Month: December 2021

Administrative Reforms In India

Public Administration is a continuous process and, in the sense, it is always an undergoing reform. So, in public administration, ‘reform is a journey rather than a destination’. Reforms are an obvious response to the new challenges confronting state institutions managing public affairs. At the root of such an exercise lies the effort at enhancing administrative capability in the changed scenario. The problem of administrative reform has received continuing attention in India, both at the centre and in the states.

Since Independence, there have been a large number of changes in the structure, work methods, and procedures of the administrative organisations. Although these changes have been gradual, at times not too perceptible, they do indicate the efforts made by the government to affect procedural and policy innovation in the administrative system and to keep pace with the changed situations, growing needs, and exigencies of the government. With this background, the present chapter makes an attempt to understand the concept of administrative reform, to analyze the initiatives of reforms after Independence, and understand the changing patterns of administrative reforms in India in the post – liberalization era.

Theoretical Underpinning Of Administrative Reforms

Public administration as an academic discipline was born with a bias toward change and reform. The term ‘reform’ literally means forming again. The Oxford English Dictionary defines ‘reform’ as ‘to convert into another and better form, to amend or improve by some change of form, arrangement or composition; to free from previous faults or imperfection.’ Following this definition, ‘administrative reform’ is to convert public administration into a better, improved form.

As An Academic Discipline

The Public Management and Administration field, in essence, is broad, necessitating a
specific study of theoretical frameworks. A review of conceptual literature and
contemporary case studies material on structural transformation and policy reform was
conducted to enlighten the research question and the statement of research. The existing
knowledge was highlighted in terms of its relevancy to this research, thus enabling the
incorporation of valid citation on previous experiences with civil service reform.
Conceptual definitions by proponents usually do not provide generic approaches on
administrative reform process, hence, the need for a focussed review of literature.

The objective is to consult the theoretical material relevant to public service reform.
For any research, it is important to establish a relationship between theoretical and
research perspectives (Procter, 2002) and identify gaps in the literature (Johnson, J.
1991). Varying views of different schools of thought cited must be contrasted so that
what has happened over time helps to show how others handled similar problems in the
past (Gerstenfeld, 2004). Philosophical or metaphysical nature of the phenomena being
investigated, whether observable or unobservable, has to be proved early before the
scientific knowledge of the object that is theory informed and the paradigms position
used in the research is established, appropriately in the concept definition section.
Research in the Public Administration field must not overlook or underlook the societal
imperatives – dynamics, which are underpinning public service reform. Political, social
and economic imperatives of a given society determine the type of public administration adopted for a particular developmental state. Each societal imperative would obviously contribute differently to the internal environment. This pattern is not common in every country as developed and developing societies likewise experience their unique situation where peace and stability enhance the conditions for reform.

Evolution Of The Cold War

Cold War After The Truman-Stalin Era

In early 1953, there was a change in the leadership of both the superpowers- the US and USSR. In the US, President Truman’s tenure ended in January 1953. He was succeeded by Dwight Eisenhower. an ex-army general who had commanded the Allied forces in Europe during the Second World War. Meanwhile. Soviet leader Stalin died in March 1953. He was succeeded as party chief by Nikita Khrushchev and by Georgy Malenkov as prime minister. The two Soviet leaders were not very comfortable with each other. Malenkov was replaced by Nikolai Bulganin in 1955. He was more acceptable to the party chief.

But in 1958 even Bulganin was dropped and Khrushchev assumed the prime ministership as well. President Eisenhower led US for eight years till he was succeeded by John F Kennedy in January 1961. Khrushchev remained at the helm of affairs till he was overthrown in 1964 by the troika of Leonid Brezhnev, Nikolai Podgorny and Alexei Kosygin. After the Truman-Stalin era, the US-Soviet relations eased considerably, but the Cold war showed no signs of ending. During 1953-64 several steps were taken by both the sides to improve relations, but at the same time tension got accelerated on different occasions.

CRISIS IN POLAND

Poland was the first to ignite. In June 1956, riots in the industrial city of Poznam were brutally suppressed, leaving dozens of people dead and hundreds wounded. A conflict occurred in the Polish Communist Party between two factions – one owing allegiance to Boleslaw Bierut, who had died earlier the same year, and the other led by Gomulka, who was a Nationalist Titoist communist, and had remained in jail since 1949, and was recently released. Gomulka faction succeeded.

In October, Polish Communist Party issued a proclamation that Poland would henceforth pursue a ‘national road to socialism’, and Gomulka was elected Secretary of the Polish Communist Party. The Soviet leaders decided not to use force against Gomulka. This was second set-back to USSR after Yugoslav decision in 1948 to follow Nationalist Communism.

REVOLT IN HUNGARY

Since the end of Second World War, Hungary was governed by an orthodox Communist leader, Matyas Rakosi, a nominee of Stalin. (He had been freed from jail before the War on Stalin’s initiative after the Soviet Union returned old Hungarian flags captured by the Czar in 1849.) The Rakosi regime was severe ‘even by Stalinist standards.’ In 1953, he was summoned to Moscow, reprimanded and replaced by a reformist communist Imre Nagy.

A more intangible effect of 1956 arises with the spread of its talented diaspora. Many thousands of gifted Hungarians left their country and settled as far afield as Australia, the United States, and across Western Europe. The contributions they made to their adopted countries were incalculably beneficial. Nowhere have I heard the kind of objections to Hungarian refugees that one regularly encounters in relation to other refugee and asylum-seeking groups. To some degree this is because everyone knew what the Hungarians had fled from; they received instinctive sympathy. But it also reflects the performance of the Hungarians in their adopted countries. They assimilated well and quickly, and were soon more than repaying their hosts.

Even though assimilated, however, they were eloquent voices critical of communism and the Soviet empire. The eminence many soon achieved in their fields of scholarship and enterprise added weight to their criticisms. And in the United States especially, they formed the influential “captive nations” lobby with other émigré groups, to press for a realistic foreign policy and, in time, to provide Reagan with intellectual heft.

REFERENCES : International Relations By V.N. Khanna

Rise Of China And The International System

Introduction

China has undergone a massive transformation in the last four decades. It has emerged as a major world power within a short span of time and is set to challenge the hegemony of the United States in the coming years. China’s spectacular rise is predominantly due to its unprecedented economic growth which averages nearly 10 per cent for the last forty years. It has to be noted that this achievement has no precedence in recorded human history and even critics of China have acknowledged this grand success. Even the World Bank has noted that China has ‘experienced the fastest sustained expansion by a major economy in history – and has lifted more than 800 million people out of poverty.’

This transformation began in 1979 with the introduction of economic reforms and today China ranks first in the world in terms of economic size on Purchasing Power Poverty (PPP) basis. Many economists are predicting that China is set to emerge as the world’s largest economy in a couple of decades or even sooner. It is notable that when this happens, it will be for the first time in more than a hundred years a non- European country will hold the mantle of being the foremost economic power. This will be a seismic shift in international politics.

History Of China’s Economic Growth

Economist Angus Maddison’s work which studies Chinese economy through centuries notes that China had the world’s largest economy as late as 1820. It is often forgotten that China was one of world’s foremost economic powers before the negative impact of colonialism. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Qing dynasty which was ruling China has serious internal weakness which left the country vulnerable to Western and later Japanese imperialist ambitions. China lost the First Opium War with Britain in 1839 and subsequently signed the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 which was the first of many humiliating unequal treaties which the country would sign. It was a part of this treaty that Hong Kong was ceded o Britain and ports like Shanghai and Guangzhou were opened for British trade.

China also lost the Second Opium War in 1856 which was jointly fought by British and the French with the support of the United States. China was forced to sign the Treaty of Tientsin in 1858. This opened more ports for foreign trade and also granted more rights for foreigners to travel and trade within Chinese territory. By this time, China had already signed the Treaty of Wanghia with the United States in 1844 granting certain privileges to the country. During this phase of Chinese weakness, several European countries including France and Russia signed unequal treaties with China to gain trade privileges.

Implications Of The Rise Of China

With a rising economy, increasing military strength and growing ambitions, there is no doubt that China is set to dominate international politics in the century. This will however have major ramifications on the international system which needs to be discussed.

China’s rise has already caused concerns about whether the post Second World War liberal international political order will be threatened by the emergence of an authoritarian country as a systemic power. Since the end of the Second World War, the United States and its Western allies have set up international institutions like the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, World Bank and the WTO to construct a rule based international order.

Strategically, interdependence amidst economic globalization has eroded the foundation for a “new Cold War”, which would require four conditions.  First, policymaking in both countries would have to be ideologically driven so that, second, the world can be politically divided into two camps against each other. Third, their economies would be independent of each other upon which, fourth, both sides could form alliances to sanction against each other.

However, like most countries today, policymaking in both the US and China are essentially interest oriented, not ideologically determined. Hence it is virtually impossible that the world could retreat to Cold War dynamics, where nations are divided into two camps politically hostile and economically independent of each other. Moreover, although a US-led security system has survived the end of the Cold War, the US allies would be reluctant to join the fight should confrontation take place between the two superpowers. As for China, Xi Jinping made it clear in his speech at the Belt and Road Initiative summit in May 2017 that China would not pursue any alliance but strives to foster partnerships with other countries.

Thus, despite Trump’s high-profile measures against China, it is hard to imagine that either the US or China would go to war against each other. This is not necessarily because they would give up the competition and even rivalry, but because it will be extremely difficult for both Beijing and Washington to achieve a policy consensus at home and form alliance abroad, which are necessary for a confrontation between the two global powers.

However, the US “tough approach” against China will have a far-reaching negative impact on world order and stability, not only because Trump’s anti-China measures are an essential part of his “America first” unilateralism and his anti-establishment impulse in international affairs, but also because China has already become a deep-rooted stakeholder in all the three layers of today’s international order, i.e., the political order centered on the United Nations and its affiliated organizations, the economic and trade order based on WTO and other multilateral trade agreements, and the financial order maintained by the World Bank, IMF and other institutions like the ADB and AIIB.  Thus, it is not surprising that even America’s closest allies in Europe and Asia – despite their substantial differences with China in terms of value and political systems – are reluctant to join the US in its effort to roll back on China.  This does not mean they support China at all.  But like China, they are also deep-rooted stakeholders of the existing international order that based on multilateral arrangements. After all, the essential purpose of reckless unilateralist behavior by the Trump Administration (e.g., withdrawals from the Paris Agreement, the Iranian Nuclear Deal, the UN Human Right Council, levying heavy tariff taxes on almost all important trade partners, and demanding allies to pay more for the US security commitments) is to rewrite the rules of game in America’s term at the expense of the entire international order. It is in this regard that Trump’s “America first” has turned into “America isolated” because such an approach hurts all the stakeholders of the existing international order, including the US allies.

By contrast, China’s response to the US pressure sounds rational and positive.  Xi Jinping made it clear in his speeches at the Bo’ao Forum for Asia in April 2018 that China will resolutely continue its reform and openness policy.  Meanwhile, Beijing will firmly defend the free trade system based on multilateral arrangements on the one hand, and carry on its “peaceful development” strategy on the other hand.  While it remains to be seen whether, and to what extent, China can turn the rhetoric into credible actions, how, and by what means, China can manage the volatile relationship with the US under a highly self-centered and unpredictable Trump Administration will indeed have a far reaching impact on peace and development of the world.  The good news is that Trump’s ego-driven and unilateral behaviour can actually strengthen China’s hand, only if Beijing can handle it appropriately.  The bad news is that the US still is the strongest power on earth.

REFERENCE : Russia in Global Affairs, International Relations by V.N. KHANNA

Public Policy

Public policy is a frequently used term in our daily lives. We often read in newspapers about a public health policy, education policy, environmental policy, agricultural policy, industrial policy, and so on. Public policies are primarily framed by the government to satisfy public needs and demands. They are the means by which ends of a collective community are served. Without a policy, government and administration are rudderless. Successful policies make for successful government and administration, and hence there is a saying that when a policy fails, the government fails.

Theoretical Dimensions : The Context

Public policy is a relatively new subfield in political science. Its development as an area of study emerged out of the recognition that traditional analyses of government decisions were incomplete descriptions of political activities. As the relationships between society and its various public institutions became more complex and more interdependent, the need developed for more institutions became more complex and more interdependent, the need developed for more comprehensive assessments of what governments do – how and why they pursue some policy alternatives over others.

The focus on the public policy process has developed with the emergence of modern society and industrialization. During the nineteenth century, representative governments began to evolve in some parts of the world. With increased political participation by larger portions of the public, government decisions assumed greater importance and legitimacy.

What Is A Public Policy?

The term “public policy” refers to a set of actions the government takes to address issues within society. For example, public policy addresses problems over the long-term, such as issues with healthcare or gun control, and as such, it can take years to develop. Public policy addresses issues that affect a wider swath of society, rather than those pertaining to smaller groups. To explore this concept, consider the following public policy definition.

For example, public policy might tackle the problem of student loans by creating a student loan forgiveness program that affects several students at once, rather than paying off the loan of one student. Something important to remember about public policy is that it does not just refer to the government’s actions, but also to the behaviours and actions that result from those actions.

Significance Of Public Policy

It is evident that the public policy is the significant factor in the democratic government and it
emphasizes on the public and its problems, in fact it is a discipline which is branded as
public. The concept of public policy assumes that there is an area of life which is totally
individual but said in public. Likewise, public policies have a significant purposes to work in
the society where the democracy is prevails.

The important role of the public policy is to make the society to lead a better life and to maintain the delivery of the goods and services are significant, it is regarded as the mechanism for developing economic-social system, a
procedure for determining the future and so on.

REFERENCES : Public Administration by Bidyut Chakrabarty and Prakash Chand Kandpal

BITCOIN

Bitcoin is basically a computer file which is stored in a digital wallet app on a smartphone or computer. People can send Bitcoins or part of one to your digital wallet, and you can send Bitcoins to other people.You can buy Bitcoins using real money. You can sell things and let people pay you with Bitcoins.The money you put into Bitcoin is not safe from value fluctuations. Bitcoin is a volatile investment. If you’re looking for a “safe” investment with guaranteed returns, then don’t invest in Bitcoin

Bitcoin is the oldest cryptocurrency in the world. It is a digital currency that is often used to exchange value for goods and services. Bitcoins work on the principle of blockchain technology. Bitcoins can also be mined or produced using a massive computing system, complex technical process, and an active internet connection.People have traded in Bitcoin for over a decade now. Many companies have even started accepting Bitcoins as a payment method. The price of the coins has gone up substantially over the years.

In April 2018, the RBI had effectively banned cryptocurrency transactions via banks and e-wallets in the country. It was initially supported by the Supreme Court, though the top court later quashed the ban in March last year.Earlier this week, the government listed a bill titled The Cryptocurrency and Regulation of Official Digital Currency Bill, 2021 that is aimed to provide a framework for creation of an official digital currency to be issued by the RBI and prohibit all existing private cryptocurrencies. Experts, however, believe that it would take some time for the country to bring any changes.

Bitcoin held at exchanges are vulnerable to theft through phishing, scamming, and hacking. As of December 2017, around 980,000 bitcoins have been stolen from cryptocurrency exchanges.The use of bitcoin by criminals has attracted the attention of financial regulators, legislative bodies, law enforcement, and the media.Bitcoin gained early notoriety for its use on the Silk Road.

CAUVERY RIVER

The Kaveri is an Indian river flowing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Cauvery River rises in the Western Ghats and flows in eastwardly direction passing through the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Pondicherry before it drains into Bay of Bengal.The total length of the river from source to its outfall into Bay of Bengal is about 800 km.The Cauvery basin extends over states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union Territory of Puducherry draining an area of 81,155 Sq.km which is nearly 2.7% of the total geographical area of the country with a maximum length and width of about 560 km and 245 km.

Cauvery river is the largest river in tamil nadu occupying 765 km.The Kaveri is a sacred river to the people of South India and is worshipped as the Goddess Kaveriamma. The primary uses of the Kaveri is providing water for irrigation, water for household consumption and the generation of electricity.In February 2020, Tamil Nadu assembly passed bill to declare Cauvery Delta as Protected Agricultural Zone, includes Thanjavur, Thirvarur, Nagapattinam and five blocks in Cuddalore and Pudukottai. The bill fails to include Tiruchirappalli, Ariyalur and Karur which are geographically included in the Cauvery Delta.The cauvery river is the main source for the delta region for irrigation.It ends in the bay of Bengal.

On 22 June 2018, despite opposition from Karnataka, the Central government constituted the Cauvery Water Regulation Committee (CWRC) as per the provisions in the Kaveri Management Scheme laid down by the Supreme Court.

Acting on the Supreme Court’s direction, the Centre constituted a Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) on 1 June 2018 to address the dispute over sharing of river water among Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Puducherry.The central government failed to adhere with the top court’s deadline of within six weeks of deliverance of judgement.

THEMES OF THE NOVEL “A TALE OF THE TWO CITIES” BY CHARLES DICKENS

While analyzing the themes of Charles Dickens’s 1859 historical fiction, A Tale of Two Cities it is apparent that the author has incorporated variety of themes in the novel. Through the beginning lines “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times. . .” the chaotic society of eighteenth society is well depicted by Dickens. Even though the characters in the novel do not engage in many conversations, their actions strengthens the themes of this work.
Resurrection or rebirth is the major theme of the novel, which is presented from the beginning to the end of the novel. The first important resurrection is that of Sydney Carton’s. Sydney Carton’s resurrection and sacrifice gives new life to Lucie and her family. Carton is portrayed as a Christ like figure who dies to save the lives of the people he loves and reborn in their minds. The theme of resurrection comes again with respect to Dr Alexandre Manette, who is reborn into his previous life, from imprisonment and mental illness, with the love of his daughter Lucie. In Jerry Cruncher’s life also we can see the resurrection, who leaves the job of grave digging for his loved ones. These are the resurrection in
personal level. In the societal level, we can see the old status of France appears to give way to New France with the sacrifice of many revolutionaries. The revival of peace and a better society echoes throughout the novel. Sacrifice is the next dominant theme in A Tale of Two Cities . On a personal level sacrifice of Sydney Carton is most strongly visible. He gives importance to the happiness of Lucie and family and this encourages him to sacrifice his life. Carton does not have a family of his own and he lead an unproductive life throughout, so he haven’t offered much to the world. So he believes this act of sacrifice will redeem everything and make his life meaningful. Next factor which strengthens the theme of sacrifice is the revolution. Revolutionaries sacrifice their life to give a new society.
Violence and oppression is the next major theme. Even though Dickens’s seems to support the revolution, he emphasizes the sufferings caused by violence. Dickens sympathizes with the peasantry and emphasizes the need for liberation. But the strategy of peasants for overcoming this situation causes more violence and death of many innocent humans. The scenes of people sharpening their weapons in the grindstone, senseless killings of people and dance with weapons emphasizes the theme of violence and oppression.

Since the background of the novel is eighteenth century society Social Inequality and Class conflict are the next important theme. There are two classes in France, the peasants and the aristocrats. The aristocrats are portrayed as lazy, irresponsible, spoiled and heartless who does not have any regard for the peasants or lower section of the society. The social inequality is evident in the incident of the rape of the peasant woman by Marquis. And when the Marquis killed the son of Gaspard he is not subjected to any legal proceedings because he is from the aristocracy. The storming of Marquis’s castle is the symbol of the fall of aristocracy. Towards the end the situation reverse. The violent measures by the peasants arises as a result of long suffering. Even though Dickens supported revolution he portrayed both social class as equally violent and oppressive.
The theme of justice is intertwined with discrimination and injustice. Justice is presented literally by trails and imprisonments in the plot. The imprisonments of Darnay and Dr Manette are example of innocent people being subjected. As said earlier after the death of the son of Gaspard Marquis is not subjected to any legal proceedings. At this occasion justice is taken by individuals, like murder of Marquis by Madame Defarge as a revenge against Everemonde family.


Apart from these major themes Dickens focuses on themes of duality like light v/s darkness love v/s hatred with the comparison of two countries and the actions of the people there. While England remained as peaceful country, France goes through intense revolution. The contrast between these countries is progressed through the novel which intensifies the theme of light v/s darkness. Dr. Manette has been locked away in a dark prison for many years and lost his mind. Charles Darnay is struggling to right the wrongs done by Evremonde family. Sydney Carton is living his life unproductive and feels he has no purpose. So Lucie is the person who is considered as the light in their lives, who lead them to recovery and bring them out of darkness.

Revolution is the next major theme which is clearly apparent throughout the novel. The revolution and it’s impact on lives of many people is clearly portrayed. The sinners and innocent people, both are equally affected by revolution. The reversal of roles are the next theme. Towards the end of the novel the peasants who were poor in the beginning become more barbaric and cruel. And as a result of this the aristocrats suffer at the end. So this is an example of reversal of roles among peasants and aristocrats. On another level the replacement of Darnay by Carton in the prison is also an example for the reversal of roles. Apart from these, themes like family preservation, fate, love and hate are also included by Dickens. Through these themes author clearly reflects the society of eighteenth century.

Gadgets that will make your life easier!

This is an image of gadgets that will make your life easier!

 

With rapid industrialisation and innovation making its way through centuries. People living through them benefit widely due to employment opportunities and hi-tech gadgets being produced. We cannot imagine our lives today without our phones and it is rendered useless without a good internet connection. With the continuation of experiments and innovations, the boundaries of possibilities are being pushed and new gadgets arrive in the market that vow to make our lives easier. 

We will be looking at such gadgets in the list below. Make sure to check them out!

1.Wireless earphones or earbuds

Nothing is more frustrating than grappling with tangled earphone wire when you need to listen to some music. Many tech giants have come with affordable solutions to this problem in the form of wireless earphones and earbuds. Yes, there are affordable options to choose from. You can also choose from a range of manufacturers to buy your wireless earphones as its a product competed for production by many popular brands. 

Click here to find some affordable wireless earbuds.

2. Powerbank

With a portable powerbank in hand, you no longer need to worry about losing all the charge in your phone. Or your wireless pods if you own a pair. However, you will have to remember to charge the power bank to use it for its intended purpose. Apon charging it, your powerbank can sustain long enough to power your mobile phones over long journeys. 

3. Streaming sticks

Streaming sticks are the modern solution for streaming video content on your television or computer using a Wifi or 4G internet connection. It comes with a remote as well to toggle through streaming services on your electronic devices. It works as an amazing alternative over set-top-boxes and cable TV connections. 

Google Chromecast or Amazon FireTV can be viable options to look for while purchasing a streaming stick.

4. Go Pro

GoPros are tinier versions of a traditional camera that allows you to capture photos and videos while you are on the run. GoPro is basically a US based brand that has widely become synonymous with compact and portable cameras. These compact cameras from GoPro are expensive. But if you don’t mind spending extra for a YouTube video or to simply capture a worthwhile experience, you can give this a go!

5. Selfie stick

Works every time when you lack a tall friend in your group. This selfie stick can be a portable extension for your arm while taking selfies. Or groupfies!

6. Fitness tracker

The rest of the world might not be interested in knowing the steps you covered. But you would want to keep tabs on it. Fitbit wrist bands can do the job by notifying you about the number of steps you have covered. There are more complex alternatives such as smartwatch that come with GPS connectivity and waterproofing as well. 

7. E- Reader

E-Readers don’t have the traditional glare you receive from your smartphones and computers. Thus, taking it easy on your eyes while you read your favorite book on one of them. You also have thousands of reading options to choose from on a single device. 

8. A lost-stuff finder

Here comes a hi-tech gadget that will help you find your important stuff. It’s a small chip-like structure that you can place inside your wallet or clip it to your keys. When you lose track of your items, you can trigger a sound on the chip from your smartphone to find your lost items. 

9. VR viewer

Get the experience of a virtual reality from Samsung gear VR or Google daydream view that can be operated from your smartphones. Because why not. There are tons of 360 degree videos and VR contents out there for you to witness. 

10. Wireless Charging pad

If your smartphone supports wireless charging, getting a wireless charging pad will be worth it. It will definitely make your life easier by not having to look for adaptors or cables anymore. It also looks cool!

So these are some of the tech-gadgets mentioned that can make your life

easier. 


References


Alex Fitzpatrick, the 20 tech accessories everyone should have, time.com


World System And Dependency

Structural approaches of international relations, also known as ‘neo-radical approaches’, are of recent origin. Theories in support of these approaches were advocated by leftist writers who were deeply influenced by Marxism-Leninisim. The structural approaches, including the ‘World System Approach’ and the ‘Dependency Theory’, consider the world structure from the class point of view, based largely on the level of development and accumulation of capital. Western capitalist countries, having huge accumulation of capital, are termed as the centre or core of the world system, while third world countries, lacking development and capital, are called the periphery. We shall examine the concept of development and underdevelopment with reference to the centre versus periphery.

A reference may be made here to neo-realists, who also examine the international structure, but from the political angle. They describe the international structure as chaotic or anarchic because there is no all powerful central authority to discipline the nation states, and to resolve their disputes and maintain world peace. The leftists, on the other hand, largely concentrate on economic relations between the rich industrialized nations of the capitalist world on the one hand and the poor developing third world countries on the other. This chapter will discuss the centre-periphery aspect of development as advocated by the neo-radicals.

Economic Accumulation : The North-South Divide

There is enormous gap today between income levels in the world’s industrialized regions and those in the third world. The rich industrialized countries generally lie in the northern parts of the world, while the poor developing countries are in the south. This difference in the income levels has caused differences in the overall prosperity between the rich North and the poor South. How can this gap be explained? This may be done with the help of the liberal view and also with reference to the revolutionary or radical world view.

The liberal view explains the problem by stressing that the capitalist countries have overall efficiency in maximizing economic growth. This view holds that the poor countries are merely lagging behind the industrial north. The liberals would make us believe that more wealth creation in the North is a good thing, as is wealth creation in the South. According to this view, there is no conflict between the two, as eventually the South will also acquire more wealth.

The leftist, or socialist, view is that the divide may be viewed not only in terms of creation of wealth but also with regard to its distribution. According to this view, the creation of wealth in the North often comes at the expense of the South.

The World System Approach – Centre And Periphery

The system of regional class divisions has been viewed by scholars of international relations with Marxist orientation as the ‘ world system’ or ‘capitalist world economy.’ The world system approach is a leftist theory and it relies on global system of analysis. Marx himself had limited his theory to domestic class conflict only, but Marxist scholars apply the same logic in their world system approach. In this system, class divisions are regionalized. The third world countries (exceptions apart) generally produce raw materials, including agricultural products.

These activities need large manpower but not much of capital. The peasants working in agriculture, mining and other sectors are paid low wages. The industrialized countries, on the other hand, mostly produce manufactured goods. This requires large amount of capital, and needs more skilled workers who are paid high wages. The industrialized manufacturing regions are called ‘centre’ of the world system; and the extraction regions (producing raw materials and agricultural items) are known as ‘periphery’.

Reference : International relations by V.N Khanna

Feminism in Margaret Atwood’s poem “This is a Photograph of Me”

Margaret Atwood is a well known feminist author who writes about the oppression of women in a patriarchal society. Her poem This is a Photograph of Me also shares this idea symbolically through the image of a photograph. The title of the poem itself shows the passive role of women in society. In a society which is regulated by men the role of women is passive. But without them the society will not survive. Atwood begins the poem by describing the photograph. It is a blurred photograph which was taken some time ago. And throughout the lines she continues the description of the photograph’s each element. There is the branch or part of a tree in the left hand side of the photograph, which has emerged to the right hand side. This branch without any roots can be considered as the role of women in a society who is placed on the left side or weaker side. But on the right hand side of the photograph a frame house is visible which is associated with men. The background of the photograph is a lake which represents the society. And beyond that lake there is low hills. The hills and lakes keep the women in shadow. Margaret Atwood is trying to show that the society and men exploits the true potential of women. The narrator says that I’m in the lake, in the center of the picture. But it is difficult to say precisely where she is. This shows the nature of a patriarchal society. The place of womanhood in a society is mandatory. However the world tries, the women’s place cannot be underwritten. Atwood focuses on this truth by saying that her place in the photograph is not clear. But when we look long enough everyone will be able to see her place in the photograph or the society itself. Through the image of a photograph Atwood strongly presents the oppression faced by women. Photograph stands for history which is not clear. The contribution of women to the society is necessary but the history created by men does not praise of give importance to them. Women are always hidden or drowned as Atwood says. This truth is underlined by Atwood in this feministic poem, This is a Photograph of Me.

RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHICAL ELEMENTS IN THE NOVEL ‘THE SLAVE’ BY ISAAC BASHEVIS SINGER

Written in the socio-political background of Polish- Cossack war and the Khemelnsky massacre, the novel The Slave unfolds many layers of religion, philosophy, vulnerabilities and guilt of man. The novel also portrays the critical or unbiased representation of the jew community. Isaac Bashevis Singer is a Jewish immigrant writer, and he is known for his unbiased representation of the Judaism. In this novel also Singer portrays this criticism of religion and Judaism and he questions the aim or meaning of the religion if it only serves for the separation of humans. The novel carries various religious allusions, symbols and philosophical truths.

The protagonist Jacob is a religious Jew, with extreme beliefs. He is described as ” he resembles the men in the holy pictures that hung in the chapel in the valley”. He upholds his Jewish identity. At the same time he is in a religious conflict and dilemma. Being an ardent believer , sexual relations and marriage with an “outsider” or non Jew is not allowed in Judaism. But his intense love for Wanda is in conflict with this. Here, a juxtaposition between free will and determinism is evident. The question that does God control his destiny or does Jacob controls his destiny is always in juxtaposition in his mind. In the relationship between Jacob and Wanda the novel questions the religion and the customs by giving the notion that, why do we follow certain rituals if it intends the seperatedness of individuals rather than their union. Apart from this internal dilemma, one external dilemma is there, that is the thought of discrimination or exclusion in the village. And this made him to tell that Wanda is deaf and mute to hide her ethnic Identity.

Another question of choice, righteousness comes in the instance where Teresa tries to seduce Jacob. But Jacob refuses and Teresa feels guilt and she laments.

There are several biblical allusions present in the novel. When Jacob changes Wanda’s name to Sarah, he is alluded to Abraham who changes his wife’s name to Sarah. The name of their son Benjamin also carry biblical allusion. And he takes him to Jerusalem for pilgrimage. Towards the end novelist presents the ultimate philosophy of life by the growing cemetery, which included the remains of Sarah, which was not accepted by the community because of Sarah not being a Jew. So here Singer portrays the ultimate philosophy and truth of life, the death. Death is the leveller, which is equal for everyone irrespective of race and religion. And everyone gets equality through death.

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