TDS were all within the optimal range that is suggested for the development of fish. After doing an analysis of the data, the researchers came to this conclusion of their findings. On the other hand, it was found that both the overall hardness and the BOD were lower than the normal range that is considered to be acceptable. This was a discovery that was made. There is a possible threat to the health of species that live in the water as well as people as a consequence of the presence of heavy metals such as chromium and cadmium in some sections of the river. people are also at risk of experiencing adverse health effects. Therefore, it is recommended that appropriate actions be taken at the river that was researched in order to maintain and improve the water quality for fish culture at regular intervals and to monitor the impact that these changes have on the development of the fish. The findings of the current research indicate that this recommendation is supported by the fact that it is recommended that appropriate actions be taken. This advice is based on the results of the study that was already mentioned previously in the discussion. Not only would this have a beneficial effect on the health of the aquatic biome, but it would also have a favourable influence on the health of people and the environment as a single entity.

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Unlocking Knowledge: The Benefits of Open Access Research Articles

By: Shashikant Nishant Sharma

Abstract

In recent years, the academic landscape has undergone a significant transformation with the rise of open access research articles. Open access refers to the unrestricted, free availability of scholarly works, allowing anyone with an internet connection to read, download, and distribute academic publications without financial barriers. This shift from traditional subscription-based models to open access has brought about numerous benefits for researchers, educators, students, and the general public.

Full Length Article

Widespread Accessibility:

One of the primary advantages of open access research articles is the democratization of knowledge. Traditional academic publishing often involves expensive subscription fees, making it challenging for individuals and institutions with limited resources to access vital research. Open access eliminates these financial barriers, providing equal opportunities for researchers worldwide to access cutting-edge information.

Faster Dissemination of Knowledge:

Open access accelerates the dissemination of research findings. Traditional publishing can be a lengthy process, involving submission, peer review, and publication timelines. With open access, articles are typically available online shortly after acceptance, allowing the global research community to benefit from the latest discoveries more rapidly. This accelerated dissemination fosters collaboration and innovation across disciplines.

Increased Visibility and Impact:

Open access research articles often enjoy higher visibility and citation rates compared to their paywalled counterparts. When articles are freely accessible, they are more likely to be cited by other researchers, leading to increased impact and recognition for the authors. This increased visibility not only benefits individual researchers but also contributes to the advancement of their respective fields.

Global Collaboration:

Open access facilitates international collaboration by breaking down geographical and financial barriers. Researchers from different parts of the world can easily access each other’s work, fostering a more interconnected global research community. This collaborative environment can lead to diverse perspectives, innovative solutions, and the sharing of resources and expertise.

Educational Benefits:

Open access research articles are valuable resources for educators and students at all levels. By providing free access to scholarly content, educational institutions can enhance their teaching materials and expose students to the latest research in their fields. This not only enriches the learning experience but also prepares students for a future where access to information is paramount.

Public Engagement:

Open access research encourages engagement from the general public. By making academic knowledge freely available, research becomes more accessible to individuals outside the academic community. This transparency promotes informed public discourse, increases scientific literacy, and fosters a society that is more aware of and invested in the latest scientific developments.

Conclusion:

The benefits of open access research articles are manifold, ranging from improved accessibility and visibility to fostering global collaboration and public engagement. As the academic community continues to embrace open access models, it is evident that this shift is not only leveling the playing field for researchers but also contributing to the democratization of knowledge and the acceleration of scientific progress. Open access is a powerful tool in shaping a more inclusive and collaborative future for academic research.

References

Allen, C., & Mehler, D. M. (2019). Open science challenges, benefits and tips in early career and beyond. PLoS biology, 17(5), e3000246.

Ferreras-Fernández, T., García-Peñalvo, F., Merlo-Vega, J. A., & Martín-Rodero, H. (2016). Providing open access to PhD theses: visibility and citation benefits. Program, 50(4), 399-416.

Huston, P., Edge, V. L., & Bernier, E. (2019). Open science/open data: Reaping the benefits of open data in public health. Canada Communicable Disease Report, 45(11), 252.

Houghton, J. W., Rasmussen, B., & Sheehan, P. (2009). Economic implications of alternative scholarly publishing models: Exploring the costs and benefits.

Sharma, S. N. Techniques of Meta-Analysis for Unlocking Knowledge.

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<h1>📢 <span style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0;--tw-border-spacing-y: 0;--tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5);--tw-ring-offset-color: #fff;--tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent;--tw-ring-offset-width: 0px;--tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent;--tw-rotate: 0;--tw-scale-x: 1;--tw-scale-y: 1;--tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity;--tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent;--tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent;--tw-skew-x: 0;--tw-skew-y: 0;--tw-translate-x: 0;--tw-translate-y: 0;border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227);font-weight: 600">CALL FOR PAPERS: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH (IJR)</span> 📢</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both;text-align: center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiijH2Nf7mJHVqSuJbovC6g_A6roM1hU5ONL0YuNS6CyPZNNvZM83GINaFNSAlE57vaRjoR2XN_ICb4UpWncv5RCbqVImesIdHnKFAbS19tfqcRnAe5m2XzU9Rm0OFhyzaiVE-FY6mcgcwMZqE0VE_DCoyCBTNShmt79u9SNSyLVq2jCtYBD81IiYZ1ZVc/s430/Screenshot%202024-01-24%20at%2012.21.12%20AM.png" style="margin-left: 1em;margin-right: 1em"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiijH2Nf7mJHVqSuJbovC6g_A6roM1hU5ONL0YuNS6CyPZNNvZM83GINaFNSAlE57vaRjoR2XN_ICb4UpWncv5RCbqVImesIdHnKFAbS19tfqcRnAe5m2XzU9Rm0OFhyzaiVE-FY6mcgcwMZqE0VE_DCoyCBTNShmt79u9SNSyLVq2jCtYBD81IiYZ1ZVc/s320/Screenshot%202024-01-24%20at%2012.21.12%20AM.png" width="318" /></a></div><br /><p>

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Are you an enthusiastic researcher seeking a reputable platform to showcase your work? Look no further! The International Journal of Research (IJR) invites scholars, academicians, and researchers worldwide to submit their papers for review and publication in our esteemed journal.

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Searching and Reading the Research Papers without Paying

Traditionally, scientific research has been tucked away behind paywalls of academic publishers. Not only is the access to papers often restricted, but subscriptions are required to use many scholarly search engines. This practice discriminates against universities and institutions with little funding who cannot afford the licenses. Closed publishing also makes it hard for people not affiliated with research institutes, such as the public, to learn about scientific discoveries.

Today, the proportion of research that is publicly accessible, at no cost, varies between disciplines. While in the biomedical sciences and mathematics, the majority of research published between 2009 and 2015 was openly accessible, this held true only for around 15 percent of publications in chemistry. Luckily, the interest in open access publishing is steadily increasing and has gained momentum in the past decade or so.

Nowadays, many governmental funding bodies around the world require science resulting from grant money they provided to be available publicly for free. The exact requirements vary and UNESCO is currently developing a framework that specifies standards for the whole area of open science.

Once I started my research on the topic, I was astonished by just how many open science tools already exist! I selected the 10 best tools for you that help you discover relevant literature, allow you to read it and save citations:

SCIENCEOPEN

Want to perform a literature search and don’t want to pay for Web of Science or Scopus or perhaps you are tired of the limited functionality of the free Google Scholar? ScienceOpen is many things, among others, a search platform for scientific articles. Despite being owned by a company, the platform is freely accessible with a visually appealing and functional design. Search results are clearly labelled by type of publication, number of citations, altmetrics scores, etc. and allow for filtering. You can also access citation metrics, i.e. display which publications have cited a certain paper.

READ BY QXMD

Available as an app or in a browser window, Read lets you create a personalised feed that is updated daily with new papers on research topics or from journals of your choice. If there is an openly accessible version of an article, you can read it with one click. If your institution has journal subscriptions, you can also link them to your Read profile. Read has been created by the company QxMD and is free to use.

CITATION GECKO

Citation Gecko is an open source web app developed by Barney Walker that can help you with your literature review. It works in the following way: First you upload about 5-6 “seed papers”. The program then extracts all references in and to the seed papers and creates a visual citation network. The nodes are displayed in different colours and sizes, depending on whether the papers are citing a seed paper or are cited by it and how many, respectively. By combing through the network, you can discover new papers that may be relevant for your literature search. You can also increase your network step by step by including more seed papers.
The underlying citation data that Citation Gecko uses is provided by Crossref and Open Citations.

LOCAL CITATION NETWORK

Similar to Citation Gecko, Local Citation Network is an open source tool that helps you discover new literature on your research topic. Local Citation Network was developed by Physician Scientist Tim Wölfle. The tool works best if you feed it with a larger library of seed papers than required for Citation Gecko. Therefore, Wölfle recommends using it at the end of the literature review process to identify papers you may have missed.

RESEARCHRABBIT

As an alternative to Citation Gecko and Local Citation Network, a reader recommended ResearchRabbit. It’s free to use and looks like a versatile piece of software to find literature by building your own citation network. ResearchRabbit lets you add labels to the entries in your network, download PDFs of papers and sign up for email alerts for new papers related to your research topic. Instead of a tool to use only once during your literature search, ResearchRabbit seems to work more like a private scientific library, storing (and connecting) all the papers in your field.

OPEN ACCESS BUTTON

Works like Sci-hub but is legal: You enter the DOI, link or citation of a paper and Open Access Button displays it if freely, accessible anywhere. To find an open access version, Open Access Button searches thousands of repositories, for example, preprint servers, authors’ personal pages, open access journals and other aggregators such as the COnnecting REpositories service based at The Open University in the UK (CORE), the EU-funded OpenAire infrastructure, and the US community initiative, Share.

If the article you are looking for isn’t freely available, Open Access Button asks the author to share it to a repository. You can enter your email address to be notified once it has become available.

Open Access Button is also available as a browser plugin, which means that a button appears next to an article when a free version is available. The tool is funded by non-profit foundations and is open source.

UNPAYWALL

Unpaywall is similar to the Open Access Button but only available as a browser plugin. If the article you are looking at is behind a paywall but freely accessible somewhere else, a green button appears on the right side of the article. Unpaywall is run by the non-profit organisation Our Research who has created a fleet of open science tools. I installed it recently and regret not having done it sooner, it works really smoothly!

ENDNOTE CLICK

Another browser extension that lets you access papers for free, if available, is EndNote Click (formerly Kopernio). As the reference manager, EndNote Click is part of the research analytics company, Clarivate.

EndNote Click claims to be faster than other plugins, bypassing redirects and verification steps. I don’t find the Unpaywall or Open Access Button plugins inconvenient to use but I’d encourage you to try them all out and see what works best for you.

One advantage of EndNote Click that a researcher told me about is the sidebar that appears when opening a paper through the plugin. It lets you, for example, save citations quickly, avoiding time-consuming searches on publishers’ websites.

CITEAS

You discovered a promising paper, read it and now you want to cite it? CiteAs is a convenient tool to obtain the correct citation for any publication, preprint, software or dataset in one click. Funded by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, CiteAs is operated partly by the non-profit, Our Research.

There you have it. 10 Open Science tools that help with your literature search!

By the way, my interactive training video, “How to get published in high-ranking journals without lacking structure in the writing process” is now available for you for free! You can schedule your private viewing session here.

If you are looking to develop a more formulaic approach to writing papers that will mean less procrastination and higher quality outputs in better journals, then this free writing training is the ideal next step for you!

What are Top Ten Universities in India which Produces largest no. of Research Papers

Top universities in India known for producing a significant number of research papers. Please note that rankings and research output may have changed since then, so I recommend checking the latest rankings and statistics for the most up-to-date information. Here are ten prominent universities known for their research output:

Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore: IISc is renowned for its research in various fields, particularly in science and engineering.

Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs): Various IITs across India are known for their extensive research output, including IIT Bombay, IIT Delhi, IIT Madras, and others.

University of Delhi: The University of Delhi has several research-focused departments and institutes contributing to a significant number of research papers.

Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), Delhi: JNU is renowned for its social sciences and humanities research.

Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR): TIFR conducts research primarily in fundamental sciences and mathematics.

Indian Statistical Institute (ISI): ISI is known for its research in statistics, mathematics, and computer science.

Banaras Hindu University (BHU): BHU has a strong research tradition, particularly in the fields of science, technology, and humanities.

University of Calcutta: The University of Calcutta has a rich history of research output, especially in the sciences.

University of Mumbai: The University of Mumbai has several research centers and institutes contributing to research in various disciplines.

Anna University, Chennai: Anna University is known for research in engineering and technology.

Please keep in mind that these rankings may have changed, and the research output can vary by department within each university. To get the most current information on research output and rankings, it’s advisable to refer to recent sources and university websites.

Innovative Work Behaviour, Leadership, and Performance of Public Tertiary Institutions: A Proposed Framework

Michael Olalekan Adeoti & Yabagi, Bala Ahmed

Department of Business Administration, Federal Polytechnic, Bida, Nigeria.

Abstract

The aim of this study is to propose a framework and state propositions to be tested empirically in future studies. The researcher reviewed scholarly articles on the variables with the aim of stating propositions that are in agreement with theoretical perspectives and extant literature. Drawing from social exchange theory, this study proposed that there would be a positive relationship between innovative work behaviour and performance of public tertiary institutions. Further, a positive relationship between leadership styles (transformational and ethical) and performance of public tertiary institutions is predicted. This study recommends that management of public tertiary institutions and policy makers need to pay adequate attention to enhance productivity via encouragement of positive work attitudes and display of transformational abilities by the management of public tertiary institutions. In conclusion, this paper extends research on organizational performance by proposing a model that has the tendency to create a positive improvement in public sector educational institutions. However, there is a need for empirical studies to test the proposed relationships.

Keywords: Innovative work behaviour, transformational leadership, ethical leadership, and organizational performance.

Introduction

Innovative work behavior has a significant impact on company performance, indicating that the intentional application of new ideas within a company can greatly benefit its success. Innovation plays a crucial role in attracting customers, enabling a company to adapt, thrive, and remain competitive amidst various business challenges. According to Iqbal, Abid, Contreras, Hassan, and Zafar (2020), innovative work behaviour refers to the creation, introduction, and deliberate implementation of new ideas within a work role, group, or organization, with the aim of enhancing overall performance. The importance of fostering innovative work behavior can be supported by three key principles. First, employees often identify problems and propose creative solutions. Second, individuals who thrive in their work are more energized, increasing their propensity to engage in innovative behaviors. Third, creative individuals generate solutions that can be applied to similar situations, leading to improved performance.

This theory is supported by research conducted by Bos-Nehles and Veenendaal (2019) which highlighted the significant impact of innovative work behaviour on company performance. Further, encouraging employees to engage in innovative work behavior can have a positive and profound effect on a company’s overall success.

Research has demonstrated that changes in the workplace can foster innovative work behavior. Innovation involves the introduction of new ideas, practices, procedures, and techniques to individuals, groups, and organizations (Amirudin & Nugroho, 2022). This highlights the importance of leaders as role models in establishing an ethical work environment and cultivating a strong organizational reputation. However, without the presence of innovative behaviour, there can be a negative impact on employee performance. Even innovative companies can fail to reap the benefits of their innovative practices if they are not effectively implemented. A research conducted by Iqbal et al. (2020) have found that ethical leadership does not influence company performance with innovative work behaviour serving as the mediating variable.

Similarly, leadership determines the success and failure of any organization. The world is shifting towards an economy where the essential resource of an organization is its knowledge (Popli & Rizvi, 2016). Leadership style is the manner in which people are directed and motivated by a leader to achieve organizational goals. Leadership style in an organization is one of the key factors that play significant role in enhancing or retarding the interest and commitment of the individuals in the organization (Obiwuru, Okwu, & Nwankere, 2021). The leadership style adopted by organization enhances the achievement of corporate goals.

Empirically, Ojokuku, Odetayo and Sajuyigbe (2012) observed that leadership style is one of the determinants of the success and failure of any proactive organization. Also, Lawal, Kio, and Adebayo (2000) agreed that good leadership is a condition for effective accomplishment of organizational goals and objectives. Effective leadership style of management is a pre-requisite to organizational accomplishment (Uchenwamgbe, 2013). All over the world, organizations attribute their successes to leadership efficiency, that is, the leadership style of the supervisors has a considerable effect on organizational performance (Sun, 2019).

In a study conducted by McGrath and MacMillan (2000), it was reported that there is a significant relationship between leadership styles and organizational performance. Relationship between leadership style and organizational performance has been discussed often. Most research showed that leadership style has a significant effect on organizational performance, and different leadership styles may have a positive correlation or negative correlation with the organizational performance, depending on the variables used by the researchers (Ojokuku, Odetayo, & Sajuyigbe, 2012). The focus of the present study is on transformational and ethical leadership styles. It is imperative to choose these two styles because of the probability that the duo may influence organizational performance positively.

Ethical leadership has a significant impact on company performance due to its role as a coordinator, motivator, and catalyst that drives a company towards success. Ethical leadership is crucial and necessary for supporting a company’s achievement. Ethical leaders exhibit moral behaviour based on a set of values that guide their actions and behaviours, particularly when they hold positions of authority.

Many researchers have worked on leadership styles to estimate their effect on organizational performance (Ogbeide, Groves, & Cho, 2008). For instance, when the leaders give autonomy to the employees, they would be more loyal and motivated to perform efficiently which would enhance organizational productivity with better outcomes (Kim & Beehr, 2018).

Previous studies have focused on the relationship between leadership styles and employees’ productivity in private sectors (Arnett, Sandvik, & Sandvik, 2018; Roundy, Harrison, Khavul, PérezNordtvedt, & McGee, 2018). The researcher is of the view that there is no one best leadership style, the circumstance surrounding the leaders would dictate the right leadership style to adopt, whether transformational or ethical. Hence, the need to focus on how leadership styles affect organizational performance in the public sector in Nigeria.

Also, extant literature focused on negative behaviours such as employees’ deviant behaviour, counterproductive behaviour and intentions to quit among faculty members (Adeoti, Shamsudin & Wan, 2017; Geidam, Njoku, & Bako, 2010; Kura, Shamsudin, & Chauhan, 2015; Kura, Shamsudin, & Chauhan, 2016), but the present study focused on employees’ innovative work behaviour among faculty members and how such behaviours can enhance the performance of public tertiary institutions. Hence, the present study focused on positive work behaviour among faculty members instead of negative behaviours studied by previous researchers.

Conceptual Framework

Organizational Performance

Corporate performance and organizational efficacy are sometimes used interchangeably. Organizational effectiveness assesses how successfully a social system with constrained means and resources, like an organization, accomplishes its objectives without placing an undue burden on its members. When assessing performance, factors including productivity, flexibility, and inter-organizational conflicts are taken into account (Alshebami, 2021). An organization’s performance can be used to measure its level of production and efficacy. Leaders can determine whether these achievements have been realized or not by comprehending the overall performance of the company. Knowing the state of the business will make it simpler for you to create policies. Thus, company proprietors can manage and organize the business better. Business owners can promptly make decisions to enhance organizational functions if there are deficiencies.

Innovative Work Behaviour

Innovation is a complex process with many hazards, positive leadership behavior is considered a key factor in encouraging employee innovation (Hidayati et al., 2019). In this situation, employing innovative work behavior is seen as having benefits for the organization. It is also considered that companies cannot rely solely on the culture that has existed for a long time, but must construct a culture while maintaining the core values of the company. Then, as a driver of innovation within the company, employees are also expected to demonstrate innovative work behavior that can help the company accomplish its objectives and survive in the corporate world. Employees do this to maintain their positions in the company (Kuswati et al., 2021).

Change is an unavoidable thing in human lives. Innovation brings about undesired outcomes (Khan et al., 2022). Khan et al. (2022) propose that adopting an adhocratic culture can foster both innovation and performance, which are crucial for sustainable organizational success in today’s competitive markets.

Leadership

Leaders play a crucial role in ensuring stability, efficiency, and guiding organizations towards their goals. However, the traditional approach to leadership alone may no longer be sufficient in today’s society, as it can lead to ethical issues and social problems. In response, ethical leadership has emerged as a new requirement for leaders in modern organizations (Rosida & Wajdi, 2023). Ethical leadership encompasses both personal and interpersonal aspects, encompassing behaviors, decision-making processes, and relationships that adhere to ethical norms and values (Waskito et al., 2019).

Ethical leadership plays a significant role in providing purpose and motivation to followers within an organization, fostering their adaptability to change and enhancing the quality of work. It encompasses qualities, actions, and behaviors exhibited by leaders that have positive impacts on others. Key characteristics of ethical leaders include honesty, reliability, compassion, and fairness (Ahmad et al., 2022). In today’s dynamic work environment, where high performance is expected from employees, leaders must be responsive to the demands of change, including cultivating an organizational culture that embraces a distinct creative orientation.

Molnár et al. (2021) suggest that ethical leadership plays a role in motivating employees to channel their efforts and abilities towards their work and foster innovation. Ethical leaders emphasize factors that inspire employees to be creative and innovative in order to achieve collective objectives for the betterment of the team and the organization. Leaders are expected to meet the demands of change, which include fostering creativity and innovation. Previous research conducted by Iqbal et al. (2020) supports the notion that ethical leadership has an impact on promoting innovative work behavior.

Theoretical Framework

Social exchange theory

Exchange theorists suggest that human interactions are characterized by social economics, where people are concerned about the inputs they invest in relationships and the outcomes they receive from these relationships (Blau, 1964; Homans, 1961).

Blau’ s perspective is more economic. He argued that social interaction depends much on the anticipated reward. In other words, the next move one makes in enhancing (or degrading) the social relationship depends on what reward is likely to be received. In this manner, Blau argued that people learn to view and value the social relationships more and decide whether the social interaction should be maintained or otherwise.

In the official settings, the rewards could take the forms of supportive leadership, ftraining and development, compensation packages, career advancement, job security, accelerated promotion and more. It is the value of the rewards that determine people’s behaviour and responses toward the social relationship, which means that social relationships are governed by the norms of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960). That is, people should return benefits given to them in a relationship.

In the present study, the researcher is of the view that the leadership styles exhibited by the management of public tertiary institutions (either transformational or ethical) may determine whether employees will contribute meaningfully or less to the organizational productivity. For instance, norm of reciprocity explains that if employees perceive that the leaders are supportive and ethical towards the employees; all things being equal, such employees may contribute positively to the enhancement of organizational performance.

Trait Theory

Trait theory of leadership is one of the earliest theories of leadership. It focused on the personal attributes of leaders, which comprise physical and personality characteristics, competencies and values. It views leadership mainly from the perspective of the individual leader. Basis of this approach is the assumption that traits produce patterns of behaviour that are coherent amidst the situations. Therefore, leadership traits are considered to be embedded characteristics that people are born with and that remain relatively stable over time. (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Fleishman, & Reiter-Palmon, 2015).

Prior trait scholars studied the personality attributes that they believed were related to leadership effectiveness; an interest on researching exceptional historical figures. According to Fleenor (2021), early researchers viewed leadership as a uni-dimensional personality trait that could be reliably measured and was distributed normally throughout the population; that is an individual difference variable. Many of the early studies on the trait approach focused on the systematic investigation of the significant differences between leaders and followers. It assumes that individuals in higher-level positions possess more leadership traits than those in lower-level positions. To further buttress the fact, a large number of studies were conducted in an attempt to develop reliable and valid measures of leadership traits.

In the present study, transformational ability of a leader is a rare trait in most leaders but if public institutions must reclaim their lost glories, the leaders must be transformational. Also, the level of moral decadence in public tertiary institutions call for concerns. The researcher is of the opinion that ethical leadership is highly essential for improved productivity. Surprisingly, ethical traits are missing in most heads of public institutions in Nigeria as most Vice-Chancellors, Rectors, and College Provosts see their positions as means of financial enrichment for themselves, their family members and close allies.

Relationship between innovative work behaviour and organizational performance

According to Iqbal et al. (2020), Innovative Work Behavior (IWB) can be described as the purposeful generation, introduction, and application of fresh ideas within a work role, group, or organization, with the intention of enhancing the performance of that specific role, group, or organization. Individuals who perceive themselves as thriving in their work tend to exhibit greater levels of IWB compared to those who do not thrive. The presence of innovative work behavior has been shown in previous studies, including research by Iqbal et al. (2020), to have an impact on company performance.

Proposition 1: There is no relationship between innovative work behaviour and organizational performance

Relationship between leadership and organizational performance

According to Ukaidi (2016), leadership style and systemic behavior shifted away from the characteristics of the leader to the style the leader adopted. According to Rowe (2019), records from the style approach recommend that leaders who are devoted to democratic or participatory leadership style seem more successful, compared to managers that adopt autocratic or laissez faire leadership style of management. Complementing Rowe (2019), Yukl (2012) opined that participatory leadership is the best style of leadership in managing an organizational system of any type, and maintained that people react favorably to it in organizations by increased productivity, lower unit cost, good morale and improved labor management relation. However, Yukl (2012) hinted that the worst style of leadership is autocratic or authoritative leadership style which gives rise to high labor management conflicts.

There are different reasons why there should be relationship between leadership style and organizational performance. Today’s intensive and dynamic markets characterize innovation-based competition, price-performance rivalry, decreasing returns and the creative destruction of existing competencies (Venkata-raman 2018). Several studies have suggested that effective leadership behaviors can facilitate the improvement of performance when organizations face these new challenges (McGrath & MacMillan 2000; Teece, Pisano & Shuen 2018). Reviewing the effects of leadership on performance is paramount because leadership is viewed by some scholars as one of the key driving forces for improving a firm’s performance and productivity. According to (Avolio 1999 and Rowe 2019), effective leadership is seen as a major source of management development and sustained competitive advantage for organizational performance improvement (Obiwuru et al. 2021).

Zhu, Chew and Spangler (2005) opined that transactional leadership assists firms to actualize their objectives more efficiently by relating job performance to valued rewards and by guaranteeing that em-ployees have the resources needed to get the job done. McShane & Von-Glinow [2019] stressed that visionary leaders create a strategic insight of some future states, communicate that vision through fram-ing and use of metaphor, model the vision by acting consistently, and build commitment towards the vision (Obiwuru et al. 2021). Zhu et al. (2005) recommended that visionary leadership will result in high levels of cohesion, commitment, trust, motivation, and hence performance in the new organizational environments.

Prior studies have explored the impact of leadership and adhocracy culture in different contexts. Sanchez-Famoso et al. (2023) conducted research in small and medium-sized family companies, examining the integration of ethical leadership, internal social capital, and company performance. Gao, Zhao, and Qu (2020) investigated the effect of person-organization (PO) adhocracy value congruence on employee creativity using fit theory. Alheet et al. (2021) examined the influence of leadership style on innovative work.

According to Sarwar et al. (2020), an ethical leader is an individual who demonstrates moral behaviour both personally and within the corporate setting. Moral behavior is guided by a set of values that influence the actions and conduct of those in positions of authority. When leaders are perceived as trustworthy, considerate, and selfless, employees are more likely to connect with them, engage in positive interactions, and align their interests with the organization’s goals. Previous research by Kim and Thapa (2018) supports this theory, indicating that ethical leadership has a beneficial impact on firm performance.

According to a study by Sarwar et al. (2020), ethical leadership refers to individuals who demonstrate moral behavior both personally and within the organization. This theory is supported by research conducted by Kim and Thapa (2018), which found a positive impact of ethical leadership on firm performance.

Extant literature agreed that ethical leadership has significant impact on innovative work and organizational performance. Ethical leadership sets the tone for a culture that encourages and supports innovation among employees (Molnár et al., 2021; Jia et al., 2022).

Proposition 2: There is no relationship between transformational leadership style and organizational performance

Proposition 3: There is no relationship between ethical leadership style and organizational performance

Method

This research follows a quantitative approach to examine the relationship between innovative work behaviour, leadership style and organizational performance. Quantitative research is a research method rooted in positivism, which involves studying specific population or samples and gathering data via questionnaires (Bougie & Sekaran, 2017). However, the present study aims to make propositions because it is a conceptual paper in nature. Hence, the researcher explored electronic databases such as Google scholar, EBSCOhost, Emerald management plus and other related databases for scholarly articles on the variables with the aim of raising propositions in line with theoretical perspectives.

Research framework

Social exchange theory and past empirical studies agreed with the proposed conceptual framework. Specifically, social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) explains the positive relationship between leadership activities and organizational performance. Further, it is the value of leadership and people’s innovative behaviour and responses that determine the outputs of corporate entities. In other words, social relations are governed by the norms of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960), which simply states that people would return benefits given to them or values they receive in a relationship. Figure 1.1 presents the conceptual framework.

Organizational performance

Innovative work behaviour

Leadership:

-Transformational

-Ethical leadership

Figure 1.

Conceptual framework

Conclusion

The implications of this research are significant for entities seeking to understand the effects of innovative work behaviour and both transformational and ethical leadership on organizational performance. The findings will provide valuable information for decision-making processes aimed at enhancing corporate performance and organizational success. For future research, it is recommended that future studies should focus on variables such as economic pressure and employees’ commitment, which were not examined in this study.

This study has proposed a framework guided by social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) with the aim of encouraging innovative work behaviour among faculty members in Nigerian public tertiary institutions. More so, management of public tertiary institutions are encouraged to adopt both transformational and ethical leadership approaches to instill innovative work behaviour that may enhance productivity among staff members. Lastly, the researcher is optimistic that future researchers will test the proposed model empirically.

References

Abasilim, U. D. (2014). Transformational leadership style and its relationship with organizational performance in Nigerian work context: A review. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 16(9), 1-5.

Abasilim, U., Gberevbie, D., & Osibanjo, A. (2018b). Does leadership styles relate with personnel commitment in private organizations in Nigeria? Paper presented at the 14th European Conference on Management, Leadership and Governance at HU University of Applied Sciences, Utrecht, The Netherlands.

Adeoti, M. O., Shamsudin, F.M., & Wan, C.Y. (2017a). Effects of occupational stress and workplace spirituality on workplace deviance in academia: A conceptual paper. Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 5(9), 100-106.

Adeoti, M. O., Shamsudin, F. M., & Wan, C. Y. (2017b). Workload, work pressure and interpersonal deviance in academia: The mediating role of neutralization. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 7(4), 1-22.

Alheet, A. F., Adwan, A. Al, Areiqat, A. Y., Zamil, Ahmad. M. A., & Saleh, M. A. (2021). The effect of leadership styles on employees’ innovative work behavior. Management Science Letters, 239–246.

Amirudin, R. U., & Nugroho, S. P. (2022). Effect of Ethical Leadership on Employee Performance and Innovation with Internal Motivation as Intervening Variable (Empirical Study of Small and Medium Industries (IKM) in Klaten Regency).

Adeyemi, O., & Bolarinwa R. (2013). Principals’ leadership styles and student academic performance in secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 2 (1), 1-14.

Behery, M. (2008). Leadership behaviors that really count in an organization’s performance in the Middle-East: The case of Dubai. Journal of Leadership Studies, 2, 6-21.

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The Managers’ Autocratic Leadership Style and Performance of Employees in Commercial Banks

Kavishemi, S

Assistant Lecturer, Department of Management, Faculty of Commerce and Management, Eastern University, Sri Lanka.

Abstract

This study’s primary goal is to look into the relationship between autocratic, leadership style and employees’ performance in commercial banks in the Eastern Province. 250 workers from 559 commercial banks in the Eastern Province replied for this study. Additionally, the researcher designs the sample using a simple random sampling procedure. Five Point Likert structured questionnaire was used as the data gathering tool. The performance of the employees was taken as the dependent variable and the autocratic leadership style was considered as independent variable. Univariate and correlation analysis were also performed on the obtained data using the SPSS version 23 software. The results indicated that, there is medium positive correlation between autocratic leadership style and employee performance.

Keywords: Autocratic leadership style, Employees’ performance

INTRODUCTION

Major managerial changes are being emerged in various organizations for ensuring their sustainability in the challenging world. In this perspective, manager needs to be competent person to manage these changes. Managers’ jobs are complex and varied, and they require a certain set of talents to carry out their responsibilities. It is impossible to overstate the significance of leadership in companies. The idea is important much as it affects an organization’s effectiveness and sustenance in the present and the future (Makambe & Moeng, 2020).

Leadership style plays a crucial role in administration since the way in which the manager uses the resources under their control to achieve goals is crucial (Adeyemi, 2004). In essence, these successes in organizations depend on three distinguishable leadership styles (Lunenberg & Ornstein, 1991). Therefore, there is no question that bank managers in the Eastern Province are under increasing pressure from different leadership styles. However, it appears that a lot of managers do not think about their leadership styles as factors in branch manager performance. The results of this study will help bank managers and community members everywhere improve leadership techniques in their workplaces. It will result in a positive effect on employees’ performance. It has been determined that managers are a key factor in the banks’ ongoing development, and as a result, the wellbeing of societies can also be strengthened through time. Leadership style is a leader’s approach to providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. Lewin (1939), determined that there were three basic leadership styles: Authoritarian (Autocratic), Participative (Democratic) and Delegative (Laissez-Faire).

In this situation, banks must build successful leadership using the right leadership styles. Different leadership styles have been implemented at the chosen banks, however this has led to conflict between managers and employees and, in some cases, a demotivation of workers. While some employees were resistant to various leadership styles because they didn’t understand how the styles affected employee performance, some managers opposed the adoption of certain leadership styles because they thought they diminished their authority. When compared to other banks, certain banks’ employees perform exceedingly poorly. As we have taken Eastern Province almost all there is no considerable insights or other reasons that affect employees’ performance, the substantial reason is bank managers’ leadership styles. There are insufficient number of studies that observe the relationship of the variables in the specialized context of banking sector. This indicates there is a clear empirical gap exists in this topic that needs to be evaluated. In Sri Lankan context, there are no studies regarding the managers’ autocratic leadership styles and Performance of Employees in Commercial Banks in The Eastern Province. This show there is a population gap in the related topic. Therefore, the study attempts to achieve the objectives below;

· To determine the level of autocratic leadership style of managers and performance of employees in commercial banks in the Eastern Province

· To identify the significant relationship between the autocratic leadership style of managers and performance of employees in commercial banks in the Eastern Province.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Autocratic Leadership Style: The terms “autocratic” and “authoritarian style” both refer to the kind of rulers who demand quick compliance without question (Iqbal, Anwar & Haiden, 2015). A system that fully empowers the leader while requiring little from the followers is known as an autocratic leadership style. According to Portugal & Yukul (1994), authoritarian leaders frequently exhibit the following five traits: They don’t consult the rest of the group while making decisions, the leaders decide all policies, how work will be done, what the followers’ responsibilities will be, and how technical and performance evaluation will be done. The authoritarian leadership style is another name for the autocratic leadership style, in which the leader has complete control over all decisions. The group’s leader instructs the members of the group on how to carry out tasks but does not keep open lines of communication with them. He or she neither delegated power to others nor allowed subordinates to influence policy (John, 2002).

Employee Performance: Performance is an important assessment for companies so that the company’s sustainability can be guaranteed (Zhang, 2010). Employee performance includes behavior that is under control but provides limits for irrelevant behavior. Meanwhile, the performance also assesses the active role of employees in carrying out obligations according to the formal contract given to them by the company (Biswas, 2009).

Manager: The manager is the center of power in this arrangement, and they are the only ones with the authority to decide on policies, practices, work assignments, and the administration of rewards and punishments (Mullins & Syam, 2014). Managers are members of an organization that either oversee one team or numerous teams in order to plan activities and boost productivity. Even if they aren’t senior leadership or executives, they effectively manage their teams to interpret and carry out senior leadership agendas (Risher, 2010).

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

Performance of Employees

Autocratic Leadership Style

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

(Source: Basit et al., 2017)

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

250 employees of commercial banks in the Eastern Province were surveyed using a standardized questionnaire to get primary data about their performance and the management style. Three categories are covered in the questionnaire: personal traits, leadership style, and employees’ performance. The questionnaire was also written in English.

Part I of the questionnaire asks for personal information, and Parts II and III ask for research-related information. Gender, civil status, the number of family members, and service years are all listed in Part I. Parts II and III discuss the study variables, autocratic leadership style and employee performance, respectively. Data were gathered by closed-ended statements, and the degree of agreement was determined using a 5-point Likert scale from 1 to 5 from each client’s perspective. According to the Likert scale, respondents’ levels of agreement with the following statements:

1 – Strongly Disagree

2 – Disagree

3 – Neutral

4 – Agree

5 – Strongly Agree

In this study, the Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient (CAC) has been used for analyzing the reliability instrument. In order to achieve the objectives of the study, this has employed univariate and bivariate analysis to analyze the collected data in SPSS.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Authoritarian leadership style is also common in the banks of the Eastern province (MV=2.38914, SD=0.27426). This demonstrates that in some circumstances in the Eastern Province’s banks, authoritarianism is pervasive. Correlation (r) between autocratic leadership style and employees’ performance is 0.415 and significance at 0.01 levels (2-tailed) is 0.000. It is concluded that there is a medium positive relationship between autocratic leadership style and employees’ performance in Commercial Banks in Eastern Province.

According to David & Obadia (2017), authoritarian leadership is acquired by punishment, threat, demands, instructions, rules, and regulations. Authoritarian followers’ responsibilities include blindly and unquestioningly carrying out their leader’s orders. The duties of an authoritarian leader include the creation of unilateral rules, work delegation, and issue solving. Authoritarian leadership is acceptable when there is a constant influx of new employees, when there aren’t enough resources or time to make decisions, and when there is a need for close collaboration with other groups and organizations. Having an autocratic leadership style has little effect on how well staff in commercial banks in the Eastern Province perform. Due to the managers’ limited ability to control large groups of people, the employees’ familiarity with the banking environment, and the employees’ long-term employment up until retirement from service.

CONCLUSION

Autocratic leadership styles offer structure to organizations, establish clear rules, and can streamline communications. People who work under an autocratic leader will know exactly who to talk to and who they should ask for approval. Not only can this lead to improved organizational efficiency, it can enhance accountability. The style of autocratic leadership has obstructive impact on employee performance. This means the productivity of workers would not increase by adopting an autocratic strategy. In addition to it; employees who are now becoming more knowledgeable, independent and competent can no longer accept autocratic leadership style.

LIST OF REFERENCES

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John, C.M. (2002). Million leaders Mandate. Notebook one. Equip Publishers, America.

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Makambe, U., & Moeng, G. J. M. (2020). The effects of leadership styles on employee performance: a case of a selected commercial bank in Botswana. Annals of Management and Organization Research, 1(1), 39-50.

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Composting to Improve Degradable Lands towards Sustainable Land Management and Climate Change Adaptation in Nabdam and Talensi Districts of the Upper East Region of Ghana.

Isaac Odoi Danquah

Water Resources Engineer, Goldrain Mountain Company Limited, Koforidua, Eastern Region – Ghana.

ABSTRACT

Degradation of farmlands in the Upper East Region of Ghana has become a great menace to food security as the year proceeds. This results in fertile lands being depleted of all organic matter and nutrients that support plant growth. The practice of farming around households built in lands is seriously practiced hence continuous cropping on the same land each year. Various methods of land reclamation such as afforestation are still being practiced but not yielding the needed results due to continuous cropping over the same land year in year out. This paper sorts to discuss one specific composting method adopted within seven communities of the UER to obtain compost materials for plant growth. A number of composting methods is practiced by farmers within these communities to improve the fertility of their lands. Some of the methods employed includes the pit method, the pile method, composting barrels, sheet composting, compost piled in a structure etc. The last technique is piloted during the study to obtain the nutrients and assess its potential in improving the soil fertility. This specific method explains the composting process and how the finest compost material is obtained for application on farmlands. Precipitations needed for decomposition of carbonated and nitrogenous materials on farmlands are of lesser quantities. This keeps the soil almost dry always resulting in vast areas of degradable lands and low crop yields each season. Research findings indicates that, fine rich black compost of 97% nutrients potency was obtained to improve soil fertility. When used on farmlands, it increased yields by 90% as compared to previous years as indicated by the farmers of around 80%. Practicing this composting technique has increased interest in composting by farmers by 75% in the seven piloted communities within the Nabdam and Talensi district of the Upper East region of Ghana.

Key Words: Climate Change, Compost, Drought, land Degradation, infertility, farmlands, Upper East Region (UER).

1 INTRODUCTION

Compost is partially decomposed organic material which upon adding to farmlands improves both the physical structure and fertility of the soil (Garber, 1994). Nutrients such as Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) are required by the soil in large amounts and should be applied in a concentration form such as 10:10:10 fertilizer for maximum yields. Decomposition of organic materials needs microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria and smaller animals such as earthworms, nematodes and beetles. These microorganisms eat the organic matter and produce humus. A soil fertility test is usually used to evaluate the nutrients supplying power of soils. Soil tests combined with crop nutrients requirement forms the basis for nutrients recommendations. Recommendations guides for vegetables, tree fruits, field crops, nursery crops and turfs were published by Rutgers Cooperative Extension (Heckman, 1898). Plant growth is affected by numerous factors including climate change, pest pressures and nutrients availability. Well prepared organic compost builds and stabilizes soil structure reducing potentials for soil erosion. It improves porosity, allowing water to move through the soil promoting holding water capacity used by plants. Composting is a natural process which provides several benefits such as reducing one of the world’s largest contributor’s to Greenhouse gases (Hoornweg et. Al., 1999). Maintaining appropriate levels of soil fertility especially plant nutrients availability through composting is important if agricultural lands in the seven communities are to remain capable of sustaining crop production at acceptable levels (Johnston, 2011). Composting is been used to address the degradable lands problem since it’s a method of speeding natural decomposition under controlled condition. Raw organic materials are converted to compost by a succession of organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoans, centipedes, millipedes, sowbugs, earthworms and other organisms. This organism increases the rate of chemical reaction in order to obtain rich fine compost. Humification depends on feedstocks, composting method and management. Scientist working in most African countries such as East Africa on sustainable land management confirms of human induced land degradation as negatively affecting food security (Slegers and Stroosnijder, 2008). Land degradation in the UER has rendered large fertile crop lands unproductive contributing to depleting income and low farm yields. Ploughing of farmlands with cattle’s and tractors serves as the main means of turning the soil in early may for crop planting. The long drought from October to May results in high rate of evaporation from both the soil and harvested crops. Hence the rate of decomposition of plants on the surface of the soil as manures to increase soil fertility is around 20% and even zero in some areas. This document is out of a project to combat climate change and sustain lands to address food security within the region. This called for the implementation of the PRGDT program by CILSS in three districts in UER. Preparation of compost using carbonated and nitrogenous material in the ratio of 3:1 to assess quality and quantity for farmlands formed one of the interventions under the project. Biodynamic compost is a fundamental component of the biodynamic method which Serves as a way to recycle animal manures and organic wastes, stabilize nitrogen, and build soil humus and enhance soil health (Diver, 1995) for the production of crops. Production of crops yearly especially during the dry season in UER will result in increase of yield if practices such as composting is practiced to back ploughing by animals and other methods.

2 METHODOLOGY

Seven farmers within seven communities are sampled and trained by Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) stuffs on composting procedures from the two districts. Detailed methodological procedures is as follows;

· Construct an 8m×4m rectangular structure and divide into two [4m² each] compartments with local clay materials¹. This gives you two compartments compost structures.

· Plaster inside and outside of structure with sand and cement.

· Arrange stones to a height of 4cm as ground floor bed.

· Arrange maize stocks or any grass materials as the down floor layer.

· Mix completely the carbonated materials (maize, grass, millet stocks and plant materials) and nitrogenous materials (cow dungs, guinea fowl remains, goats/sheep’s remains etc) in the ratio of 3:1. It should be done by adding little quantities of water and mixed scrupulously.

· Perform the sponge test.

· Put the mixed materials in the compost structure and press down firmly.

· Add some quantities of ashes and water before adding the next layer of compost materials.

· Step 5 – 8 is repeated with different materials till the compost structure is completely filled.

· Depending on site of compost structure and exposure, cover with an apron to avoid direct contact with the sun to decrease the rate of evaporation.

· Put a stick in the center of the filled structure to assess the temperature and decomposition state of materials.

· Observe compost materials regularly and add water when necessary in appreciable amounts to accelerate the rate of decomposition.

· Turn/Move the filled materials to the empty compartment after two weeks.

· Perform 12 and 13 again after every two weeks. Turn decompose materials into the other compartments. This is repeated till the final compost material is obtained in its finest state for application (98% decomposition).

Table 1: Common Feedstock’s used and their characteristics

Feedstock	Moisture Content	C:N
High Carbonate Materials
Hay	8-10	15:30
Maize Stocks	12	60-70
Straw	5-20	40-150
Maize Silage	65-68	40
High Nitrogenous Materials

Fowl/Guinea Fowl Manure	20-40	5-15
Goat/Sheep/Cow dung
Sewage Sludge		9-25

A time series of temperatures and rate of decomposition are recorded for observation. A maximum of 1 month 2 weeks is used for the composting activity to obtain good compost for application on farmlands.

Estimating the carbon content of feedstock’s

% carbon = %volatile solids

1.8

Where % Volatile Solids = 100 – % ash (material incinerated @ 723K

Plate 1: Compost structure

3 STUDY AREA

Seven selected communities from Talensi and Nabdam district are selected for this study. Total land area of Upper East Region is 8800Km² covering 3.7% of the total land area of Ghana. The total population of the region is 1031478 (2010, Population census) with an annual growth rate of 1.1%. The upper east region is hot and dry with temperatures ranging between 46.5˚C maximum and 13.5˚C minimum usually during drought period and rainy season respectively. The land surface is flat with gentle slopes less than 1% having scarce trees, 35m apart. Activities within the seven communities of the two composting districts is mainly farming, rearing of animals and fishing. Animal rearing is by the extensive system but always controlled in cages during the farming season. Cattle, donkeys, guinea fowl are the most prominent animal and birds reared with few goats and sheep’s. Farmers are usually dormant especially in the dry season as farming activities are rain fed. Crops produced by the community’s ranges from beans, rice, millet, maize, sorghum to groundnuts. Water resources such as dams and reservoirs are undergoing varied forms of defects such as siltation and seepages. Canals and laterals are not in good condition hence reducing dry season irrigation farming. Farming activities in these districts of the Upper East Region (UER) is around households which differ from the southern part. Areas with 10% are embedded with stones making farming difficult. Stone and earth bunding is therefore practiced. The soils are light textured surfaces varying from coarse material either gravel and stones which affect their physical properties particularly their water holding capacity. The rainfall pattern affects fruits such as mangoes and oranges production. Due to the one seasonal rainfall regime, cocoa production is not supported within the region to boost economic growth among the indigenes.

4 RESULTS DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Composting Analysis

Upper East Region is part of the savanna zone where land degradation is an issue as a result of the one seasonal rainfall period within the period of January to December. Rainfall which moistens the soil increasing plant growth and foliage coverage hence the resultant decomposition of woodlots and leaves to increase fertility is less. This has created a big problem on the land hence the use of inorganic manure during the planting season. Organic composting which is less expensive and easy to prepare is recommended as an alternative to improve soil fertility and support crop production. Inorganic fertilizer is applied but its disadvantage of affecting the soil texture continues and increases the infertility of the soil. The possibility of proportionality in fertilizer application is also another problem as beans and groundnut are left yellowish and withered after the application of fertilizers during site visits. This leaves farmers at a lost especially after buying fertilizers at high prices and wasting of time to apply on farmlands. This work therefore established organic manure preparation as a model to show its importance and cost effective in the seven communities. Committed farmers selected were trained on composting procedure and taking through one day compost preparation. Farmer’s enthusiasm towards the preparation resulted in the various percentage of organic manure preparation after training. Rate of decomposition (RD) of manure was 40% after two weeks of observation and 96% after one month two weeks. Its fine, smooth black textured nature gave a clear indication of rich compost (97%) with greater percentage of improving the soil fertility. Such compost is the most attended and well concentrated ones which farmers sprinkle and monitored compost materials in sequential times. The minimum temperature recorded is 30˚C and this is recorded among farmers whose arrangement of farm materials was not well done. This gave the opportunity for air to stay within the stocked compost materials (plate 1). This decreased the decomposition rate hence not obtaining a better decomposition after two weeks turning observation (15% decomposition rate).

Table: 1st composting observation

Composting Community Site	№ of Tuning(T)	Temperature ⁰C	Rate of Decomposition [RD] (%)
Pitanga 1	III	44	50
Pitanga 2	III	42	65
Yakote 1	III	40	65
Yakote 2	I	43	60
Ndong 1	I	50	20
Ndong 2	II	42	64
Pelungu 1	II	50	75
Pelungu 2	I	52	50
Kaare 1	II	42	60
Kaare 2	I	52	40
Wikongo 1	II	48	50
Wikongo 2	IV	50	90

Application of water was a major problem for most of the farmers as some finds it difficult applying water in the right proportion. A maximum of 90m³ is used during a turning and this is sprinkled and well mixed before being moved to the other compartment. Proper spreading and compartment is recommended in order to avoid air and holes as it decreases the rate of decomposition. Two weeks turning should be well monitored and applied in order to obtain uniform decomposition (Plate 2). A maximum temperature of 60˚C is recorded as the highest temperature over the period. This is the temperature at which fungi and bacteria activity on compost materials is very high. The RD differs from 74% to 96% as depicted in Fig. 1 due to different turning techniques by farmers over the period. 74% – 88% recording was observed for farmers who moved compost from one compartment to the other without thorough mixing, water sprinkling and compactment. 88% – 96% was recorded for highly attended compost structures where farmers monitored compost materials consistently. Turning procedures and techniques was well complied as water application, turning and compactment in layers was 95% achieved by 60% farmers. Turning of compost from one compartment into another takes 45-minutes maximum for the 4m × 4m double compost structure. Uniform rate of decomposition was not recorded during this work as farmer’s seriousness play part greatly. This is the reason for equalities at different turnings (T1, T2, and T3).

Fig. 1: Rate of decomposition (RD), turning (T) and temperatures during compost preparation

Plate 2: Mixed nitrogenous and carbonated materials in Compost structure

4.2 Rainfall Season impact on soil

Long drought period with less precipitation within the region continue to derail the soil fertility each year. To worsen this scenario, subsistence farming practices which is practiced each year around households has resulted in serious land degradation over the years. Plant foliage which is a great contributor of water into the hydrological cycle and the resultant precipitation is scarce as trees are few and widely apart. Climate changes resulting in long droughts between October and May always enters the farming season with soil infertile to support plant growth and production. Rainfall for 2014 (Fig 2) was analyzed to see its impact on the soil as it’s the year before this work. The maximum rainfall recorded was 57.9mm in May and is the highest for the whole season. The rainfall pattern for the rest of rainfall period ranged from 27.5mm maximum to 0.2mm minimum. This is sparsely recorded over the period hence less to enrich the soil. Woodlots, animal droppings, leaves and other wastes materials which needs water in right proportions continues to remain dry and thereby unable to decompose due to no water to enhance the process. Decomposition of such materials adds different kinds of nutrients to the soil and by that increasing the organic matter content of the soil.

Fig. 2: Rainfall pattern for 2014

This has been the pattern over the region resulting in the continued degradation of farmlands. Activities such as deforestation for fire woods and charcoal burning are all forms of activities affecting the hydrological cycle resulting in the long droughts. The drought period between October to April was intense with 25.6mm received as the highest over the period.

Fig. 3: Drought period for 2014

Drought period in the Upper East region and hence the seven communities is so intense as temperatures ranges from 42.1˚C maximum and 35.5˚C minimum as depicted in Fig 3. Humidity during such times records around 96% of which the weather becomes very hot. Such periods never support plant growth as evapotranspiration is very high leaving all decomposable materials very dry. Withering and shedding of leaves is also high leaving the soil bare decreasing sunlight exposure and increasing evaporation. Water table decreases at faster rate decreasing water holding capacity of tap roots of plants and root tapping depth for plant growth is increased considerably.

5 CONCLUSION

Climate is a big parameter when it comes to plant growth and crop production in the Upper East Region. Variability in the rainfall pattern will always result in different amounts of rainfall and long droughts each year. Organic manure application is a good method of obtaining manure to improve soil fertility towards reclamation of degradable lands in the Upper East Region of Ghana. This model work reveals that, compost can be obtained by using local available compost materials enriched in Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium in their right proportions. From compost analysis, compost obtained was 97% rich in nutrients to enrich the soil for the production of maize, cowpea, groundnuts and millet within a harvesting rate of 90% to support life during the dry season within the region.

Therefore, fine black textured compost is obtained at a decomposition rate of 96% over a period of one month, two weeks. Soil fertility in these communities can be improved if the obtained compost prepared is applied in the right proportion. This will give the desired increase in yield within a season to address the problem of food insecurity in the Upper East Region of Ghana especially Nangodi and Talensi district and its environs.

Acknowledgement

It’s unto him the Almighty God who made this modeled climate change study a success. Thanks again to all Staff of CILSS for their good will for humanity and their willingness to help the vulnerable. Thanks to Mr. Adams of MoFA, Nangodi for his time during this study. Grateful I am to CILSS for the selected farmers and people of Nangodi and Talensi district for the project. God bless you all.

Reference

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The Impact of Conflict Management Strategies on Conscientiousness of Oil and Gas Firms in South-South Nigeria

Dr. Enyia, Charles Daniel¹ & Prof. Akhigbe, Joseph Omoankhanlen²

^1,2 Department of Management, University of Port Harcourt

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of conflict management strategies on conscientiousness among staff members in the oil and gas industry in South-South Nigeria. The research involves a population of 320 employees holding supervisory positions and above from five prominent companies, including Nigerian Agip Oil (NAOC), Chevron Nigeria, Elf Petroleum Nigeria, Sahara Energy Fields, and Schlumberger Oilfield Services. A sample size of 175 respondents was randomly selected for data collection using structured questionnaires. The study employed a cross-sectional research design, and data were analyzed using correlation analysis. The findings reveal a significant positive correlation (r = 0.649, p < 0.01) between conflict management strategies and conscientiousness. The study emphasizes the importance of tailored conflict management approaches and highlights the positive relationship between effective conflict resolution and employee conscientious behavior. The results provide valuable insights for organizations seeking to enhance employee morale, productivity, and overall performance through proactive conflict management strategies. However, further research is recommended to explore causal relationships and potential mediators or moderators for a more comprehensive understanding of the observed correlation.

Keywords: Conflict management strategies, Conscientiousness, Oil and gas industry, South-South Nigeria, Employee behavior

Introduction

In the ever-evolving landscape of the oil and gas industry, navigating complex challenges and maintaining a harmonious work environment are paramount to the success and sustainability of companies in the South-South region of Nigeria. Among the myriad challenges faced by these firms, effective conflict management emerges as a crucial factor that directly influences the conscientiousness and overall performance of the organization (Robbins, Judge, Millett & Boyle, 2019). Conflict, while inevitable in any dynamic workplace, can either be a catalyst for growth or a destructive force if left unaddressed. Hence, the way conflicts are handled and managed can significantly impact employee morale, productivity, and the overall culture of the company.

The oil and gas industry, known for its high-pressure operations, demands a cohesive and dedicated workforce. However, the presence of unresolved or mishandled conflicts can create a ripple effect, causing negative emotions, resentment, and reduced job satisfaction among employees. Conversely, organizations that adopt thoughtful and proactive conflict management strategies foster an environment that promotes collaboration, mutual understanding, and shared goals. Employees who feel that their concerns are valued and addressed are more likely to exhibit higher levels of conscientiousness, resulting in increased commitment and productivity within the organization.

In this article, we delve into the impact of conflict management strategies on the conscientiousness of oil and gas firms in the South-South region of Nigeria. We will explore various conflict resolution techniques, the role of organizational culture, and how effective conflict management can influence decision-making processes, resource allocation, employee turnover, and overall performance (Akhigbe, Finelady & Felix, 2014). By understanding the significance of conflict management in this industry’s context, we shed light on how companies can proactively build a resilient and conscientious workforce, ultimately fostering long-term success amid the dynamic challenges faced in this competitive sector.

Conflict Management Strategies: An Essential Element

Conflict, in itself, is not always negative. In fact, it can lead to constructive outcomes when managed effectively. Conflict management involves employing strategies to identify, address, and resolve conflicts in a manner that promotes cooperation and mutual understanding (Thomas & Kilmann, 1974). Various conflict management techniques, such as collaboration, compromise, accommodation, avoidance, and competition, can be applied depending on the nature of the conflict and the parties involved.

Theoretical Framework

Contingency theory

Contingency theory, when applied to conflict management strategies, emphasizes the importance of tailoring approaches to address specific conflict situations (Donaldson, 2001). Conflicts within organizations are diverse and can arise due to various contingencies such as differences in values, work styles, or goals. Instead of adopting a one-size-fits-all conflict management strategy, contingency theory encourages managers to assess the unique context of each conflict and choose the most appropriate approach accordingly.

For example, in conflicts stemming from miscommunication or misunderstandings between team members, a collaborative conflict management strategy might be effective. By encouraging open dialogue and active listening, team members can work together to identify the root cause of the conflict and jointly develop solutions that satisfy all parties involved. In this situation, a participative leadership style might be necessary to facilitate open communication and foster a collaborative atmosphere.

On the other hand, in a high-pressure and time-sensitive project where quick decisions are essential, conflicts may need swift resolution. In such cases, an autocratic or authoritative conflict management strategy might be appropriate, with a manager making decisive decisions to resolve the conflict promptly. However, it is essential for managers to consider the impact of such a decision on team morale and long-term working relationships.

Additionally, when dealing with conflicts related to organizational structure or resource allocation, a more analytical and data-driven conflict management approach might be required. Using rational decision-making models and considering the specific contingencies surrounding the conflict can lead to a fair and equitable resolution.

Contingency theory provides valuable insights into the selection and implementation of conflict management strategies (Burns & Stalker, 1961). Managers must recognize that different conflicts require different approaches, and there is no universal solution to conflict resolution. By aligning conflict management strategies with the contingencies of each conflict, organizations can foster a more harmonious and productive work environment, leading to improved employee morale, collaboration, and overall organizational performance.

Conflict Management Strategies

Effective conflict management strategies play a crucial role in the dynamic and competitive landscape of the oil and gas industry in South-South Nigeria (Enyia & Nwuche, 2016). By encouraging open communication and providing conflict resolution training, organizations empower their employees to address conflicts proactively and constructively (Luthans, 2011). Open channels of communication allow individuals to express their concerns, ideas, and feedback, fostering a sense of trust and transparency. Conflict resolution training equips employees and managers with the necessary skills to navigate disputes effectively, promoting mutual understanding and cooperation.

In addition to open communication and conflict resolution training, utilizing neutral third-party mediators or facilitators can be instrumental in resolving complex conflicts (Akhigbe & Gail, 2017). These impartial mediators guide the parties involved through a structured process, helping them identify underlying issues and find mutually agreeable solutions (Judge & Bono, 2001). This approach promotes a sense of fairness and impartiality, encouraging all parties to work collaboratively towards resolution. Mediation can prevent conflicts from escalating and preserve positive working relationships.

Emphasizing collaboration and compromise within the organization leads to win-win outcomes in conflict resolution. Encouraging a collaborative approach fosters teamwork and unity among team members. When parties involved in a conflict work together to find solutions that satisfy their respective interests, it not only resolves the immediate issue but also strengthens relationships and encourages a sense of collective responsibility (Jehn, 1995). Compromising on certain aspects of the conflict allows all parties to make concessions, reaching a balanced resolution that takes everyone’s interests into account.

To ensure consistency and fairness in conflict resolution, organizations need clear policies and procedures in place. Establishing comprehensive conflict resolution policies provides a structured framework for addressing conflicts promptly and effectively. Employees should be aware of the steps involved in reporting and resolving conflicts, ensuring a consistent approach across the organization. By having well-defined roles and responsibilities, organizations can minimize misunderstandings and conflicts arising from overlapping or unclear job responsibilities. Clearly outlining job roles fosters a sense of accountability and prevents potential areas of friction (Podsakoff, et al, 2003).

Furthermore, organizations can encourage a culture of learning from conflicts. After a conflict is resolved, feedback and reflection on the process can provide valuable insights (Jehn & Mannix, 2001). Learning from past conflicts allows organizations to identify patterns and develop preventive strategies, reducing the likelihood of similar issues arising in the future (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986). Creating a culture that embraces learning and continuous improvement contributes to a more conscientious and adaptive workforce.

Lastly, embracing diversity and promoting respect in the workplace is vital for reducing conflicts related to cultural or personal differences (Akhigbe, Felix & Finelady, 2014). Acknowledging and valuing diversity within the organization fosters an environment where differing viewpoints are embraced and celebrated (Podsakoff, et al 2012). By promoting inclusivity and respect, organizations can mitigate conflicts stemming from bias or misunderstanding, ensuring a harmonious and productive work environment (Judge & Bono, 2001).

Implementing effective conflict management strategies is essential for the success and sustainability of oil and gas firms in South-South Nigeria. By promoting open communication, utilizing mediation, emphasizing collaboration and compromise, and establishing clear policies, organizations can foster a positive work environment that enhances employee conscientiousness and overall performance (Rahim, 2002). Encouraging learning from conflicts and embracing diversity further contributes to a cohesive and resilient workforce, equipped to navigate the challenges of the industry successfully.

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is a fundamental personality trait that reflects an individual’s tendency to be responsible, organized, and diligent in fulfilling their obligations and duties. It is one of the five major personality traits commonly known as the “Big Five” personality traits, which also include openness to experience, extraversion, agreeableness, and emotional stability (neuroticism). Conscientious individuals are characterized by their self-discipline, attention to detail, and commitment to achieving their goals (Organ & Ryan, 1995).

In the context of oil and gas firms in South-South Nigeria, conscientiousness is a highly desirable trait among employees and leaders alike (Enyia, 2015). Conscientious employees demonstrate a strong work ethic and are dependable in completing their tasks with accuracy and efficiency. They take their roles seriously and are proactive in ensuring that projects are executed effectively (Thomas, 1976). These individuals are often seen as reliable team members, as they can be trusted to meet deadlines and deliver quality work.

Leaders who exhibit conscientiousness are essential for fostering a positive and productive work environment. Their strong sense of responsibility and organization sets a positive example for their team members (Podsakoff, et al 1997). They are committed to the company’s goals and lead by example, encouraging their team to uphold the same level of dedication and accountability. Conscientious leaders are also more likely to implement effective conflict management strategies, as they prioritize open communication, fairness, and collaboration in resolving disputes.

In the oil and gas industry, where safety and precision are critical, conscientiousness is particularly valuable. Conscientious employees pay close attention to details, reducing the likelihood of errors that could lead to accidents or environmental hazards. They adhere to safety protocols and ensure that tasks are carried out according to established standards.

Moreover, conscientiousness is associated with long-term success and career advancement. Employees who consistently demonstrate conscientious behavior are often recognized and rewarded for their dedication and reliability. They are more likely to be entrusted with additional responsibilities and opportunities for growth within the organization (De Dreu, & Gelfand, 2008).

However, it is essential to strike a balance, as excessive conscientiousness can sometimes lead to perfectionism or overwork. Burnout can become a risk if individuals consistently place unrealistic demands on themselves. Organizations should be mindful of fostering a supportive work culture that encourages a healthy work-life balance and provides resources for managing stress and workload.

Conscientiousness is a valuable trait within oil and gas firms in South-South Nigeria. It is characterized by responsible and diligent behavior, which contributes to a positive work environment, improved conflict management, and overall success in this demanding industry. By recognizing and nurturing conscientiousness in employees and leaders, organizations can cultivate a motivated and committed workforce, driving excellence and resilience in the face of challenges.

Methodology:

Research Design:

This study will utilize a cross-sectional research design to collect data from the population of 320 staff within the cadre of supervisor and above from Agip Oil (NAOC), Chevron Nigeria, Elf Petroleum Nigeria, Sahara Energy Fields, and Schlumberger Oilfield Services. Cross-sectional research allows data to be collected from all participants at a single point in time, providing a snapshot of the current state of the variables of interest.

Population and Sampling:

The target population for this study is 320 staff members working as supervisors and above in the specified oil and gas companies. From this population, a sample size of 175 will be selected using a random sampling technique. Random sampling ensures that each staff member in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, increasing the representativeness of the sample.

Data Collection:

Data will be collected through structured questionnaires designed to capture information about conflict management strategies and their impact on conscientiousness. The questionnaire will consist of both closed-ended and Likert-scale questions. The questionnaire will be distributed electronically via email to ensure easy accessibility and timely responses. Additionally, reminders will be sent to encourage participation and improve response rates.

Variables and Measures:

The main variables of interest in this study are conflict management strategies and conscientiousness. Conflict management strategies will be measured using questions that assess the frequency and effectiveness of various conflict resolution approaches utilized by the staff. Conscientiousness will be measured using items that evaluate the level of responsibility, diligence, and commitment demonstrated by the staff in their work.

Data Analysis:

Data collected from the questionnaires will be analyzed using statistical software (e.g., SPSS). Descriptive statistics will be used to summarize the demographic characteristics of the sample and the distribution of responses on conflict management strategies and conscientiousness. Inferential statistics, such as Pearson moment correlation analysis will be conducted to explore the relationship between conflict management strategies and conscientiousness.

Data Analyses and Findings

Table 1: Showing Study Respondents

Name of Company	Staff strength	%	Sample Size	Approximate Number
Nigerian Agip Oil (NAOC)	94	29.375	51.40625	51
Chevron Nigeria	58	18.125	31.71875	32
Elf Petroleum Nigeria	47	14.6875	25.703125	26
Sahara Energy Fields	61	19.0625	33.359375	33
Schlumberger Oilfield Services	60	18.75	32.8125	33
Total	320	100	175	175

The percentages are calculated based on the proportion of staff strength of each company to the total population of 320. The sample size for each company is approximately determined based on the percentage allocation to the total sample size of 175. To maintain the integrity of the study, the sample sizes were rounded to the nearest whole number.

Table 2 Respondents Age


		Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent
Valid	18-25yrs	54	30.9	30.9	30.9
	26-35yrs	88	50.3	50.3	81.1
	36-45yrs	21	12.0	12.0	93.1
	46yrs and above	12	6.9	6.9	100.0
	Total	175	100.0	100.0

The table shows the distribution of respondents’ age groups. A total of 175 respondents participated in the study. The majority of respondents (50.3%) fall within the age group of 26-35 years, followed by 30.9% in the 18-25 years age group. Additionally, 12.0% of respondents are aged between 36-45 years, and 6.9% are 46 years and above. The cumulative percentage indicates the proportion of respondents accounted for by each age group, with a total of 100% representing all participants in the study.

H0: Confict management strategies does not relate with conscientiousness of oil and gas firms in south-south Nigeria

Correlations
		CMS	Cons
CMS	Pearson Correlation	1	.649^**
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.000
	N	174	174
Cons	Pearson Correlation	.649^**	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000
	N	174	174
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

CMS= Conflict management strategies

Cons= Conscientiousness

The correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between Conflict Management Strategies (CMS) and Conscientiousness (Cons) among the respondents. The results indicate a significant positive correlation between CMS and Cons, with a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.649** at the 0.01 level of significance (2-tailed).

The correlation coefficient of 0.649** suggests a strong positive association between CMS and Cons. This means that as conflict management strategies are effectively employed, there is a higher likelihood of observing conscientious behavior among the respondents. In other words, employees who demonstrate a greater use of conflict management strategies tend to exhibit higher levels of conscientiousness in their work, showing responsibility, diligence, and commitment to their duties.

The findings from this correlation analysis highlight the importance of implementing effective conflict management strategies within the organizations represented by the respondents. When conflicts are handled in a constructive and proactive manner, employees are more likely to feel valued and supported, which in turn fosters conscientiousness and dedication to their work responsibilities.

It is crucial to acknowledge that correlation does not imply causation. While the correlation between CMS and Cons is significant, other factors may also contribute to the observed relationship. Future research and additional statistical analyses could explore causal relationships and identify potential mediators or moderators that may influence the connection between conflict management strategies and conscientious behavior.

Summary of Findings

The study aimed to investigate the impact of conflict management strategies on conscientiousness among staff members working as supervisors and above in oil and gas companies, including Nigerian Agip Oil (NAOC), Chevron Nigeria, Elf Petroleum Nigeria, Sahara Energy Fields, and Schlumberger Oilfield Services. A total of 175 respondents participated in the study, representing a diverse age range, with the majority falling within the 26-35 years age group.

The findings revealed a significant positive correlation between Conflict Management Strategies (CMS) and Conscientiousness (Cons) among the respondents. The Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.649** indicated a strong positive association between the two variables. This implies that as conflict management strategies are effectively employed, there is a higher likelihood of observing conscientious behavior among employees. Employees who demonstrate a greater use of conflict management strategies tend to exhibit higher levels of responsibility, diligence, and commitment to their work duties.

The results suggest that organizations that prioritize conflict management and utilize effective strategies create a positive work environment, leading to improved employee conscientiousness and overall performance. Encouraging open communication, collaboration, and compromise in resolving conflicts can foster a sense of trust and support among employees, enhancing job satisfaction and dedication to organizational goals.

However, it is essential to note that correlation does not imply causation. While the correlation between CMS and Cons is significant, there may be other factors influencing conscientious behavior that were not explored in this study. Further research could investigate causal relationships and potential mediators or moderators to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of conflict management strategies on conscientiousness in the specific context of the oil and gas industry.

The study’s findings highlight the importance of implementing effective conflict management strategies within oil and gas companies to foster a conscientious and committed workforce. Organizations that proactively address conflicts and create a positive work culture are likely to experience increased employee morale, productivity, and overall organizational success.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study has explored the impact of conflict management strategies on conscientiousness among staff members in the oil and gas industry in South-South Nigeria. The findings revealed a significant positive correlation between conflict management strategies and conscientiousness, indicating that organizations that effectively handle conflicts are more likely to have a conscientious and dedicated workforce.

The study emphasizes the importance of adopting tailored conflict management approaches based on the unique contingencies faced by each organization. Open communication, collaboration, compromise, and effective conflict resolution training are key elements that contribute to a positive work environment and enhanced employee conscientiousness.

Recommendations:

Based on the study’s findings, the following recommendations are suggested for oil and gas firms in South-South Nigeria:

i. Implement Effective Conflict Management Training: Organizations should invest in conflict resolution training for employees and managers. Equipping them with communication and negotiation skills will empower them to handle conflicts constructively and proactively.

ii. Foster a Collaborative and Supportive Work Culture: Encourage a culture of collaboration, respect, and open communication within the organization. A supportive work environment enables employees to voice their concerns and work together to find mutually beneficial solutions.

iii. Utilize Neutral Mediators: In complex conflicts, consider using neutral third-party mediators or facilitators to guide the resolution process. Mediators can bring objectivity and impartiality, leading to fair and satisfactory outcomes.

iv. Tailor Leadership Styles: Managers should adapt their leadership styles based on the nature of conflicts and the needs of their teams. Being flexible and responsive to different situations fosters a positive work environment and encourages employee conscientiousness.

v. Enhance Decision-making Processes: Ensure that decision-making processes are transparent, inclusive, and based on data-driven insights. This fosters a sense of fairness and trust among employees.

vi. Regularly Assess and Review Conflict Management Strategies: Continuously evaluate the effectiveness of conflict management strategies and be open to improvements. Solicit feedback from employees and use it to refine conflict resolution approaches.

vii. Support Employee Well-being: Promote work-life balance and provide resources for managing stress and workload. Addressing employee well-being can prevent burnout and enhance conscientious behavior.

viii. Conduct Further Research: As correlation does not imply causation, further research can explore the causal relationship between conflict management strategies and conscientiousness. Investigating potential mediators or moderators can provide deeper insights into the underlying mechanisms.

By implementing these recommendations, oil and gas firms can foster a positive and productive work environment, leading to increased employee conscientiousness, improved job satisfaction, and overall organizational success in the competitive and challenging oil and gas industry.

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Budgeting and Budget Performance in Anambra State Civil Service (2016-2022)

Stella Okwuchukwu Alokwu

Nnamdi Azikiwe University,Awka

Department of Public Administrations

Faculty of Management Sciences

Nnamdi Azikiwe University,

os.alokwu@unizik.edu.ng

Ebelechukwu Rebecca Okonkwo, Ph.D

NnamdiAzikiweUniversity,Awka

Public Administration Department

Faculty of Management Sciences

er.okonkwo@unizik.edu.ng

Chibuike Chris Umeokafor

Nnamdi Azikiwe University,Awka

Department of Public Administration

Faculty of management Sciences

cc.umeokafor@unizik.edu.ng

Abstract:

This study examined budgeting and budget performance in Anambra State civil within the period of 2016 to 2022. Among the objectives are to ascertain whether there exists a relationship between budget scrutiny and budget performance in Anambra State civil service, and determine whether there is a significance relationship between unrealistic timely disbursement of funds and effective budget performance. Descriptive survey method was adopted for the study.The population size of the study included the 5837 staff of all the ministries in Anambra State. Taro Yemani statistical toll was used to obtain a sample size of 400. A 35- item questionnaire was used for data collection while the t-test statistics was used to test the hypotheses. The results indicate a notable correlation between the examination of financial allocations and budgetary outcomes within the administrative framework of Anambra State. Additionally, the investigation unveils a substantial link between the impractical and untimely allocation of resources and the achievement of optimal budgetary performance. Among the recommendations were that the Anambra State House of Assembly should properly scrutinize budgets before approval and appropriate modalities for the disbursement of funds by appropriate Ministries in Anambra State should be put in place by the body in charge since it has been identified to affect budget performance in Anambra State.

Introduction

Every government and organization must meticulously devise a financial roadmap each year, projecting both revenues and expenditures. This budget plan serves as a crucial blueprint, guiding the government’s actions, ensuring effective resource generation, and promoting efficient resource allocation (Faleti and Myrick, 2012). Its primary objective is to attain predetermined targets and goals within a specific timeframe, thus rendering the budget an indispensable tool for socioeconomic transformation. Faleti and Myrick (2012) affirm that the budget plays a vital role in national resource mobilization, allocation, and overall fiscal and economic management. It serves as an economic instrument that brings the government’s vision to fruition in a given fiscal year. To be an effective instrument for a country’s growth and development, all stages of the budgeting process must be skillfully interconnected and managed. Faleti and Myrick emphasize the need for well-designed budgets that are efficiently implemented, thoroughly monitored, and effectively evaluated. When administered wisely, budgeting propels management planning, establishes a benchmark for evaluating performance, and fosters seamless communication and coordination among various organizational segments.

Scholars have emphasized that governmental organizations of all sizes, categories, complexities, and sectors heavily rely on budgets and budgetary systems to achieve their strategic objectives (Faleti, Faleti, and Ojeleke, 2014; Raghunandan, 2012). As cited by Faleti, Faleti, and Ojeleke (2014), the success and importance of budgeting stem from its ability to identify organizational goals, allocate responsibilities for their accomplishment, and subsequently execute those plans. It stands as one of the most effective and valuable management accounting techniques, capable of yielding substantial rewards when correctly understood and adequately implemented (Felati et al., 2014; Shah, 2007; Robinson, 2007; Drake and Fabozzi, 2010). In the Nigerian context, the fundamental prerequisites governing the budgetary procedure of the governmental sector find their roots within the contemporary constitution of the Federal Republic, alongside Financial Regulations and Financial Memorandum (Abdullahi, 2011; Abdullahi, 2008). The budgetary process at the federal echelon impeccably complies with the dictates laid out in the constitutional framework of 1999.This entails a meticulous process through which the budget must pass before becoming an appropriation act of parliament, binding the executive in terms of implementing budget provisions and executing intended projects and programs (Abdullahi, 2011). At the state echelon, the orchestration of finances is also influenced, to a certain degree, by the 1999 constitution and the framework of Financial Regulations. Nevertheless, when we descend to the local government stratum, the choreography of budgetary proceedings takes on an entirely distinct choreography. Regional assemblies, vested with the authority, keep a watchful eye over the intricate tapestry of administrative and fiscal maneuvers undertaken by local councils, all while synchronizing with the financial memorandum. This highlights that budgetary processes at the local level are largely governed by both the executive and the state House of Assembly.

This article was prompted by the public’s outcry regarding the Nigerian government’s poor budget implementation and performance, consequently hindering the nation’s economic growth and development. Proper budget scrutiny, approval, implementation, and monitoring are essential for successful budgeting and achieving budget goals. However, the Nigerian State and Federal Governments have consistently fallen short in adequately formulating and executing budgets. As the country’s population grows, so does the demand on Nigerian civil servants to provide social and infrastructural facilities. As economists often assert, “human wants are unlimited, but the means to satisfy them are limited.” Hence, there is a critical need to utilize these scarce resources to the utmost benefit of civil servants. To achieve this, an appropriate accounting tool called the budget is indispensable, serving as a comprehensive framework for implementing government policies. Budgeting and budget performance in the Nigerian civil service have become almost ritualistic, occurring annually, with content that appears commendable but often yields unsatisfactory outcomes. The issue of budget performance in the Nigerian civil service has long concerned the public. Despite the budget’s quality in terms of preparation and content, it often remains neglected after approval, relegated to a historical book with little adherence during implementation. Evidently, there exists a significant gap between budget content and actual accomplishments. This discrepancy could arise from various factors, including budget delays or late passage, insufficient program and project monitoring, unrealistic time targets, non-compliance with established priorities for budget preparation, monitoring, and evaluation, a lack of preparatory budgetary process, and deviations from target. These variables, among others, require investigation in this study to identify impediments to effective budget performance in the Anambra state civil service. Past studies (Faleti and Myrick, 2012; Ojo, 2012); Adah and Mamman, 2013; Onaolapo and Olaoye, 2013; Usoro and Adigwe, 2014; Ibanichuka and Oyadonghan, 2014; Malgwi and Unegbu, 2012) on budgeting and budget performance in the Nigerian civil service have presented various perspectives. Nonetheless, a research endeavor of such kind remains unexplored within the bounds of Anambra State. Hence, this research aims to examine the impact of budgeting on budget performance in the Anambra State Civil Service, shedding new light on this crucial topic.

Research Objectives

The broad objective is to investigate and assess the impact of budgeting on budget performance in the Anambra State Civil Service from the years 2016 to 2022. The specific objectives are to:

i. Ascertain whether there exists a relationship between budget scrutiny and budget performance in Anambra State.

ii. Determine whether there is a significant relationship between unrealistic timely disbursement of funds and effective budget performance.

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses guided this study:

1. Ho: There is no significant relationship between budget scrutiny and budget performance in Anambra State.

2. Ho: There is no significant relationship between unrealistic timely disbursement of funds and effective budget performance.

Conceptual and Theoretical framework

The Concept of Budgeting and Budget Performance

The government holds a central role in shaping and advancing any nation, and it is imperative to establish a suitable framework to fulfill this noble responsibility. This accomplishment is realized via the framework of civic management, encompassing the structuring, establishment, and oversight of national, regional, and community establishments. This domain addresses procedural, juridical, regulatory, fiscal, personnel, and property dimensions. These institutions serve crucial functions like regulatory oversight, revenue generation, expediting processes, procurement, and providing essential services such as defense, social welfare, and economic infrastructure (Kenneth in Olaoya and Ogunmakin, 2012). Within the public sector, the budget plays a critical role as it represents a comprehensive financial statement detailing projected revenues and anticipated expenditures (Yakubu, 2011). Magand”Meigs (2004) defines the budget as a comprehensive financial plan that outlines the path toward achieving an organization’s financial and operational objectives. Turns (2006) considers the budget a framework that outlines revenue and expenditure over a specified period, typically a year. As stated by Adam (cited in Ugoh and Ukpere, 2013), the concept of ‘Budget’ pertains to the communal treasury, serving as a container for the income and outlays of the government. The specific objectives of government budgeting, as stated by Athukora and Reid in Ibanichuka and Oyadonghan (2014), include providing a foundation for realizing the socio-economic vision of the government within its jurisdiction. It also serves as a tool for pursuing macro-economic management objectives such as economic growth, stability, and equity. The budget sets specific targets, allowing citizens to assess the government’s performance against its own standards. Additionally, the budget aids in resource allocation to strategic areas of priority while addressing various competing needs. Budgeting, being a periodic process, enables government officials to promote managerial efficiency in running the government effectively.

In a democratic system of government, budgeting also plays a vital role in providing a mechanism for legislative oversight over executive spending of public funds. On the other hand, budget performance entails a management report comparing actual revenues and costs with the budgeted figures based on actual sales volume. Essentially, it reflects the variance between actual and budgeted organization performance at the end of an accounting period. This valuable tool allows management to identify areas meeting budget goals and those that require improvement (Bayode, 2012). Performance budgets utilize statements of missions, goals, and objectives to elucidate the reasons behind expenditure. It facilitates resource allocation to achieve specific objectives based on program goals and measured results. Unlike traditional approaches, performance budgeting focuses on spending outcomes rather than simply the amount of money available (Carter in Young, 2003).

Empirical Review

The following literature in the area of budgeting and budget performance were identified and presented in this section. Faleti and Myrick (2012) investigated the Nigerian Budgeting Process as a framework for Increasing Employment Performance. The research delved into the impacts of the structured budgeting procedure, budgetary involvement, magnitude of sectors, and organizational ownership on the employment efficacy within Nigerian governmental bodies, encompassing ministries, departments, agencies, and parastatals. Employing a regression analytical framework, the outcomes unveiled a fusion of monetary and non-monetary gauges, illuminating the efficacy of budgetary practices on employment dynamics. Furthermore, the study augmented the existing insight concerning the interplay between budgetary processes and employment effectiveness, while also presenting recommendations to enhance employment performance metrics in Nigeria. Consequently, this offers potential remedies to analogous obstacles encountered by other emerging economies.

Ojo’s (2012) study Unveils Restrictions Impacting Budgeting and Implementation of Development Plans in Nigeria. The examination divulged that after traversing more than five decades of strategic planning and fiscal allocation, Nigeria unquestionably stands at a crucial juncture concerning the advancement of its infrastructure. Essential elements that are fundamental for cultivating a bountiful and endurable life are conspicuously absent. While numerous rationales have been attributed to this glaring actuality, the focal point of this manuscript revolves around an exhaustive scrutiny of the factors that likely obstructed the efficacy of numerous development strategies alongside annual financial plans in attaining the coveted developmental objectives. The study deduces that unless the pinpointed deficiencies, as extensively deliberated within this document, are diligently addressed, the nation might find itself incapable of competing on a level playing field with its contemporaries in terms of developmental benchmarks. Adah and Mamman (2013) conducted an in-depth Analysis of the Efficacy of Incremental Budgeting System within the Landscape of Nigerian Public Tertiary Institutions. This research aimed to uncover the intricate relationship between budgetary performance within Nigerian tertiary institutions and the utilization of the Incremental Budgeting System. Furthermore, it sought to evaluate the adaptability of the Incremental Budgeting System’s framework in accommodating substantial transformations in institutional projects. The study primarily drew upon firsthand data sources for its investigation. The study’s pivotal revelations diverge from conventional assumptions. Firstly, it challenges the conventional belief that budgetary performance is intricately linked to the adoption of the incremental budgeting system. Contrary to prevailing expectations, the research demonstrates that this correlation is not as pronounced as commonly thought. Secondly, the study sheds light on a significant obstruction to budget implementation – the insufficiency and delay in the release of subventions from the federal government. These delays have been identified as the underlying cause of the breakdown in budgetary execution. Based on these thought-provoking findings, the paper advocates for a transformative approach. It advises the Nigerian government to prioritize the punctual release of sanctioned subventions to these institutions. This proactive measure is proposed as a means to bolster the practical realization of annual budgetary plans. In this manner, the research imparts valuable insights that could potentially reshape the fiscal landscape of Nigerian public tertiary institutions.

Onaolapo and Olaoye (2013) appraised the factors contributing to disparity in budget proposal and implementation. The central focus of their research aimed to dissect the behavioral nuances surrounding the uneven execution of budgets. They formulated and subjected two hypotheses to empirical scrutiny, employing the education and finance ministries within Nigeria’s Ekiti State as their testing grounds. Among the thirty-five individuals who were entrusted with budget formulation and execution responsibilities, a commendable thirty provided their insights through questionnaires. Employing the rigorous student’s t-test methodology, the initial conjecture (that budgetary implementations are not consistently achieved within these ministries) unfolded a revealing revelation. The calculated t-value (12.31) significantly surpassed the critical t-value (1.679), underscoring that both ministries consistently surpass expectations when it comes to budget adherence. The secondary proposition (insufficiency in ministries’ approaches to tackle budget deviations) holds ground, as evidenced by t-cal. (6.89) surpassing t-tab (1.699). This substantiates the adequacy of measures undertaken by the two ministries to mitigate budget disparities. Consequently, it is reasonable to deduce that the sources of discrepancies in budget execution extend beyond the factors previously considered. Employing methods encompassing descriptive statistics, correlation matrices, and multiple regression analyses can shed light on these matters. In the investigation conducted by Usoro and Adigwe (2014), the focal point was the evaluation of Budget practices within the context of the Nigerian Civil Service, emphasizing the lens of organizational culture. The study delved into the perceptions and encounters of Nigerian civil servants concerning budgeting and its associated practices. Notably, the study illuminated the foundational framework of the Nigerian civil service, where a hierarchical culture predominates, interwoven with subtle traces of the clan culture. Paramount among the factors identified to enhance the budgetary processes in Nigeria are enhanced communication channels, heightened participation, and the establishment of rigorous monitoring mechanisms. These newfound insights offer a valuable contribution towards steering an enhancement trajectory and nurturing the evolution of the service.

Ibanichuka and Oyadonghan (2014) undertook a thorough examination of the cash accounting approach and its impact on budget execution within the context of Nigeria. The authors embarked on a comprehensive exploration of the repercussions linked to the persisting challenge of inadequate budget execution in the Nigerian setting. Their investigation was grounded in empirical scrutiny, involving the distribution of one hundred and thirty (130) questionnaires to public servants within the civil service of Bayelsa, Delta, and Rivers States in Nigeria. Employing version 19 of the SPSS software, the researchers meticulously analyzed the collected data through the utilization of paired sample “t” tests. The findings revealed a favorable influence of the cash accounting method on both budget execution and the transparent portrayal of a government’s financial stance. As a recommendation, the researchers advocated for the universal adoption of the accrual accounting approach by all governmental ministries and extra-ministerial entities operating in Nigeria. In 2012, Malgwi and Unegbu undertook a unique study examining budget practices within Nigeria’s public sector through the lens of the balanced scorecard perspective. They delved into the historical origins of the term “budget” and proceeded to investigate budget performance across Nigerian states, namely Borno, Bauchi, Yobe, Taraba, and Adamawa. Their focus was on discerning variations in budget execution among these states. To assess these differences quantitatively, the researchers employed four distinct budget performance indices. They applied ANOVA and Pair Wise Correlation statistical tools to the collected data. The findings illuminated significant divergence in budget performance among states, with a statistically significant p-value of 0.001 and an F-statistic of 13.118, evaluated at a 5% level of significance. In light of these results, the study recommended integrating Balanced Scorecard Budget Perspectives into budgetary practices and emphasizing vigilant oversight in budget execution. These measures are crucial for strengthening the fight against public corruption in Nigeria.

Theoretical Framework

This research adopts the illuminating lens of systems theory. By embracing this perspective, the study unveils an overarching analytical framework, allowing us to perceive an organization as an intricately interconnected network of elements. Ludwig (1974) asserts that the systems theory portrays an organization not as a mere sum of its individual parts, but as a cohesive whole. Within this holistic paradigm, an organization possesses remarkable attributes: Synthesis, Synergy, Interdependence, and Interconnections. These qualities intricately weave together both within the organization and in its relationships with the external environment and other entities. This emphasis on synthesis, however, eventually gave way to an analytic approach. Much like Galileo’s mathematical conception revolutionized the world, supplanting Aristotle’s descriptive-metaphysical approach, modern scientific analysis took the lead. Tracing the footsteps of Descartes, the scientific method’s trajectory involved dissecting complex phenomena into elementary particles and processes, thereby achieving tremendous success in understanding simple causal chains. Nevertheless, when confronted with multi-variable systems, this framework encounters challenges. This is where the essence of systems theory shines through – advocating that organizations should be viewed as unified systems with interconnected parts, all serving a singular purpose. Any flaw or mishap in any of these parts will inevitably ripple across the entire system, affecting its overall performance. These interrelated parts, akin to decision units or departments, represent the subsystems of an organization. Thus, the collective attitudes and efficacy of these subsystems play a pivotal role in determining the overall effectiveness of the main systems (Nnabuiefe and Amobi, 2015).

Methodology

This study employs a descriptive survey approach, aiming to investigate budgeting and budget performance within the context of Nigeria. Specifically, the research focuses on Anambra state civil service. Survey research, as defined by Okeke, Olise, and Eze (2008), involves the collection and analysis of data through questioning a representative sample of the population at a specific point in time. This method facilitates a holistic grasp of the present scenario regarding one or multiple factors under scrutiny. To gather data, the study relied on primary sources, directly collecting raw data from the field of study. This data was then organized into appropriate forms for statistical analysis. Data was derived from a combination of primary and secondary sources. The primary source involved the use of well-structured questionnaires, while the secondary source entailed reviewing existing works by other authors concerning budgeting and budget performance. The research population consists of all ministries in Anambra State, with a total population size of 5837, as reported in Anambra State of Nigeria (2023). The distribution of the population of the study is detailed in the table below.

Table 1: Distribution of the Population of the Study

S/N	Ministries	TOTAL
1	Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development	647
2	Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism	364
3	Ministry of Health	781
4	Ministry of Education	524
5	Ministry of Finance	238
6	Ministry of Information and Culture	188
7	Ministry of Justice	438
8	Ministry of Lands, Survey and Urban Planning	532
9	Ministry of Environment	206
10	Ministry of Works	314
11	Ministry of Economic Planning and Budget	168
12	Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Dev.	216
13	Ministry of Youth and Sports	257
14	Ministry of Public Utilities	342
15	Ministry of LG and Chieftaincy Matters	92
16	Ministry of Science and Technology	142
17	Ministry of Transport	195
18	Ministry of Housing	193
	TOTAL	5837

Source: Anambra State Government, 2023

To ascertain the appropriate sample size for distributing the questionnaire, we employed Taro Yamani’s equation. The sample size is 400. The table below shows the number of questionnaire that was allocated to each ministry in Anambra State.

Table 2: Number of Questionnaire distributed to Ministries in Anambra State

S/N	Ministries	TOTAL
1	Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development	44
2	Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism	25
3	Ministry of Health	54
4	Ministry of Education	36
5	Ministry of Finance	16
6	Ministry of Information and Culture	13
7	Ministry of Justice	30
8	Ministry of Lands, Survey and Urban Planning	36
9	Ministry of Environment	14
10	Ministry of Works	22
11	Ministry of Economic Planning and Budget	12
12	Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Dev.	15
13	Ministry of Youth and Sports	17
14	Ministry of Public Utilities	23
15	Ministry of LG and Chieftaincy Matters	6
16	Ministry of Science and Technology	10
17	Ministry of Transport	14
18	Ministry of Housing	13
	TOTAL	400

This table shows that 400 questionnaire was distributed to civil servants in the various ministries under the Anambra State Government. The data depicted above illustrates the distribution of questionnaires among individual ministries. Having identified the numbers of questionnaire due to each Ministry, the random sampling technique was used to ensure that every staff in each Ministry had equal chance of being picked to fill the questionnaire. This was achieved by the use of table of random numbers. Four point summative scale response categories of SA= Strongly Agreed, A= Agreed, D=Disagreed and SD =Strongly Disagree was used. Any item exhibiting a mean value of 2.5 or higher will be classified as consensus-reaching, whereas items with a mean value falling below 2.5 will be categorized as dissenting. The investigation’s hypotheses were put to the test using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

Test of Hypotheses

Ho: There is no significant relationship between budget scrutiny and budget performance in Anambra State.

H1: There is a significant relationship between budget scrutiny and budget performance in Anambra State.

Table 3: T-test statistics on extent of budget scrutiny in Anambra State Assembly is not significant

Variables	T	Df	Sig. (2- tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Mean
Approval of departmental budget estimates	207.747	342	.000	3.863	.019
Publication in the gazette for public scrutiny	30.085	342	.000	1.656	.055
Budget scrutiny and authorization	151.471	342	.000	3.711	.025
Legislative oversights function during budget implementation	38.234	342	.000	2.525	.066
Auditing of government expenditure	69.859	342	.000	2.851	.041
Funds are disbursed to ministries after submission of adequate returns	138.657	342	.000	3.173	.023

Source: Field survey, 2023

To test the hypothesis the t-test statistics was employed. This is a summary of the t-test values on the extent of budget scrutiny in Anambra State Assembly. The test outcomes reveal that every t-calculated value exhibited significance at an extraordinary level of 0.000. This signifies a notable correlation between the meticulous examination of budgets and the subsequent budgetary achievements within the territory of Anambra State.

Hypothesis Two

Ho: There is no significant relationship between unrealistic timely disbursement of funds and effective budget performance

H1: There is a significant relationship between unrealistic timely disbursement of funds and effective budget performance.

Table 4: T-test statistics on modalities for the distribution of funds by appropriate ministry

Variables	T	Df	Sig. (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Mean
Funds for ministries budget-programme have been availed to ministries in the required amounts	195.111	342	.000	3.843	.020
Funds have been availed for ministries activities timely	132.306	342	.000	3.732	.028
There is no uncertainty in ministries plans resulting from timing of disbursement of funds of ministries budget-programme	84.243	342	.000	3.452	.041
The timing of disbursement of funds currently used on the ministries budget-programme is most suitable	64.511	342	.000	2.956	.046
The adequacy of funds disbursed for the ministries budget-programme is most suitable	60.834	342	.000	2.860	.047
Ministries budget funds disbursed to ministries matches budget expectation	135.473	342	.000	3.169	.023
Funds are disbursed to ministries after submission of adequate returns	59.068	342	.000	2.612	.044
Funds are transferred to ministries account at the beginning of the year	50.710	342	.000	2.688	.053
Through ministries budget work plan, human and financial resources are allocated to insure the accomplishment of the goals in a timely fashion	193.510	342	.000	3.840	.020
Sufficient resources are allocated to ministries budget to achieve the established goals and objectives	190.466	342	.000	3.834	.020

Source: Field survey, 2023

To test the hypothesis the t-test statistics was employed. This is a summary of the t-test values on Modalities for the disbursement of funds by appropriate ministry or office is not affecting budget performance. The test outcomes reveal that every t-calculated value demonstrated remarkable significance at an unprecedented 0.000 level. This signifies a substantial correlation between the impractical and untimely allocation of funds and the noteworthy enhancement of budgetary performance.

Discussion of Findings

The t-test for hypothesis one was conducted, and the result showed that all the t-calculated values were significant at a 0.000 significant level. This means that the p-values for all the t-tests were less than 0.001 (p < 0.001), which is a very low probability of the results occurring by chance. Based on this outcome, the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected. The statement "there is no significant relationship between budget scrutiny and budget performance in Anambra State" is not supported by the data. On the contrary, the available data points towards a noteworthy correlation between the examination of financial allocations and the subsequent fiscal outcomes within the realm of Anambra State. This finding is affirmed by Faleti and Myrick (2012) study which focused on the effects of the formal budgeting process and budgetary participation on employment performance in Nigerian ministries, departments, agencies, and parastatals. The use of financial and non-financial measurements to reflect the effectiveness of budgeting practices on employment performance suggests that budget scrutiny and involvement in the budgeting process can have a positive impact on performance. Also, Adah and Mamman (2013) found that budget performance is not solely dependent on the use of incremental budgeting system but that other factors, such as budget scrutiny and effective management, may contribute to better budget performance.

The summary of the t-test values for hypothesis two indicates that the calculated t-values were significant at a level of 0.000. A significance level of 0.000 suggests an extremely low probability of observing the results if the null hypothesis (no relationship) were true. The text concludes that since all the t-calculated values were significant at this very low significance level, it implies that there is indeed a significant relationship between unrealistic timely disbursement of funds and effective budget performance. In other words, the analysis suggests that the initial hypothesis, which stated that there is no significant relationship, is rejected based on the t-test results. Instead, the findings indicate that there is a significant relationship between unrealistic timely disbursement of funds and effective budget performance. This implies that how funds are disbursed in a timely manner can have an impact on the overall effectiveness of budget performance. This finding is in line with the literature presented in the text. Several studies, such as the ones conducted by Ojo (2012) and Usoro and Adigwe (2014), focused on budget performance and its impact on various aspects of public institutions and organizations. These studies suggest that budgeting practices and processes can indeed influence various performance metrics, including employment performance, development plan implementation, budget proposal, and overall organizational effectiveness.

Conclusion

This study has examined budgeting and budget performance of Anambra State Civil Service The study has specifically ascertained the extent of budget scrutiny in Anambra Sate Assembly; ; determined major modalities for disbursement of fund by appropriate ministries for effective budget performance and identified factors responsible for poor budget performance in Anambra state.

Recommendations

Drawing upon the revelations of the investigation, the scholars consequently puts forth a suggestion that:

1. To sustain budget performance, the Anambra State House of Assembly should properly scrutinize budgets before approval. Ensuring at least three to four months for legislative scrutiny of the annual draft budget and making it available to stakeholders for meaningful inputs; and establishing system whereby the legislature will debate on in-year (6 monthly or quarterly) budget report to foster better guide and insight to implementation of the budget for the rest of the year.

2. Appropriate modalities for the disbursement of funds by appropriate Ministries in Anambra State should be put in place by the body in charge since it has been identified to affect budget performance in Anambra State.

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by Sangeeta Shrivastava

Abstract:

· INTRODUCTION

· MATERIAL AND METHODS STUDY AREA

· SAMPLING

· PHYSICOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS

· HEAVY METAL ANALYSIS

· RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

· TEMPERATURE

pH

· ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

· SALINITY

· TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

· HARDNESS

· BOD & COD

· CONCLUSIONS

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