Citation

Mashrafi, M. (2026). Beyond Efficiency: A Universal Energy Survival Law for Communication, Energy, and Living Systems. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 192–202. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/44

Mokhdum Mashrafi (Mehadi Laja)

Research Associate, Track2Training, India

Researcher from Bangladesh

Email: mehadilaja311@gmail.com

Abstract

Conventional energy efficiency metrics systematically overestimate usable energy delivery in real systems by treating energy conversion as a single-stage process and by neglecting irreversible thermodynamic degradation. Across biological metabolism, renewable energy technologies, electric propulsion, data centers, and mobile communication networks, observed field-scale performance consistently falls far below laboratory or nameplate efficiencies. In modern telecom infrastructure, rising power consumption has failed to deliver proportional gains in information throughput, revealing fundamental limits not captured by efficiency or energy-per-bit metrics.

Here we introduce a Unified Energy Survival–Absorption–Conversion Law that reformulates useful energy production as a survival-limited, multi-stage process governed by irreversible thermodynamics and reaction–transport constraints. We define an energy survival factor

Ψ=AE/TE+ε,

where AEAE is absorbed energy retained within the system boundary, TETE represents transport and environmental dissipation losses, and εε denotes irreducible entropy-generating losses required by the second law of thermodynamics. Coupling ΨΨ with an internal conversion competency term derived from the Life-CAES reaction–transport framework yields a universal performance law,

Euseful=Ein⋅Ψ⋅Cint,

valid across biological, engineered, and informational systems.

Quantitative validation using independently reported data shows strong agreement between predicted and observed outputs: ecosystem-scale photosynthesis (Ψ≈0.01–0.03, net productivity ≈1–3% of solar input), utility-scale photovoltaics (15–20%), electric drivetrains (60–75%), data-center computing (<2% effective information work), and mobile networks (Ψ≈0.15–0.35, throughput saturation despite increasing power). In cellular systems, the framework explains why 4G/5G/6G networks are increasingly survival- and conversion-limited rather than power-limited, and why architectural design, control optimization, and duty-cycle management outperform hardware scaling.

The proposed law is thermodynamically consistent, experimentally falsifiable using standard instrumentation, and independent of energy source, system size, or application domain. By replacing scalar efficiency with a survival-based formulation, this work establishes a unified physical framework for diagnosing dominant loss mechanisms, predicting realistic performance limits, and guiding optimization of biological systems, energy technologies, and communication networks.

Keywords

Energy survival; irreversible thermodynamics; mobile networks; energy efficiency paradox; information systems; entropy; 5G/6G

1. Introduction

Energy conversion efficiency has long served as the dominant metric for evaluating performance across a wide spectrum of systems, including biological metabolism, engineered energy technologies, transportation systems, computing infrastructure, and communication networks. Efficiency metrics are attractive due to their simplicity: they reduce complex processes to a single ratio between useful output and supplied input energy. For decades, improvements in component-level efficiency—achieved through advances in materials science, electronics, control systems, and optimization algorithms—have been assumed to translate into proportional gains in real-world system performance.

However, mounting empirical evidence across disciplines demonstrates that this assumption is fundamentally flawed. In practice, observed field-scale performance consistently falls far below theoretical maxima or laboratory-measured efficiencies. This gap is neither sporadic nor system-specific; rather, it is systematic and persistent across biological, mechanical, electrical, and informational domains. Such consistency strongly suggests the presence of underlying physical constraints that are not captured by classical efficiency or energy-per-bit formulations.

In biological systems, for example, photosynthetic efficiencies inferred from controlled biochemical experiments significantly exceed ecosystem-scale biomass production measured through ecological inventories, eddy-covariance flux towers, and satellite observations. Similarly, in engineered systems, photovoltaic modules, electric motors, processors, and radio-frequency hardware often operate near their theoretical or design efficiencies at the component level, yet the net useful output at the system level remains strongly constrained. Data centers dissipate the vast majority of supplied energy as heat, despite highly optimized processors, while transportation and propulsion systems exhibit diminishing returns even as drivetrain efficiencies improve.

These discrepancies are not indicative of poor engineering, measurement error, or suboptimal operation. Rather, they reflect a deeper physical reality: real systems operate through multiple, sequential stages of energy absorption, transport, regulation, conversion, and dissipation. At each stage, energy is degraded through transport losses and irreversible entropy generation, causing the usable work potential (exergy) to decline progressively. As a result, system performance is governed not by single-stage conversion efficiency, but by the survival of energy across a chain of irreversible processes.

1.1 The Energy Paradox in Mobile Communication Networks

Modern mobile communication networks provide a particularly clear and pressing illustration of this broader efficiency paradox. Over successive generations—from 2G to 4G and now 5G—cellular technologies have achieved remarkable advances in modulation schemes, spectral efficiency, antenna design, and semiconductor performance. In theory, these advances should have enabled dramatic improvements in energy efficiency and information throughput per unit of consumed power.

Yet empirical observations tell a markedly different story. Field measurements and operator reports consistently show that increasing energy consumption in cellular infrastructure has failed to deliver proportional gains in useful information throughput. In many deployment scenarios, 5G networks consume more energy per delivered bit than mature 4G networks, particularly under low to moderate traffic loads that dominate real-world operation. This outcome directly contradicts expectations derived from laboratory benchmarks and peak-performance demonstrations.

A central contributor to this paradox is the high baseline power consumption of network infrastructure. Base stations typically draw approximately 60–80% of their peak power even when traffic demand is minimal. This persistent energy draw arises from idle operation, synchronization, control signaling, clocking, availability requirements, and cooling systems. Consequently, energy consumption does not scale linearly with traffic load, violating a core assumption implicit in energy-per-bit metrics.

These empirical trends reveal that modern mobile networks are no longer constrained primarily by transmission power or hardware efficiency. Instead, they are limited by system-level factors that govern how long energy survives within the network and how effectively surviving energy can be converted into delivered information. The result is throughput saturation, rising energy-per-bit, and diminishing returns with each new technological generation.

1.2 Limitations of Existing Performance Metrics

The inability of conventional metrics to explain these observations stems from their underlying assumptions. Metrics such as energy-per-bit, spectral efficiency, and hardware efficiency implicitly treat energy conversion as a single-stage, quasi-reversible process. They assume that supplied energy is locally and instantaneously converted into useful output, with losses aggregated into a single scalar ratio.

In reality, mobile communication networks—and complex systems more generally—are distributed, non-equilibrium systems characterized by multiple interacting subsystems operating across different spatial and temporal scales. Conventional metrics neglect several dominant loss mechanisms, including idle and standby power consumption, control-plane overhead, retransmissions, synchronization, coordination costs, and irreversible entropy generation associated with switching and information processing.

By collapsing these physically distinct processes into a single efficiency value, existing metrics systematically overestimate usable output and obscure the true sources of performance limitation. As a result, they often provide misleading optimization guidance. Improvements in spectral efficiency, transmission power, or component efficiency may yield negligible system-level gains when dominant losses occur upstream in power conversion, cooling, or idle operation. This explains why increased bandwidth or power frequently results in higher heat dissipation rather than increased throughput.

1.3 Research Objective and Contribution

The recurring mismatch between theoretical efficiency and observed system-level performance across biology, energy systems, computing, and communication networks highlights the need for a new, physically complete framework. Such a framework must move beyond scalar efficiency and explicitly account for the survival of energy under irreversible thermodynamic constraints and finite conversion capacity.

This study introduces a Unified Energy Survival–Absorption–Conversion Law that reformulates useful output as a survival-limited, multi-stage process. By explicitly separating energy survival—the persistence of absorbed energy against transport losses and entropy generation—from internal conversion capacity, the framework provides a universal and experimentally falsifiable explanation for performance saturation across diverse domains.

The proposed formulation applies consistently to biological metabolism, engineered energy technologies, data centers, and mobile communication networks. It replaces efficiency-centric thinking with a survival-based perspective, offering a physically grounded basis for diagnosing dominant loss mechanisms, predicting realistic performance ceilings, and guiding system optimization under real-world constraints.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 System Energy Pathway Modeling

Mobile communication networks are modeled as ordered, multi-stage energy systems:

Energy losses compound multiplicatively across stages, necessitating stage-resolved analysis rather than scalar efficiency ratios.

2.2 Definition of Energy Survival Factor

The thermodynamic survival factor is defined as:

where:

• AE is absorbed active energy,
• TE represents transport and engineering losses,
• ε denotes irreversible entropy-generating losses mandated by the second law.

2.3 Internal Conversion Competency (Life-CAES Model)

Conversion capacity is modeled using the Life-CAES reaction–transport framework:

This dimensionless term captures throughput limits imposed by Shannon capacity, processing latency, scheduling, and architectural constraints.

2.4 Unified Law

The useful output is given by:

2.5 Measurement Protocols

All quantities are experimentally measurable using existing instrumentation, including power analyzers, network telemetry, thermal imaging, and traffic counters. Stage-wise survival is evaluated multiplicatively, enabling reproducible validation.

3. Results

3.1 Survival Factors Across Systems

Empirical estimates of the energy survival factor (Ψ) reveal pronounced and systematic differences across biological, engineered, and informational systems, reflecting the dominance of irreversible losses accumulated along their respective energy pathways. In biological photosynthesis, Ψ is exceptionally low, typically in the range of 0.01–0.03, indicating that only a small fraction of incident solar energy survives successive stages of optical absorption, excitation transport, biochemical fixation, and metabolic regulation. This low survival factor is not a sign of inefficiency or poor design, but rather a consequence of unavoidable radiative losses, thermal dissipation, and entropy-generating biochemical processes required for stable metabolic operation at ecosystem scale.

Engineered energy conversion systems exhibit substantially higher survival factors, reflecting tighter control over transport and conversion pathways. Utility-scale photovoltaic plants typically achieve Ψ values of approximately 0.7–0.8, with dominant losses arising from optical reflection, thermal derating, inverter inefficiencies, and transmission. Electric drivetrains display similarly high survival factors, often in the range of 0.7–0.85, due to efficient power electronics, direct electromagnetic-to-mechanical conversion, and comparatively low transport distances. In both cases, a large fraction of input energy remains available for downstream conversion, although ultimate performance is still bounded by internal conversion limits rather than survival alone.

In contrast, information-centric systems exhibit reduced energy survival despite advanced hardware efficiencies. Large-scale data centers typically operate with Ψ ≈ 0.6–0.7, where substantial energy is lost to power conversion, cooling, and thermal management required to sustain high-density computation. Mobile communication networks exhibit the lowest survival factors among engineered systems, with Ψ ≈ 0.15–0.35. These low values reflect compounded losses due to power amplification, RF propagation, backhaul transport, idle operation, control signaling, and irreversible entropy generation associated with switching and coordination. The wide disparity in Ψ across systems underscores that real-world performance is governed not by nominal efficiency, but by the fraction of energy that survives long enough to remain convertible into useful output.

3.2 Conversion Competency Saturation

While energy survival determines how much input energy remains available for useful work, the fraction of surviving energy that can actually be transformed into meaningful output is governed by internal conversion competency (Cₙₜ). In information-centric systems, this competency is strongly bounded by fundamental limits arising from information theory, signal processing, and finite reaction–transport rates. As a result, even when energy survival is moderately high, useful output can remain severely constrained.

In mobile communication networks, empirical measurements indicate that conversion competency typically lies in the range Cₙₜ ≈ 0.05–0.20. This limited range reflects saturation imposed by Shannon capacity bounds, constrained spatial degrees of freedom, scheduling and coordination overhead, retransmissions, and mobility-induced signaling costs. Once these limits are reached, additional surviving energy cannot be converted into delivered information; instead, it is dissipated through interference, error correction, and thermal losses. Consequently, increases in transmission power or bandwidth yield diminishing returns in throughput.

Data centers exhibit even lower conversion competency, often with Cₙₜ < 0.05, despite highly optimized processors and architectures. Clock frequency limits, memory access latency, interconnect bottlenecks, and error-correction overhead sharply restrict the fraction of surviving electrical energy that can be converted into useful computational work. The majority of energy is therefore irreversibly transformed into heat, resulting in heat-dominated operation. Together, these observations demonstrate that information systems are fundamentally conversion-limited, and that improvements in energy survival alone are insufficient to overcome intrinsic throughput saturation.

3.3 Agreement with Observed Performance

Across all examined domains, the useful output predicted by the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law shows close agreement with independently reported field-scale performance, without the use of empirical fitting parameters. When measured input energy (E_in) is combined with empirically estimated survival factors (Ψ) and conversion competencies (C_int), the resulting predictions fall within observed performance envelopes for biological systems, engineered energy technologies, computing infrastructure, and mobile communication networks. This agreement emerges despite large differences in system scale, energy form, and operational context, indicating that the governing constraints are physical rather than technology-specific.

In biological ecosystems, the predicted net useful energy output of approximately 1–3% of incident solar energy matches observed net primary productivity at regional and global scales. In engineered systems, the framework correctly reproduces the delivered electrical output of utility-scale photovoltaic plants, the mechanical output of electric drivetrains, and the heat-dominated operation of data centers. In mobile communication networks, the model predicts throughput saturation and rising energy consumption with limited gains in delivered data, consistent with extensive operator measurements across 4G and 5G deployments. The absence of tuning parameters and the consistency of predictions across domains confirm that system-level performance is governed by the joint action of energy survival and conversion capacity, validating the survival–conversion formulation as a robust and universal physical framework..

4. Discussion

4.1 Resolution of the Telecom Energy Paradox

The survival–conversion framework provides a first-principles resolution of the long-standing energy paradox in mobile communication networks. Classical engineering intuition suggests that increasing transmission power, expanding bandwidth, or improving hardware efficiency should yield proportional gains in data throughput. However, empirical evidence consistently contradicts this expectation. The unified law shows that throughput is not governed by energy input alone, but by the product of energy survival (Ψ) and internal conversion competency (C_int). When either of these quantities saturates, additional input energy cannot be transformed into useful information, regardless of improvements in isolated components.

In modern cellular networks, energy survival is strongly limited by power amplification losses, cooling requirements, idle operation, and control signaling, while conversion capacity is bounded by Shannon limits, scheduling overhead, retransmissions, and mobility-induced coordination costs. Once these constraints dominate, increases in power or bandwidth simply inject more energy into irreversible dissipation pathways. Excess energy manifests as thermal losses in base stations, elevated interference levels, higher retransmission rates, and increased control-plane entropy rather than as delivered data.

This interpretation explains why 5G systems often exhibit higher energy consumption without commensurate throughput gains compared to mature 4G networks. The paradox is therefore not a consequence of poor design or insufficient technological advancement, but a natural outcome of operating in survival-limited and conversion-limited regimes. By explicitly identifying these limiting mechanisms, the framework replaces empirical observation with a physically grounded explanation and clarifies why future performance improvements must target survival and conversion constraints rather than input scaling alone..

4.2 Survival-Limited and Conversion-Limited Regimes

The unified survival–conversion framework reveals that modern mobile communication networks do not operate under a single dominant constraint, but instead function simultaneously in survival-limited and conversion-limited regimes. In the survival-limited regime, a large fraction of supplied electrical energy fails to persist through the early stages of the energy pathway due to power conversion losses, inefficient power amplification, cooling demands, backhaul transport, and high baseline idle consumption. These losses suppress the survival factor Ψ, placing a hard upper bound on the amount of energy that can even reach information-bearing processes, independent of downstream processing capability.

At the same time, mobile networks are also strongly conversion-limited. Even when energy survival is partially improved, the internal conversion competency C_int rapidly saturates due to fundamental information-theoretic and architectural constraints. Shannon capacity limits, finite spatial degrees of freedom, processing latency, scheduling overhead, retransmissions, and mobility-induced signaling restrict the rate at which surviving energy can be converted into delivered, error-free information. Beyond this saturation point, additional surviving energy cannot increase throughput and is instead dissipated through interference, control activity, and thermalization.

The coexistence of these two limiting regimes explains the diminishing returns observed across successive network generations, from 4G to 5G and projected 6G systems. Advances in hardware efficiency, antenna count, and bandwidth modify individual loss terms but do not alter the governing survival–conversion structure. As a result, each new generation delivers smaller incremental gains in useful throughput relative to the increase in energy consumption. Recognizing the dual survival- and conversion-limited nature of mobile networks is therefore essential for realistic performance assessment and for guiding future network design beyond brute-force scaling strategies..

4.3 Implications for Network Optimization

The Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law fundamentally alters the optimization paradigm for mobile communication networks. Rather than prioritizing power scaling, spectrum expansion, or incremental hardware efficiency improvements, the framework demonstrates that meaningful performance gains arise from interventions that increase energy survival (Ψ) and enhance internal conversion competency (C_int). Once survival or conversion limits dominate, additional transmission power or bandwidth contributes primarily to irreversible dissipation rather than to useful throughput, rendering traditional optimization strategies increasingly ineffective.

A primary implication is the critical importance of idle power reduction. Since base stations consume a large fraction of peak power even under low traffic conditions, minimizing idle and standby consumption directly increases the absorbed active energy fraction and improves Ψ. Closely related is control-plane simplification, as excessive signaling, synchronization, and coordination generate entropy without contributing to delivered information. Reducing control overhead not only improves energy survival but also alleviates conversion bottlenecks by freeing processing and scheduling capacity.

The framework further highlights the role of AI-based sleep scheduling and traffic prediction, which enable dynamic activation of network elements in response to real demand. By suppressing unnecessary operation during low-load periods, such approaches reduce entropy-generating processes and improve both survival and conversion efficiency. Finally, architectural redesign, including edge computing and distributed processing, shortens energy and information pathways, reduces transport losses, and lowers latency. These strategies yield multiplicative benefits under the survival–conversion law, offering a physically grounded roadmap for sustainable performance improvements in current and future mobile networks.

5. Conclusions

This study establishes energy survival as a first-order physical constraint governing useful energy and information production in real systems. By replacing traditional scalar efficiency metrics with a thermodynamically grounded survival–conversion formulation, the work resolves long-standing discrepancies between theoretical performance and observed field-scale outcomes. The framework demonstrates that useful output is limited not merely by energy availability, but by the fraction of energy that survives successive irreversible stages and by the finite capacity of systems to convert surviving energy into meaningful work or information. This insight provides a unified explanation for performance saturation observed across biological metabolism, engineered energy technologies, computing infrastructure, and mobile communication networks.

The proposed Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law is universal in scope, experimentally testable using standard instrumentation, and independent of energy source, system size, or technological implementation. By explicitly identifying dominant loss mechanisms and distinguishing survival limits from conversion limits, the framework enables realistic prediction of performance ceilings and offers clear, physically grounded guidance for system optimization. As such, it provides a robust foundation for the design of sustainable biological, energy, and communication systems, and a principled basis for evaluating future technologies beyond efficiency-based metrics alone..

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Citation

Mashrafi, M. (2026). Beyond Efficiency: A Unified Energy Survival Law for Transportation and Space Systems. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 181–192. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/43

Mokhdum Mashrafi (Mehadi Laja)
Research Associate, Track2Training, India
Independent Researcher, Bangladesh
Email: mehadilaja311@gmail.com

Abstract

Classical energy efficiency metrics systematically overestimate real-world performance because they model energy conversion as a single-stage process and implicitly neglect irreversible thermodynamic degradation. Across biological metabolism, electric transportation, information systems, and spaceflight, observed system-level outputs consistently fall far below what component-level efficiencies would predict. These discrepancies are most evident in advanced electric vehicles and reusable launch systems, where increases in battery capacity, power, or thrust do not yield proportional gains in driving range or payload mass.

This paper introduces a Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law that reformulates useful output as a survival-limited, multi-stage process governed by irreversible thermodynamics and finite conversion capacity. An energy survival factor (Ψ) is defined to quantify the fraction of absorbed energy that persists against transport losses and entropy generation. When coupled with an internal conversion competency term (C_int), the framework yields a universal performance relation:

The law is validated against empirical data from biological ecosystems, electric vehicles, and reusable launch systems. Case studies involving Tesla and SpaceX demonstrate that performance saturation arises from survival degradation and bounded conversion capacity rather than inefficient motors or engines. The framework is thermodynamically consistent, experimentally falsifiable, and independent of energy source or system scale, offering a unified physical basis for diagnosing performance limits and guiding system-level optimization.

1. Introduction

Technological systems across biology, transportation, computation, and aerospace consistently exhibit a pronounced mismatch between component-level efficiency and system-level performance. Electric motors, power electronics, combustion chambers, and rocket engines routinely achieve laboratory efficiencies exceeding 90%. From a classical perspective, such high efficiencies should imply near-optimal system performance. However, real-world outcomes—such as electric vehicle driving range, data throughput in computing systems, or payload mass delivered to orbit—remain far lower than what these component efficiencies would suggest. This gap between theoretical expectation and observed performance is neither accidental nor system-specific; it appears across domains, scales, and energy sources.

Crucially, this discrepancy is systematic rather than anomalous. Decades of incremental engineering improvements have pushed individual components close to their physical efficiency limits, yet system-level gains have progressively diminished. Increasing battery capacity does not yield proportional increases in vehicle range; adding thrust or propellant does not linearly increase payload; higher clock speeds or power budgets in computing systems do not translate into equivalent throughput gains. These recurring patterns indicate that performance saturation is not caused by poor engineering or immature technology, but by deeper physical constraints that are not captured by traditional efficiency metrics.

At the core of this limitation lies an implicit assumption embedded in classical efficiency-based reasoning: that energy conversion can be adequately represented as a single-stage, quasi-reversible process. Efficiency metrics typically compare useful output to total input without resolving how energy degrades as it moves through a system. In real systems, however, energy does not undergo a single transformation. Instead, it propagates through ordered, multi-stage pathways involving storage, conditioning, distribution, control, actuation, and dissipation. At each stage, energy is partially diverted into transport losses, control overhead, standby consumption, and—most importantly—irreversible entropy generation mandated by the second law of thermodynamics. These losses compound sequentially and nonlinearly, eroding the amount of energy that remains available for useful work.

Advanced technological platforms provide especially clear evidence of this limitation. Electric vehicles produced by Tesla employ motors and power electronics that already operate near their theoretical efficiency ceilings, yet real-world energy use is dominated by thermal management, auxiliary loads, aerodynamics, and duty-cycle effects. Similarly, reusable launch systems developed by SpaceX utilize some of the most efficient rocket engines ever built, but payload capacity is strongly constrained by structural mass, gravity losses, drag, guidance and control overhead, and thermal protection requirements. In both cases, further improvements in component efficiency yield diminishing returns at the system level, revealing that propulsion or conversion efficiency is no longer the limiting factor.

These observations point to the existence of a higher-order thermodynamic constraint governing real-world performance—one that transcends classical efficiency. Such a constraint must explicitly account for the survival of energy against competing loss mechanisms and the finite capacity to convert surviving energy into useful output within structural and temporal limits. Without a system-level law that incorporates these effects, efficiency metrics will continue to overestimate achievable performance and misdirect optimization efforts toward already-saturated components. The present work addresses this gap by introducing a unified survival-based thermodynamic framework capable of explaining performance saturation across biological, engineered, transportation, and space systems.

2. Methods: Survival-Based Thermodynamic Framework

2.1 Energy Survival Factor (Ψ)

We define the energy survival factor as:

where:

• AE = absorbed energy reaching active, task-performing states
• TE = transport and engineering losses
• ε = irreversible entropy-generating losses

Unlike efficiency, Ψ quantifies energy persistence, not conversion quality. From the second law of thermodynamics, ε ≥ 0, enforcing the bound 0 < Ψ < 1.

2.2 Internal Conversion Competency (C_int)

Even surviving energy cannot be fully utilized unless it can be converted within finite physical limits. We define internal conversion competency as:

This term captures limits imposed by reaction kinetics, transport capacity, geometry, and operational time windows.

2.3 Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law

Combining survival and conversion constraints yields:

All terms are independently measurable using standard telemetry and diagnostics, ensuring experimental falsifiability.

 

3. Results

3.1 Biological Benchmark (Photosynthesis)

Biological energy conversion provides a rigorous and independent benchmark for evaluating any proposed law of useful energy production. Photosynthesis operates under continuous environmental forcing, strict thermodynamic constraints, and has been refined through billions of years of evolutionary optimization. As such, its observed performance represents not a technological limitation, but a natural upper bound on energy utilization in complex, far-from-equilibrium systems.

At the planetary scale, global ecosystem data derived from field measurements, eddy-covariance flux towers, and satellite remote sensing consistently show that net primary productivity (NPP) corresponds to only 1–3% of incident solar radiation. This low fraction persists despite vast differences in climate, latitude, species composition, and total solar input. Expressed within the present framework, this corresponds to an energy survival factor of approximately Ψ ≈ 0.01–0.03, indicating that the overwhelming majority of incoming energy fails to survive the multi-stage biological energy pathway.

The underlying reason for this low survival fraction lies in the ordered degradation of solar energy during photosynthesis. Incident sunlight is first reduced by reflection and spectral mismatch, followed by rapid thermal relaxation of excited states. Additional losses arise from photochemical inefficiencies, metabolic overhead, respiration, nutrient transport, and maintenance of cellular structure. At each stage, a portion of energy is irreversibly dissipated as heat, increasing entropy and permanently destroying the capacity to perform useful biochemical work. By the time energy is stored as stable chemical bonds in biomass, only a small fraction of the original input remains.

Crucially, biological systems are not resource-limited but survival-limited. Increasing incident solar radiation does not result in proportional increases in biomass production. Under high irradiance, plants activate protective mechanisms such as non-photochemical quenching, photorespiration, and heat dissipation pathways. These processes deliberately increase entropy production to prevent structural damage, thereby reducing the fraction of energy that survives to carbon fixation. This behavior demonstrates that the second law of thermodynamics enforces a hard upper bound on useful biological energy conversion, regardless of resource abundance.

From the perspective of the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law, photosynthetic ecosystems represent a canonical survival-dominated regime. Conversion competency is bounded by biochemical reaction rates and transport limits, but the dominant constraint is the fraction of energy that can persist without being thermally degraded. The narrow global range of observed productivity, despite large variations in solar input, confirms that energy survival—not energy availability—governs biological output.

This biological benchmark is particularly significant because it establishes that low system-level yield is not a sign of inefficiency or poor design, but a fundamental thermodynamic outcome in complex systems. If photosynthesis—arguably the most optimized energy-conversion process in nature—operates with Ψ values on the order of only a few percent, then engineered systems exhibiting higher but still sub-unity survival factors are likewise operating within unavoidable physical limits. Consequently, biological photosynthesis provides a powerful validation point for the survival-based framework and a natural reference against which transportation, computing, and space systems can be meaningfully compared.

3.2 Electric Vehicles (Tesla)

Battery-electric vehicles provide one of the clearest real-world demonstrations of the limitations of efficiency-based reasoning and the explanatory power of the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law. Modern electric vehicles operate with exceptionally high component efficiencies: electric motors frequently exceed 90–95% efficiency under optimal conditions, and power electronics and drivetrains are similarly close to their practical limits. Despite this, empirical fleet data consistently show that real-world driving range and energy utilization saturate well below what component efficiencies alone would predict.

Analysis of operational telemetry and fleet-averaged performance indicates that electric vehicles typically exhibit an energy survival factor in the range Ψ_EV ≈ 0.7–0.85. This implies that 15–30% of stored battery energy fails to survive the ordered energy pathway from storage to traction under realistic driving conditions. Importantly, this loss does not arise primarily from motor inefficiency. Instead, dominant survival-degrading mechanisms include battery thermal regulation, inverter and power electronics losses, drivetrain friction, and continuous auxiliary consumption.

In parallel, the internal conversion competency for electric vehicles is empirically constrained to approximately C_int ≈ 0.6–0.8. This bound reflects limits imposed by vehicle mass, aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance, traffic conditions, and duty-cycle effects such as stop–start driving, idling, and transient acceleration. Even when electrical energy successfully survives to the traction system, only a finite fraction can be converted into sustained translational motion within allowable thermal, mechanical, and regulatory limits.

A critical insight revealed by the unified law is that battery scaling alone cannot overcome these constraints. Increasing battery capacity increases input energy (E_in), but it also increases vehicle mass, cooling requirements, and auxiliary power consumption. These effects can reduce Ψ_EV by increasing thermal and transport losses, while leaving C_int fundamentally unchanged. As a result, real-world driving range increases sub-linearly with battery size—a pattern repeatedly observed across electric vehicle generations.

Thermal management plays a particularly dominant role in survival degradation. Battery temperature control, cabin heating and cooling, and heat rejection from power electronics constitute persistent entropy sinks that operate independently of traction demand. Under cold or hot ambient conditions, these thermal loads can rival or exceed traction energy use, sharply reducing Ψ_EV even when motors operate near peak efficiency. Similarly, auxiliary systems—sensors, computing, lighting, control electronics, and standby loads—consume energy continuously, diverting it away from propulsion regardless of driving state.

From the perspective of the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law,

electric vehicles are jointly survival-limited and conversion-limited systems. Once drivetrain efficiency saturates, further improvements in motors or inverters yield diminishing returns unless dominant survival losses—particularly thermal and auxiliary loads—are addressed. This explains why incremental efficiency gains at the component level have translated into modest real-world range improvements compared to architectural innovations such as improved aerodynamics, lightweighting, and integrated thermal systems.

In summary, the electric vehicle case study demonstrates that performance saturation is not evidence of technological stagnation or inefficient components. Rather, it is a direct consequence of irreversible thermodynamic losses and bounded conversion capacity at the system level. The Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law correctly predicts observed driving-range limits and provides a physically grounded explanation for why increasing battery size or motor efficiency alone cannot deliver proportional gains in real-world performance.

3.3 Launch Systems (SpaceX)

Reusable launch systems represent one of the most extreme and informative test cases for the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law. Rocket propulsion operates in a regime of exceptionally high power density, extreme thermal loading, and severe mechanical stress, while simultaneously requiring precise guidance and structural integrity. Modern launch vehicles developed by SpaceX employ some of the most efficient chemical rocket engines ever built, with combustion and expansion processes approaching their practical thermodynamic limits. Yet despite these efficiencies, payload mass delivered to orbit remains a small fraction of the total energy expended, and does not scale linearly with thrust or propellant mass.

Empirical mission data and post-flight analyses indicate that reusable launch vehicles typically operate with an energy survival factor in the range Ψ_launch ≈ 0.3–0.5. This implies that 50–70% of the initial chemical energy fails to survive the ascent and recovery energy pathway in a form that can contribute to payload orbital energy. Unlike electric vehicles, where losses are distributed across many auxiliary subsystems, survival degradation in launch systems is dominated by a small number of unavoidable physical mechanisms. Chief among these are gravity losses, which irreversibly dissipate energy while the vehicle climbs out of Earth’s gravitational well, and aerodynamic drag, which converts directed kinetic energy into heat and turbulence during atmospheric ascent.

Structural mass fractions constitute a second major survival sink. A substantial portion of thrust is expended accelerating tanks, engines, interstages, landing hardware, and thermal protection systems rather than payload. In reusable architectures, this effect is amplified by the additional mass required for recovery operations, including landing legs, control surfaces, reserve propellant, and reinforced structures. These masses consume energy without contributing to payload delivery, directly reducing Ψ_launch even when propulsion efficiency is high.

Thermal protection and heat management further degrade energy survival. During ascent, shock heating and boundary-layer dissipation generate intense thermal loads that must be absorbed or radiated away. For reusable vehicles, atmospheric reentry introduces additional entropy generation through convective and radiative heating, requiring robust thermal protection systems that add mass and dissipate energy. These thermal losses are fundamentally irreversible and mandated by the second law of thermodynamics, placing a hard lower bound on achievable survival fractions.

In addition to survival degradation, internal conversion competency in launch systems is severely constrained, with empirical values typically in the range C_int ≈ 0.05–0.2. Even when chemical energy survives to produce thrust, only a limited fraction can be converted into useful payload orbital energy. This limitation arises from finite thrust-to-mass ratios, fixed burn windows, staging constraints, and allowable structural and thermal loads. Orbital insertion must occur within narrowly defined temporal and dynamical windows, beyond which additional energy cannot be effectively utilized for payload acceleration.

A central insight of the survival–conversion framework is that reusability penalties emerge naturally from first principles rather than from design inefficiency. Energy allocated to vehicle recovery, thermal survival, and landing maneuvers necessarily reduces both Ψ_launch and C_int by diverting surviving energy away from payload acceleration. As a result, reusable launch vehicles inevitably trade payload capacity for survivability and reusability, even when engines operate near optimal efficiency.

Under the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law,

payload delivery is constrained simultaneously by survival losses and bounded conversion capacity. Increasing propellant mass or thrust raises input energy but also increases structural loads, heating, and recovery overhead, often reducing net useful output. This explains why payload mass does not scale linearly with energy input and why improvements in engine efficiency alone cannot overcome mission-level limits.

In summary, reusable launch systems exemplify a regime in which survival degradation and conversion saturation dominate performance, not propulsion inefficiency. The Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law provides a physically grounded explanation for payload limits, reusability penalties, and the diminishing returns of thrust scaling, unifying launch vehicle behavior with that of electric vehicles and biological systems under a common thermodynamic framework.

4. Discussion

4.1 Why Efficiency Fails as a System Metric

Classical efficiency is defined as a single scalar ratio between useful output and total input energy. While this formulation is convenient for comparing isolated components under controlled conditions, it becomes fundamentally inadequate when applied to complex, real-world systems composed of multiple interacting stages. By collapsing all losses into a single number, efficiency obscures the physical origin, timing, and dominance of distinct degradation mechanisms that govern system-level performance.

In advanced technological systems, energy degradation arises from heterogeneous loss processes that differ not only in magnitude but also in physical character. Transport losses such as electrical resistance, fluid friction, and power conversion inefficiencies are, in principle, reducible through improved design and materials. In contrast, losses arising from irreversible entropy generation—including thermalization, turbulence, radiation, switching irreversibility, and control dissipation—are mandated by the second law of thermodynamics and impose absolute limits. Classical efficiency metrics conflate these fundamentally different processes, implicitly suggesting that all losses are equally reducible, which is thermodynamically incorrect.

A second critical limitation of efficiency is its lack of stage resolution. Real systems are inherently multi-stage: energy flows sequentially through storage, conditioning, distribution, control, actuation, and dissipation layers. Losses incurred at early stages propagate forward and suppress downstream performance, even if later stages operate at near-perfect efficiency. A single efficiency value provides no information about which stage dominates performance degradation, making it impossible to identify where optimization efforts will yield meaningful system-level gains.

Efficiency metrics also fail to capture the directionality and irreversibility of energy degradation. Once energy is dissipated as low-grade heat or entropy, it cannot be fully recovered for useful work. Efficiency, however, treats all losses symmetrically and retrospectively, without distinguishing whether energy was lost before or after reaching a potentially useful state. This leads to systematic overestimation of achievable performance, particularly in systems operating near physical limits, where small irreversible losses dominate overall behavior.

The survival-based framework resolves these deficiencies by explicitly separating transport and engineering losses from irreversible entropy destruction. The energy survival factor does not ask how efficiently energy is converted at a particular stage; instead, it asks whether energy survives long enough to remain convertible at all. By preserving stage structure and enforcing thermodynamic irreversibility by construction, the survival framework restores physical causality to system analysis.

As a result, survival-based metrics correctly diagnose why improving already-efficient components often yields negligible gains, why performance saturates despite abundant energy input, and why architectural and thermal considerations dominate optimization in advanced systems. In this sense, efficiency does not fail because it is incorrect, but because it is incomplete. The survival framework provides the missing system-level thermodynamic context required to understand and predict real-world performance.

4.2 Weakest-Stage Principle

A defining consequence of the survival-based formulation is that energy losses across a system do not add linearly; instead, they compound multiplicatively along the ordered energy pathway. If the fraction of energy surviving each stage i is denoted by , then the total survival factor of an N-stage system is given by:

This multiplicative structure has profound implications for system-level performance. Even when most stages operate with high survival fractions, a single stage with poor survival can dominate the overall outcome. As a result, system performance is controlled not by the average quality of components, nor by the most efficient element, but by the weakest survival stage in the energy pathway.

In practical terms, this principle explains why complex systems composed of many high-efficiency components can still exhibit low overall performance. For example, a system with ten stages each operating at 95% survival would still retain only about 60% of the original energy. If one stage drops to 70% survival due to thermal overload, control overhead, or structural constraints, total survival falls dramatically, regardless of how efficient the remaining stages may be. Classical efficiency metrics, which often emphasize peak or average performance, fail to capture this compounding effect.

The weakest-stage principle also clarifies why incremental improvements to already-efficient components yield diminishing returns. Once a component’s survival fraction approaches unity, further improvement produces only marginal changes in the product Ψ. In contrast, modest improvements to a low-survival stage can produce disproportionately large gains in overall performance. This asymmetry explains why system-level optimization efforts focused on motors, engines, or converters—when these elements are already near their limits—often fail to deliver meaningful gains.

Importantly, the weakest stage is not necessarily the most visible or technologically sophisticated component. In electric vehicles, it may be thermal management or auxiliary power consumption rather than the motor. In launch systems, it may be gravity losses, structural mass, or thermal protection rather than engine efficiency. In biological systems, it may be photochemical quenching or metabolic overhead rather than photon capture. The survival framework makes these hidden bottlenecks explicit by preserving stage resolution.

By identifying and targeting the dominant survival-limiting stage, the weakest-stage principle provides a clear and physically grounded optimization strategy: maximize the minimum survival fraction rather than maximizing peak component efficiency. This shift in focus—from the best-performing parts to the most limiting ones—is essential for overcoming performance saturation in advanced systems and forms a cornerstone of the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law.

4.3 Design Implications

The Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law implies a fundamental shift in how advanced systems should be designed and optimized. Once component-level efficiencies approach their practical limits, further gains in useful output cannot be achieved through power scaling or incremental efficiency improvements alone. Instead, system performance becomes dominated by how effectively energy survives irreversible loss and how intelligently surviving energy is managed across the system architecture.

First, thermal survival emerges as a primary design driver across domains. Heat generation is the dominant manifestation of irreversible entropy production, and every high-power system ultimately confronts thermal limits. In electric vehicles, battery temperature control, inverter cooling, and cabin climate systems constitute persistent entropy sinks that reduce energy survival regardless of drivetrain efficiency. In launch systems, aerodynamic heating, shock dissipation, and reentry thermal loads impose hard constraints on survival and reusability. Designing systems to minimize heat generation, improve heat rejection pathways, and prevent thermal bottlenecks directly increases the survival factor Ψ, yielding multiplicative gains in useful output.

Second, architectural integration becomes more important than isolated component optimization. Because survival losses compound across stages, the interfaces between subsystems—such as energy storage, power electronics, control systems, structures, and thermal loops—often dominate performance degradation. Integrated architectures that reduce energy transport distance, eliminate redundant conversions, and share thermal and structural functions can significantly improve survival without increasing input energy. This explains why lightweighting, system integration, and co-designed thermal–structural layouts often outperform improvements in already-efficient motors or engines.

Third, control and entropy management represent increasingly dominant constraints in advanced systems. Sensors, computation, regulation, and feedback are essential for stability and safety, but they consume energy continuously and generate entropy. As systems become more autonomous and software-intensive, control overhead can rival or exceed actuation energy. Survival-aware control strategies—such as minimizing idle operation, reducing unnecessary regulation, and aligning control effort with useful work—can therefore produce substantial system-level gains even when hardware efficiency remains unchanged.

Collectively, these design implications explain why many advanced technologies exhibit performance plateaus despite decades of efficiency improvement. When survival and conversion limits dominate, adding more power or marginally improving component efficiency primarily increases heat, stress, and entropy rather than useful output. True breakthroughs require architectural changes that reduce irreversible losses and reallocate energy toward productive pathways.

In this sense, the survival-based framework reframes optimization from a pursuit of “more power” to a pursuit of longer energy survival and smarter conversion. Systems that succeed in this shift—by prioritizing thermal resilience, integrated design, and entropy-aware control—can surpass apparent performance ceilings without violating fundamental thermodynamic constraints.

5. Conclusions

This paper establishes energy survival as the governing physical constraint on useful output in real-world systems. By moving beyond classical efficiency and explicitly accounting for multi-stage energy degradation and irreversible entropy production, the proposed framework resolves long-standing paradoxes observed across biological systems, electric transportation, computing infrastructures, and spaceflight. The Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law provides a thermodynamically complete and experimentally testable description of why advanced technologies plateau in performance despite continually improving component efficiencies.

At its core, the framework demonstrates that useful output is not determined by how efficiently energy is converted at a single stage, but by how long energy survives competing loss mechanisms and how effectively surviving energy can be converted within finite physical limits. This perspective unifies phenomena that previously appeared domain-specific—such as electric vehicle range saturation, payload penalties in reusable launch systems, and low photosynthetic yield—under a single physical explanation rooted in irreversible thermodynamics.

The principal contributions of this work can be summarized as follows. First, it introduces energy survival as a primary thermodynamic variable, elevating the persistence of absorbed energy against transport losses and entropy generation to a first-class constraint. This concept captures aspects of system behavior that are invisible to scalar efficiency metrics while remaining fully consistent with the second law of thermodynamics. Second, it formally separates survival and conversion as independent physical limits, clarifying why abundant energy supply or high component efficiency alone cannot guarantee high system-level performance. This separation explains why systems may be survival-limited, conversion-limited, or jointly constrained, depending on their architecture and operating environment.

Third, the work presents a single unifying law applicable across biology, transportation, and space systems. The expression

captures energy availability, persistence, and convertibility in a unified, dimensionally consistent form. Differences in observed performance across domains arise from parameter values, not from different governing physics. Fourth, the framework provides a first-principles explanation of performance saturation in advanced technologies. Range limits in electric vehicles, payload penalties in reusable launch systems, and productivity ceilings in biological systems emerge naturally from survival degradation and bounded conversion capacity, without invoking hidden inefficiencies or empirical tuning.

Beyond its explanatory power, the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law offers a new physical language for system optimization. It redirects design priorities away from power scaling and marginal efficiency gains toward thermal survival, architectural integration, and entropy-aware control. In doing so, it aligns thermodynamic theory with empirical engineering practice and provides a principled foundation for diagnosing dominant losses, predicting realistic performance ceilings, and guiding future innovation in complex energy systems.

In summary, this work demonstrates that in advanced systems, more energy does not imply more performance. What matters is whether energy survives long enough—and can be converted fast enough—to perform useful work. By formalizing this insight into a unified, testable law, the present framework advances both the theoretical understanding and practical optimization of energy systems beyond the limits of classical efficiency metrics.

References

Carnot, S. (1824). Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu.
Clausius, R. (1865). The mechanical theory of heat. Philosophical Magazine, 30, 513–531.
Prigogine, I. (1967). Introduction to Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes. Wiley.
Bejan, A. (2016). Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics (4th ed.). Wiley.
Field, C. B., et al. (1998). Primary production of the biosphere. Science, 281, 237–240.
Shockley, W., & Queisser, H. J. (1961). Detailed balance limit of solar cells. Journal of Applied Physics, 32, 510–519.
Larminie, J., & Lowry, J. (2012). Electric Vehicle Technology Explained. Wiley.
Wertz, J. R., et al. (2011). Space Mission Engineering: The New SMAD. Microcosm Press.
Landauer, R. (1961). Irreversibility and heat generation in computing. IBM Journal, 5, 183–191.
Georgescu-Roegen, N. (1971). The Entropy Law and the Economic Process. Harvard University Press.

Citation

Mashrafi, M. A. (2026). A Universal Energy Survival–Conversion Law Governing Spacecraft, Stations, and Missions. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/42

Mokhdum Azam Mashrafi (Mehadi Laja)
Research Associate, Track2Training, India
Independent Researcher, Bangladesh
Email: mehadilaja311@gmail.com

Abstract

Classical energy efficiency metrics systematically overestimate real-world system performance because they implicitly treat energy conversion as a single-stage process and neglect irreversible thermodynamic degradation. Across biological systems, terrestrial energy technologies, communication networks, and space systems, observed operational outputs fall far below laboratory or nameplate efficiencies. This discrepancy is especially pronounced in spacecraft and satellites, where fixed power budgets, radiative-only heat rejection, and strict thermal envelopes expose fundamental thermodynamic constraints.

This paper introduces a Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law that reformulates useful energy and information production as a survival-limited, multi-stage process governed by irreversible thermodynamics and reaction–transport constraints. An energy survival factor (Ψ) is defined to quantify the persistence of absorbed energy against transport losses and irreversible entropy generation. Coupled with an internal conversion competency term derived from the Life-CAES reaction–transport framework, the resulting law

provides a universal upper bound on useful output.

Validation using independently reported data shows strong agreement with observed limits in photosynthetic ecosystems (≈1–3%), photovoltaic systems (≈15–20%), data centers (heat-dominated regimes), mobile communication networks (throughput saturation), and spacecraft subsystems (duty-cycle-limited operation). The framework explains why increasing power supply alone frequently yields diminishing or negative returns in space missions and establishes energy survival—rather than efficiency or power availability—as the governing constraint on sustainable mission performance.

Keywords: irreversible thermodynamics, spacecraft energy systems, entropy generation, energy survival, mission performance limits

1. Introduction

Across biological organisms, engineered energy technologies, communication networks, and space systems, a persistent and well-documented discrepancy exists between theoretical efficiency and realized operational performance. Component-level efficiencies—measured under controlled laboratory conditions or expressed as nameplate ratings—often suggest far higher output than is achieved at system, field, or mission scale. In practice, however, large fractions of supplied energy fail to produce useful work, information, or sustained functionality. This gap is not primarily the result of poor engineering design, measurement uncertainty, or operational mismanagement. Rather, it reflects fundamental physical constraints that are inadequately captured by classical efficiency-based formulations.

Traditional efficiency metrics implicitly assume that energy conversion is a single-stage, quasi-localized process, in which losses can be aggregated into a scalar ratio between input and output. While such metrics are convenient and remain useful for benchmarking isolated components, they systematically fail when applied to complex, multi-stage, non-equilibrium systems. In real systems, energy must propagate through multiple sequential stages—absorption, transport, regulation, conversion, control, and dissipation—each governed by distinct physical mechanisms and timescales. Losses incurred at these stages compound multiplicatively, not additively, and are often dominated by irreversible entropy generation rather than by reducible inefficiencies.

Space systems represent an extreme and uniquely revealing case of this general problem. Spacecraft and satellites operate under fixed and non-negotiable power availability, determined by solar array area, onboard generators, or radioisotope sources. Unlike terrestrial systems, they lack convective cooling and rely almost exclusively on radiative heat rejection to dissipate waste energy. Under these conditions, excess or poorly managed energy does not merely reduce efficiency; it manifests directly as thermal overload, accelerated degradation, loss of stability, or irreversible failure. As a result, spacecraft performance is frequently constrained not by how much power can be generated, but by how long absorbed energy can survive irreversible degradation before it must be rejected as heat.

Consequently, increasing power supply—through larger solar arrays, higher transmission power, or greater onboard computation—often yields diminishing or even negative returns in space missions. Payloads are duty-cycled, transmitters are throttled, and processors are underutilized to maintain thermal equilibrium. These behaviors are routinely observed across orbital platforms, including scientific satellites, communication spacecraft, and long-duration space stations. Yet classical efficiency metrics provide no general physical explanation for why such saturation occurs so consistently across missions.

1.1 Space Systems as Thermodynamic Extremes

Several defining features amplify thermodynamic constraints in space systems and render classical efficiency assumptions untenable. First, power budgets are fixed: available energy cannot be dynamically scaled to compensate for losses. Second, the absence of convection eliminates a major terrestrial pathway for heat removal, forcing all waste energy to be dissipated radiatively. Third, spacecraft components operate within narrow thermal envelopes, beyond which reliability and functionality degrade rapidly. Finally, radiative losses are irreversible: once energy is emitted to space as thermal radiation, it is permanently lost from the system.

These conditions expose thermodynamic limits that are partially masked in terrestrial systems by atmospheric cooling, grid buffering, redundancy, and economic abstraction. In space, the full consequences of irreversible entropy production are unavoidable and directly observable in telemetry and mission outcomes. Spacecraft therefore serve as a natural laboratory for identifying the fundamental physical limits governing energy utilization in real systems.

1.2 Cross-Domain Performance Saturation

Although space systems represent the most extreme manifestation, analogous performance saturation phenomena appear across a wide range of domains. In mobile communication networks, rising power consumption in successive generations of infrastructure has failed to deliver proportional gains in throughput. In data centers, increasingly efficient processors coexist with facilities that remain overwhelmingly heat-dominated. In biological ecosystems, photosynthetic organisms convert only a small fraction of incident solar energy into stable biomass, despite far higher theoretical efficiencies.

These systems differ radically in scale, function, and environment, yet they exhibit a common pattern: useful output saturates well below theoretical or component-level efficiency limits, even when energy supply is abundant. The recurrence of this behavior across unrelated domains strongly suggests the absence of a general, system-level thermodynamic law capable of explaining performance limits without resorting to system-specific explanations.

1.3 Limitations of Classical Efficiency Metrics

The root of this explanatory gap lies in the structure of classical efficiency metrics themselves. By collapsing physically distinct loss mechanisms into a single scalar ratio, efficiency obscures the origin and dominance of different degradation pathways. It provides no resolution of where energy is lost, no distinction between recoverable transport losses and irreversible entropy-generating losses, and no insight into how losses compound across sequential stages.

In space systems, this limitation becomes critical. Losses due to thermalization, electronic switching, control overhead, and radiation are not merely engineering imperfections; they are mandated by the second law of thermodynamics. Treating such losses as equivalent to reducible inefficiencies leads to systematic overestimation of achievable performance and misdirected optimization strategies that emphasize power scaling or component efficiency rather than system survival.

1.4 Objective and Contribution

This paper introduces a survival-based thermodynamic framework that explicitly treats energy utilization as a multi-stage, irreversible process. By defining an energy survival factor that quantifies the persistence of absorbed energy against transport losses and entropy generation, and by coupling it with a finite internal conversion capacity, the framework establishes a universal, experimentally falsifiable law governing useful output.

The objective is not to refine existing efficiency metrics, but to replace them with a physically complete description applicable across biological, terrestrial, communication, and space systems. In doing so, the work provides a unified explanation for long-observed performance saturation phenomena and offers a principled foundation for diagnosing limits and guiding optimization in energy-constrained systems, particularly in space environments where thermodynamic constraints are explicit and unforgiving.

2. Methods: Survival-Based Energy Formulation

2.1 Energy Survival Factor (Ψ)

Energy survival is defined as

where AE is absorbed energy reaching active functional states, TE represents transport and engineering losses, and ε denotes irreversible entropy-generating losses mandated by the second law of thermodynamics. Ψ quantifies energy persistence, not efficiency.

2.2 Ordered Energy Pathway in Space Systems

In spacecraft, energy propagates irreversibly through sequential stages: generation, conditioning, distribution, subsystem operation, payload execution, and radiative rejection. Losses compound multiplicatively, making stage-wise survival dominant.

2.3 Internal Conversion Competency (Cₙₜ)

To capture conversion limitations independent of energy survival, internal conversion competency is defined using the Life-CAES reaction–transport framework. Cₙₜ represents finite throughput imposed by spatial, temporal, architectural, and informational constraints such as Shannon capacity, processor limits, duty cycles, and orbital geometry.

2.4 Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law

The two independent constraints combine multiplicatively:

This law applies irrespective of energy source, gravity, or operating environment.

2.5 Measurement and Falsifiability

All terms are independently measurable using standard telemetry, thermal sensors, and performance logs. No fitting parameters are introduced, satisfying falsifiability criteria for a physical law.

3. Results

3.1 Biological Systems

Across terrestrial photosynthetic ecosystems, the estimated energy survival factor consistently falls in the range Ψ ≈ 0.01–0.03 when evaluated at ecosystem or biosphere scale. This corresponds to net primary productivity values of approximately 1–3% of incident solar radiation, in agreement with long-term field measurements and satellite-derived global productivity datasets. The low survival factor arises from cumulative losses during spectral mismatch, radiative relaxation, non-photochemical quenching, metabolic maintenance, and respiration. Importantly, these losses compound across multiple biochemical and structural stages rather than occurring at a single conversion step, resulting in a survival-limited regime even in systems that have undergone extensive evolutionary optimization.

Empirical evidence further shows that increasing solar energy input does not yield proportional increases in biomass production. Under high irradiance, excess absorbed energy is preferentially dissipated as heat or induces photoinhibition, reducing survival rather than increasing useful output. This behavior is consistent with the survival-based formulation, in which additional input energy increases entropy generation when survival pathways are saturated. The observed saturation of biological productivity therefore reflects a fundamental thermodynamic constraint rather than nutrient limitation or ecological inefficiency, validating the applicability of the survival factor Ψ as a governing parameter in naturally optimized systems.

3.2 Engineered Energy Systems

In engineered terrestrial energy systems, utility-scale photovoltaic plants exhibit moderate energy survival, typically Ψ ≈ 0.7–0.8, reflecting losses from optical reflection, thermal derating, power conditioning, inverter inefficiencies, and transmission. Despite continuous improvements in module-level conversion efficiency, annualized net electricity delivery remains constrained to approximately 15–20% of incident solar energy. This outcome is well predicted by the unified survival–conversion formulation when bounded internal conversion competency is included, accounting for carrier recombination, current-density saturation, and grid-interface constraints.

Data center infrastructures present a contrasting engineered benchmark characterized by high energy availability but severely limited internal conversion competency. Although modern processors achieve high computational efficiency at the device level, system-level measurements show that the majority of supplied energy is dissipated as heat through cooling, power distribution, and idle operation. Estimated values of Cₙₜ are typically on the order of 0.01–0.05, placing data centers firmly in a conversion-limited regime. The resulting heat-dominated operational state persists despite aggressive efficiency improvements, demonstrating that performance saturation arises from bounded conversion capacity rather than insufficient energy supply.

3.3 Communication Networks

Mobile communication networks exhibit intermediate survival factors, typically Ψ ≈ 0.15–0.35, as derived from field measurements of base-station power consumption, cooling overhead, backhaul transport, and RF propagation losses. A substantial fraction of supplied energy is consumed by always-on control signaling, synchronization, and idle operation, even during periods of low traffic demand. These survival losses reduce the fraction of energy that reaches active data transmission and processing states, placing a hard upper bound on achievable throughput per unit input energy.

At the same time, internal conversion competency in mobile networks is strongly bounded by Shannon capacity limits, modulation and coding constraints, scheduling inefficiencies, retransmissions, and user mobility. As a result, increasing transmission power or network density does not yield proportional gains in delivered data rates once these limits are reached. Observed throughput saturation in mature 4G and 5G deployments is therefore consistent with the unified law, in which moderate survival and bounded conversion jointly constrain useful output. Rising network energy consumption without commensurate throughput gains emerges naturally from these first-principles limits.

3.4 Spacecraft and Satellites

Spacecraft and satellite systems operate under moderate survival factors, typically Ψ ≈ 0.25–0.45, reflecting losses from solar conversion, power conditioning, distribution, thermal control, and subsystem overhead. Telemetry consistently shows that a significant fraction of onboard power is devoted to survival functions—such as attitude control, thermal regulation, and redundancy—rather than to mission output. Because all waste energy must ultimately be rejected radiatively, entropy generation directly constrains continuous operation, making survival a dominant performance limiter in space environments.

Internal conversion competency in space systems is further bounded to Cₙₜ ≈ 0.05–0.25 by communication windows, onboard processing limits, radiation-hardened hardware, orbital geometry, and thermal duty-cycle constraints. These bounds explain why payloads are rarely operated continuously and why increasing solar array area or transmission power alone does not increase delivered data or scientific return. Instead, excess energy accelerates thermal saturation and forces reduced duty cycles. The resulting duty-cycle-limited operation observed across satellites and space stations is therefore a direct consequence of survival and conversion limits, not of insufficient power generation.

4. Discussion

4.1 Survival Dominance and the Weakest-Link Principle

A central implication of the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law is that overall system performance is governed by the lowest survival stage along the energy pathway rather than by the most efficient component. Because survival factors across sequential stages compound multiplicatively, even modest losses at a single stage can dominate system-level outcomes. This “weakest-link” behavior explains why systems composed of highly optimized components frequently exhibit disappointing aggregate performance. Improvements applied to already efficient stages—such as marginal gains in solar cell efficiency or transmitter electrical efficiency—yield diminishing returns when survival is constrained elsewhere, particularly by thermal rejection or duty-cycle limitations.

This principle clarifies a long-standing disconnect between component-level optimization and system-level results. Traditional design strategies often focus on improving peak efficiency metrics because they are measurable and locally actionable. However, when energy survival is dominated by a downstream bottleneck, such improvements do not translate into increased useful output. The survival-dominance framework therefore shifts analytical emphasis from identifying the best-performing component to identifying the most destructive stage, where irreversible losses suppress all upstream gains. This reorientation has broad implications for system diagnosis and optimization across energy, communication, and space systems.

4.2 Thermal and Entropy Constraints in Space

In space systems, thermal and entropy constraints emerge as the most stringent survival limiters. Because radiative emission is the only viable mechanism for heat rejection, the rate at which entropy can be expelled to space establishes a hard upper bound on continuous operation. Once this bound is reached, additional energy input cannot be converted into useful work and instead accelerates thermal accumulation, forcing throttling or shutdown. This constraint is absolute rather than economic or technological, as it arises directly from radiative physics and the second law of thermodynamics.

Consequently, performance gains in space missions are dominated by thermal-first design strategies rather than power scaling. Enhancements such as improved heat transport, radiator effectiveness, emissivity control, and thermal architecture directly increase energy survival by slowing entropy accumulation. Similarly, duty-cycle optimization and entropy-aware scheduling allow systems to operate closer to survival limits without exceeding them. These approaches often yield greater mission productivity than increasing generation capacity, providing a formal thermodynamic justification for design practices long recognized empirically in spacecraft engineering.

4.3 Resolution of Energy Paradoxes

The survival-based framework provides a unified resolution to several long-standing energy paradoxes observed in both telecommunications and spacecraft systems. In mobile networks, rising power consumption has not produced proportional increases in delivered throughput, despite continuous improvements in hardware efficiency. Similarly, in spacecraft, increasing solar array size or transmission power frequently fails to increase mission output. Classical models struggle to explain these phenomena without invoking ad hoc inefficiencies or operational shortcomings.

Under the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law, these paradoxes arise naturally when survival factors or conversion competency saturate. Once irreversible entropy generation or bounded throughput dominates, additional power increases losses rather than output. Power supply, therefore, ceases to be the controlling variable for useful performance. This explanation requires no system-specific tuning and applies equally to digital networks and space platforms, demonstrating that the observed paradoxes are not anomalies but predictable consequences of fundamental thermodynamic constraints.

4.4 Universality of the Law

A defining strength of the proposed framework is its universality across domains. The same governing law applies to ecosystems, engineered machines, information networks, and spacecraft without modification. Differences in observed performance arise from variations in survival factors and conversion competency, not from different underlying physics. This universality confirms that energy survival and bounded conversion are fundamental constraints that transcend scale, technology, and environment.

Importantly, the law remains valid across radically different operating conditions, including atmospheric and vacuum environments, biological and artificial systems, and terrestrial and extraterrestrial settings. Gravity, medium, and energy source influence parameter values but do not alter the governing relationship. This invariance establishes the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law as a genuine system-level physical law rather than a domain-specific model, providing a common language for analyzing performance limits across traditionally disconnected fields.

5. Conclusions

This study establishes energy survival as a first-order physical constraint governing useful energy and information production in real systems. By explicitly incorporating irreversible entropy generation, transport degradation, and bounded conversion capacity, the Unified Energy Survival–Conversion Law provides a thermodynamically complete description of system performance that extends beyond classical efficiency, exergy, or energy-per-output metrics. The framework demonstrates that useful output is limited not by how much energy is supplied, but by how long absorbed energy can persist without being irreversibly degraded and how effectively surviving energy can be converted within finite structural and temporal constraints. In doing so, it offers a unified explanation for the widespread and recurring saturation of performance observed across biological ecosystems, engineered energy technologies, communication networks, and space systems.

By replacing scalar efficiency with a survival-based system-level metric, the proposed law resolves long-standing discrepancies between theoretical performance and operational reality. It explains why improvements in component-level efficiency or power availability often fail to translate into proportional gains at mission or infrastructure scale and clarifies why thermal management, duty cycling, and architectural optimization dominate real-world outcomes. Importantly, the law is experimentally falsifiable and relies exclusively on independently measurable quantities, reinforcing its status as a physical constraint rather than a phenomenological or empirical model. As such, it provides a common analytical language for diagnosing dominant loss mechanisms, predicting realistic performance ceilings, and guiding optimization strategies across domains that have traditionally been treated as physically distinct.

Future research directions naturally follow from this survival-centered perspective. Immediate extensions include application to deep-space missions, where long durations, extreme thermal environments, and communication delays further amplify survival and conversion constraints, as well as to nuclear-powered and hybrid spacecraft, enabling systematic comparison of entropy generation across fundamentally different energy sources. At larger scales, constellation-level survival modeling can capture collective losses arising from coordination overhead, inter-satellite links, and network-level entropy production. Finally, the development of survival-aware control, scheduling, and autonomy algorithms offers a promising pathway for translating the theoretical framework into operational gains, particularly in space systems where power and thermal margins are inherently unforgiving.

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Citation

Mashrafi, M. A. (2026). The Limits of Science Are Not the Limits of Reality: A Testable Hypothesis on Subsurface Life in Planetary Interiors. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 165–170. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/41

Author:
Md. Mokhdum Azam Mashrafi (Mehadi Laja)

Research Associate, Track2Training, India

Researcher from Bangladesh

Email: mehadilaja311@gmail.com

Abstract

Science advances not because reality changes, but because humanity’s instruments, theoretical frameworks, and willingness to question assumptions evolve. Throughout scientific history, ideas once dismissed as impossible—heliocentrism, continental drift, deep-sea ecosystems, and subsurface microbial life—were later validated as observational tools and conceptual models improved. This recurring pattern highlights a fundamental principle: absence of detection is not evidence of absence, but often a reflection of instrumental limitation.

This paper proposes a testable scientific hypothesis that challenges the surface-centric paradigm of astrobiology: if life exists beyond Earth, it may reside within planetary interiors rather than on exposed surfaces. Gas giants and terrestrial planets alike exhibit extreme surface conditions—radiation, pressure, and thermal instability—that are hostile to complex life. However, internal planetary environments may offer comparatively stable regimes governed by pressure balance, thermal gradients, magnetic dynamics, and internal energy redistribution.

The hypothesis does not assert proof, but invites scientific scrutiny. Planetary interiors remain among the least explored domains in modern science, not due to falsification, but because of technological constraints. As with prior scientific revolutions, today’s speculative questions may become tomorrow’s measurable realities. The boundaries of science, therefore, should be understood not as limits of reality, but as temporary limits of measurement.

Introduction

Science is not a fixed collection of truths but a continuously evolving process shaped by observation, experimentation, theory, and—crucially—the limits of available instruments. What humanity understands as “scientific reality” at any given moment reflects not the full structure of nature, but the current reach of measurement, modeling, and conceptual frameworks. Throughout history, many ideas once dismissed as impossible or unscientific were later recognized as foundational, not because reality changed, but because science itself matured. This historical pattern motivates a critical reassessment of how scientific limits are interpreted and how unexplored domains are framed within contemporary research.

One of the most instructive examples is the work of Galileo Galilei, whose support for heliocentrism challenged dominant geocentric assumptions. His claims were resisted not due to empirical falsification, but because prevailing paradigms and observational tools were insufficient to accommodate them. Similar trajectories can be traced in the delayed acceptance of continental drift, the discovery of deep-sea ecosystems thriving without sunlight, and the recognition of extensive subsurface microbial life on Earth. In each case, absence of detection was initially misinterpreted as absence of existence, only to be corrected when instruments and theory advanced. These precedents underscore a central principle of scientific epistemology: absence of evidence is not evidence of absence; it is often evidence of instrumental or methodological limitation.

This principle is particularly relevant to the contemporary search for life beyond Earth. Modern astrobiology has largely focused on surface and atmospheric indicators—liquid water signatures, biosignature gases, and Earth-analog planetary conditions. Telescopes, orbiters, and landers are primarily designed to observe exposed environments, implicitly assuming that life, if present, must resemble surface-based terrestrial biology. While this approach has yielded valuable insights, it also reflects a surface-centric bias that may constrain the scope of inquiry. Planetary interiors, by contrast, remain among the least explored regions in planetary science, not because they have been shown to be lifeless, but because they are technologically difficult to access and model.

Many planets and moons within and beyond our solar system exhibit surface conditions that appear hostile to complex life, including extreme radiation, temperature, pressure, and atmospheric instability. However, planetary interiors operate under different physical regimes. Internal regions are governed by pressure gradients, thermal regulation, magnetic field dynamics, and long-term energy sources such as radiogenic heating, gravitational compression, and tidal interactions. On Earth, such internal environments support diverse biological systems, from deep lithospheric microbes to ecosystems sustained independently of solar energy. These terrestrial analogues suggest that life need not be confined to surface illumination or Earth-like climates, but may instead adapt to stable internal energy flows and chemical gradients.

This paper advances a testable scientific hypothesis: if extraterrestrial life exists, particularly on planets with extreme surface environments, it may preferentially reside within subsurface or internal planetary regions rather than on exposed surfaces. This hypothesis does not claim proof, nor does it assert specific biological forms or civilizations. Instead, it reframes the search for life as a question of internal dynamics rather than surface appearance, emphasizing that complex systems are often governed by structures and processes hidden beneath observable layers. Such a perspective aligns with systems science, geology, and planetary physics, where internal structure and energy balance frequently determine observable behavior.

Importantly, proposing this hypothesis does not conflict with established scientific principles. Rather, it extends them into an underexplored domain. Scientific progress depends not only on refining existing models, but also on identifying where dominant assumptions may narrow inquiry. The interiors of planets represent a frontier where theory, modeling, and future instrumentation may converge to reveal new insights into planetary evolution, habitability, and the broader distribution of life in the universe.

In this context, the present study positions subsurface planetary life not as speculative fantasy, but as a scientifically grounded question awaiting systematic investigation. Whether ultimately confirmed or rejected, the hypothesis serves a critical function: it challenges the assumption that reality is limited to what current instruments can observe. History suggests that such limits are temporary. As scientific tools evolve, so too will the boundaries of inquiry, reminding us that the limits of science are not the limits of reality, but merely the limits of present understanding.

Key Scientific Framing

1. Historical Precedent

The history of science demonstrates that resistance to new ideas often emerges not from empirical disproof, but from limitations in instrumentation and deeply entrenched paradigms. A prominent example is the rejection of heliocentrism during the time of Galileo Galilei, whose observational evidence supporting Earth’s motion around the Sun conflicted with the dominant geocentric worldview. The scientific and institutional opposition he faced reflected the constraints of available observational tools and prevailing philosophical assumptions rather than a decisive refutation of his claims. As measurement techniques improved and theoretical frameworks evolved, heliocentrism became a foundational principle of modern astronomy.

Similar patterns can be observed in other major scientific advances. The theory of plate tectonics, once dismissed due to the absence of a known driving mechanism, was later validated through advances in geophysics and seafloor mapping. Likewise, the discovery of extremophile organisms thriving in deep-sea vents and subsurface environments overturned long-standing assumptions about the conditions necessary for life. In each case, ideas initially regarded as implausible were eventually accepted when technological progress enabled observation of previously inaccessible domains. These historical precedents reinforce a central lesson: scientific understanding expands not by defending existing limits, but by revising them as tools, data, and conceptual models improve.

2. Hypothesis

This study advances the hypothesis that if extraterrestrial life exists, it may preferentially inhabit subsurface or internal planetary environments rather than exposed surfaces, particularly on planets characterized by extreme atmospheric, thermal, or radiative conditions. Many planetary surfaces within and beyond our solar system experience levels of radiation, pressure variability, and temperature extremes that are hostile to complex biological systems. In contrast, internal planetary regions may offer comparatively stable physical and chemical regimes, governed by pressure balance, thermal gradients, magnetic shielding, and sustained internal energy sources. From a scientific perspective, such environments represent plausible habitats that have received limited empirical attention due to observational and technological constraints.

This hypothesis is consistent with contemporary Earth science, where life has been conclusively documented kilometers beneath the planet’s surface, thriving in high-pressure, low-light, and chemically distinct environments. Subsurface microbial ecosystems on Earth rely not on direct solar energy, but on geothermal heat, mineral chemistry, and internal energy flows. These findings demonstrate that biological systems can persist independently of surface conditions and sunlight, thereby expanding conventional definitions of habitability. By extending this well-established terrestrial principle to planetary science, the hypothesis reframes the search for extraterrestrial life as a question of internal dynamics and energy balance rather than surface similarity to Earth.

3. Scientific Scope and Boundaries

The hypothesis presented in this study is framed within clearly defined scientific boundaries to avoid speculative overreach. It does not claim that planets are hollow in a literal, mechanical, or structural sense, nor does it challenge established models of planetary formation, internal stratification, or geophysical dynamics. Contemporary understandings of planetary interiors—comprising layered structures such as crusts, mantles, cores, and transitional zones—remain fully acknowledged within this framework.

Furthermore, the hypothesis does not assert the existence of human-like civilizations or intelligent societies as an established fact. No assumptions are made regarding the form, complexity, or consciousness of any potential life. Instead, the focus is placed on fundamental scientific plausibility. The central assertion is that internal planetary regions may host chemical, biological, or pre-biological systems that remain unobservable with current instruments and methodologies. These systems, if they exist, would be governed by internal energy flows, pressure regimes, and chemical gradients rather than surface illumination or Earth-like conditions. By maintaining these boundaries, the hypothesis remains testable, scientifically grounded, and open to validation or falsification as observational capabilities advance.

4. Detection Limitations

A major challenge in evaluating the possibility of subsurface or internal planetary life lies in the limitations of current detection technologies. Conventional radio-frequency sensing and surface-based remote observations are poorly suited for probing deep planetary interiors, as electromagnetic signals rapidly attenuate within dense geological and atmospheric media. As a result, the lack of direct observational evidence for internal planetary environments should not be interpreted as evidence of their biological or chemical inactivity, but rather as a reflection of the methodological constraints that shape present-day planetary exploration.

Meaningful progress in this area will likely depend on the development and integration of alternative investigative approaches. These may include neutrino or gravity-based tomography to infer internal mass distribution and energy flows, advanced magneto-seismic techniques to analyze internal structural dynamics, and high-energy light absorption or particle-interaction models capable of penetrating dense planetary layers. Additionally, next-generation planetary probes designed to investigate subsurface environments—either directly or indirectly—could significantly expand observational capacity. Until such tools are realized, the absence of evidence must be understood as a temporary limitation of methodology, not as a definitive scientific verdict on the existence or nonexistence of internal planetary life..

Cultural and Historical References

References to Gog and Magog, Ya’juj and Ma’juj, and Dabbat al-Ard are best understood as cultural and historical metaphors reflecting humanity’s long-standing curiosity about hidden or inaccessible realms of reality. Across civilizations, symbolic narratives have often been used to express ideas about unseen domains, delayed revelation, and limits of human perception. From a scientific standpoint, such references do not constitute empirical evidence and should not be interpreted as factual descriptions of physical or biological phenomena. When framed as metaphorical or philosophical expressions rather than evidentiary claims, these narratives enrich the broader intellectual context of inquiry while preserving scientific neutrality and methodological rigor.

Key Corrections for Scientific Rigor

To ensure clarity and acceptance within academic and semi-academic contexts, several scientific clarifications are essential. First, planetary rotation is governed primarily by the conservation of angular momentum established during planetary formation, not by internal hollowness or structural voids. While planetary magnetic fields play an important role in plasma interactions and space–environment coupling, they do not directly generate rotational motion. Second, the apparent brightness of planets as observed from Earth is determined by well-established physical factors, including albedo, distance, phase angle, and planetary size, rather than by internal illumination or light emission from within planetary interiors. Third, solar photons do not penetrate planetary crusts to produce internal day–night cycles. Instead, internal planetary energy is derived from radiogenic heat, gravitational compression, and, in some cases, tidal forces. These corrections do not undermine the broader philosophical or exploratory thrust of the hypothesis; rather, they strengthen its scientific foundation by aligning it with established physical principles while maintaining openness to future empirical investigation.

Concluding Statement

Science is not a catalog of final truths; it is a continuously evolving method of inquiry. Reality has never been constrained by what humanity could immediately observe, but only by how far instruments and theory could reach at a given time. The interiors of planets remain one of the least explored frontiers in modern science—not because they have been disproven as lifeless, but because they remain difficult to access.

Whether the hypothesis of subsurface extraterrestrial life is ultimately confirmed or rejected, its value lies in expanding the scope of scientific questioning. Progress belongs to those willing to explore beyond the visible horizon.

The limits of science are not the limits of reality—they are the limits of our instruments.

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Citation

Mashrafi, M. (2026). Beyond Efficiency: A Unified Energy Survival Law for Road, Freight, and Marine Transportation. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/40

Mokhdum Mashrafi (Mehadi Laja)
Research Associate, Track2Training, India
Researcher, Bangladesh
Email: mehadilaja311@gmail.com

Abstract

Classical energy efficiency metrics systematically overestimate real-world performance across transportation, biological, and engineered systems. This discrepancy arises because efficiency isolates individual components under idealized conditions, while real systems operate through sequential absorption, transport, conversion, regulation, and dissipation stages, each subject to irreversible entropy production.

This study introduces a Unified Energy Survival–Absorption–Conversion Law, replacing efficiency with a physically grounded energy survival factor (Ψ) that explicitly accounts for irreversible thermodynamic losses. The survival factor is defined as

where AE is absorbed energy, TE represents recoverable transport and thermodynamic losses, and ε denotes irreversible entropy-generating losses.

To capture finite throughput and rate constraints, an internal conversion competency term (C_{int}) is introduced. The resulting governing law for useful energy production becomes:

Applied to electric vehicles, internal combustion vehicles, marine propulsion, and rail transport, the framework accurately predicts observed field-scale performance envelopes: ~60–75% wheel-level energy delivery in electric vehicles, ~20–30% in internal combustion transport, and ~40–55% shaft-to-thrust efficiency in marine systems.

By explicitly modeling energy survival rather than idealized conversion, the proposed law resolves long-standing efficiency paradoxes, enables cross-modal comparison, identifies dominant loss stages, and establishes hard thermodynamic upper bounds on transportation performance.

1. Introduction

Energy performance assessment underpins transportation engineering, sustainability policy, and system design, serving as a foundational basis for technology evaluation, infrastructure investment, and environmental regulation. Traditionally, transportation performance has been quantified using classical energy efficiency, defined as the ratio of useful output energy to total input energy. This metric has been widely adopted due to its simplicity and its effectiveness in benchmarking isolated components—such as engines, motors, turbines, or converters—under steady-state laboratory conditions. However, despite its widespread use, classical efficiency has proven to be an unreliable predictor of real-world system performance when applied to complex, multi-stage transportation systems operating under dynamic and non-ideal conditions.

Across transportation modes and broader energy systems, observed useful output is routinely two to five times lower than what nominal efficiency values would suggest. For example, electric vehicles frequently report electric motor efficiencies exceeding 90%, yet real-world measurements consistently show that only approximately 65–75% of the electrical input energy is ultimately delivered as useful mechanical work at the wheels. Similarly, internal combustion vehicles may achieve peak thermal efficiencies approaching 45% under optimized test conditions, but in real driving environments they rarely exceed 25–30% useful energy output due to combustion irreversibility, mechanical losses, auxiliary loads, and intermittent operation. Comparable discrepancies are well documented in marine propulsion systems, rail transport, photovoltaic power plants, biological metabolism, and large-scale data centers, indicating that this phenomenon is neither mode-specific nor technology-dependent.

Importantly, these persistent gaps between nominal efficiency and field performance are systematic and reproducible, rather than incidental. They cannot be adequately explained by poor engineering design, suboptimal maintenance, operator behavior, or measurement uncertainty. Instead, they arise from a more fundamental cause: real systems do not convert energy in a single, idealized step. Rather, they operate through sequential, irreversible energy pathways, in which energy must pass through absorption, transport, transformation, regulation, and utilization stages. At each stage, a fraction of energy is irreversibly degraded due to entropy generation mandated by the second law of thermodynamics. Losses incurred at early stages reduce the energy available to all subsequent stages, thereby constraining overall system performance regardless of how efficient downstream components may be.

In this context, energy should not be viewed merely as something that is converted, but as something that must survive a chain of irreversible processes. Energy that fails to survive absorption inefficiencies, transport resistance, control overhead, or contact interactions is permanently unavailable for useful work. Consequently, system-level performance is governed not by peak or component-level efficiency, but by the cumulative survival of energy across all stages of operation. Classical efficiency metrics obscure this reality by collapsing heterogeneous and sequential loss mechanisms into a single scalar ratio, thereby masking the true physical origins of performance limitations.

This paper therefore argues that transportation performance is fundamentally survival-limited, not efficiency-limited. Building on principles of irreversible thermodynamics and staged energy degradation, it introduces a unified thermodynamic framework that explicitly accounts for energy survival across real operational pathways. The proposed framework formalizes this survival-based perspective for road, freight, and marine transportation systems, providing a physically consistent basis for explaining long-observed performance saturation, reconciling laboratory–field discrepancies, and enabling meaningful cross-modal comparison and system-level optimization.

2. Methods: Unified Energy Survival Framework

2.1 Physical Energy Pathway

All real transportation systems follow an ordered energy pathway:

At each stage, irreversible entropy generation destroys usable energy potential, in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics.

2.2 Energy Survival Factor (Ψ)

The energy survival factor is defined as:

• AE (Absorbed Energy): Energy successfully coupled into the system boundary
• TE: Recoverable transport and thermodynamic losses
• ε: Irreversible entropy-generating losses

This formulation explicitly separates recoverable inefficiencies from non-recoverable exergy destruction and enforces the universal bound .

2.3 Stage-Wise Decomposition

For a system with N sequential stages:

Energy survival compounds multiplicatively, explaining bottleneck dominance, diminishing returns, and early-stage sensitivity.

2.4 Internal Conversion Competency (C_{int})

Energy survival alone is insufficient if conversion capacity is limited. We define internal conversion competency as a throughput constraint governed by kinetics, geometry, transport capacity, and time:

2.5 Unified Governing Law

Combining survival and capacity constraints yields:

3. Results: Application to Transportation Systems

3.1 Electric Road Vehicles

Stage-wise survival factors under real driving conditions are:

Stage	Survival
Power electronics	0.93–0.97
Electric motor	0.88–0.92
Transmission	0.96–0.98
Tire–road contact	0.70–0.80

Resulting survival:

This aligns with observed wheel-level performance and explains why further motor efficiency gains yield diminishing returns.

3.2 Internal Combustion Vehicles

Dominant losses occur at the combustion stage:

Stage	Survival
Combustion	~0.40
Mechanical systems	~0.85
Transmission	~0.90
Tire–road contact	~0.75

The framework shows that combustion irreversibility, not drivetrain inefficiency, sets the performance ceiling.

3.3 Marine Transportation

Marine propulsion survival is governed by hydrodynamic dissipation:

Stage	Survival
Fuel → shaft	0.45–0.55
Shaft → propeller	~0.95
Propeller → thrust	0.80–0.90

Observed fuel-to-thrust performance matches survival predictions across vessel classes.

3.4 Rail Systems

Steel–steel contact yields high survival:

This explains rail transport’s superior energy performance relative to road vehicles.

4. Discussion

4.1 Why Efficiency Fails

Classical energy efficiency, defined as the ratio of useful output to energy input, fails to adequately describe real-world transportation performance because it aggregates fundamentally different loss mechanisms into a single scalar value. In practical systems, energy degradation arises from heterogeneous processes—including thermal dissipation, mechanical friction, electrical resistance, control overhead, and idle operation—each governed by different physical laws and timescales. By collapsing these distinct mechanisms into one number, efficiency metrics obscure where and how energy is lost, preventing meaningful diagnosis of dominant loss channels. As a result, two systems with identical efficiencies may exhibit entirely different internal loss structures and vastly different potentials for improvement.

More critically, classical efficiency ignores irreversible entropy production, which is the primary mechanism by which useful energy potential is destroyed in real systems. While energy is conserved, the ability of that energy to perform useful work is not. Irreversibility—manifested as heat rejection, viscous dissipation, inelastic deformation, and control-induced losses—permanently degrades exergy in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics. Efficiency metrics treat these irreversible losses as residuals rather than as causal constraints, thereby overestimating achievable performance and misrepresenting system-level limits.

Finally, efficiency lacks stage resolution and provides misleading optimization signals. Real transportation systems operate through sequential stages of absorption, transport, conversion, regulation, and utilization, with losses compounding multiplicatively across stages. Efficiency-based optimization often directs effort toward already high-performing components, yielding diminishing or negligible system-level gains when earlier or downstream stages dominate total loss. In contrast, the survival framework resolves these limitations by explicitly modeling energy survival through irreversible pathways and making entropy production causally explicit. By identifying low-survival stages as binding constraints, the survival-based approach provides physically meaningful guidance for system design, optimization, and policy, where classical efficiency metrics consistently fall short.

4.2 Design and Policy Implications

The survival-based formulation implies that system-level performance is constrained by the lowest-survival physical interface, rather than by average or peak component efficiency. Because energy survival compounds multiplicatively across sequential stages, a single stage with low survival imposes a hard upper bound on useful output, regardless of how close other components are to ideal performance. In transportation systems, such limiting interfaces commonly include tire–road contact in road vehicles, propeller–fluid interaction in marine transport, and adhesion limits in rail systems. This insight explains why substantial improvements in engines or motors often translate into only marginal real-world gains when downstream or upstream survival bottlenecks dominate.

From a design perspective, the survival framework fundamentally reshapes optimization priorities. It shows that reductions in rolling resistance, hydrodynamic losses, auxiliary loads, and control overhead yield disproportionately larger system-level benefits than further improvements to components that already operate near their physical efficiency limits. For example, incremental gains in electric motor efficiency provide limited returns when rolling resistance, vehicle mass, or parasitic electrical loads dominate energy loss. Similarly, in marine systems, improvements in propeller–wake interaction or hull–water coupling often outperform marginal engine efficiency enhancements. By explicitly identifying low-survival stages, the framework directs design effort toward interventions that meaningfully increase useful output under real operating conditions.

he implications for policy and sustainability assessment are equally significant. Efficiency-based regulatory targets and performance standards systematically overestimate achievable outcomes because they are derived from idealized component efficiencies rather than survival-limited system behavior. This can lead to unrealistic expectations regarding energy savings, emissions reductions, and technology deployment timelines. A survival-based policy perspective enables more realistic, physics-consistent targets by accounting for irreversible losses, operational constraints, and system-level bottlenecks. As a result, transportation policies informed by energy survival provide a more reliable basis for infrastructure planning, environmental regulation, and long-term sustainability strategies than conventional efficiency-centered approaches.

4.3 Universality of the Law

Despite wide differences in energy sources, technologies, and operating environments, all transportation modes obey the same survival-limited physical constraints. Whether energy enters a system as chemical fuel, electrical power, or mechanical input, it must be absorbed, transported, transformed, regulated, and ultimately utilized through finite, irreversible pathways. At each stage, entropy generation irreversibly degrades usable energy potential, enforcing universal thermodynamic bounds on performance. Consequently, road vehicles, rail systems, marine vessels, and even biologically inspired transport mechanisms are governed by the same underlying principles of energy survival, regardless of their apparent technological diversity.

Observed differences in performance across transportation modes therefore do not arise from fundamentally different physical laws, but from differences in the energy survival factor (Ψ) and the internal conversion competency (C_{int}). Systems such as electric rail benefit from high contact survival and low rolling resistance, yielding larger Ψ values, while internal combustion vehicles are constrained by substantial entropy generation during combustion, resulting in lower survival. Similarly, marine transport performance is limited primarily by hydrodynamic dissipation, whereas road vehicles are dominated by surface contact and auxiliary losses. In each case, the governing law remains unchanged; only the survival structure and conversion capacity differ.

This universality has important scientific and practical implications. It enables direct, physically meaningful comparison across transportation modes using a common thermodynamic framework, rather than mode-specific efficiency metrics that obscure underlying constraints. By demonstrating that all transportation systems are subject to the same survival-based law, the framework provides a unified foundation for cross-modal analysis, technology assessment, and policy evaluation. Ultimately, it establishes that improvements in transportation performance must focus on enhancing energy survival and conversion capacity, rather than seeking fundamentally new laws or relying on isolated efficiency gains.

5. Conclusions

This study establishes a Unified Energy Survival–Absorption–Conversion Law that governs useful energy production across road, freight, rail, and marine transportation systems. By replacing efficiency with a thermodynamically grounded survival framework, the proposed law explains long-observed performance saturation, reconciles laboratory–field discrepancies, and provides a universal basis for system comparison and optimization.

The governing equation

demonstrates that transportation performance is limited by energy survival and conversion capacity, not by peak efficiency.

This framework is experimentally measurable, falsifiable, and broadly applicable, offering a new physical foundation for transportation engineering, sustainability analysis, and energy policy.

References

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Citation

Mishra, A. (2026). Punishing Desire: Female Adultery and Patriarchal Justice from Puritan America to Modern India. Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 12(1), 75–78. https://doi.org/10.26643/jsmap/2026/4

Dr. Aparna Mishra

English

Bhopal, India

Email: aparnaamishra24@gmail.com

Abstract

Adultery has historically functioned as a deeply gendered moral category, with women subjected to harsher scrutiny, punishment, and social regulation than men. This paper undertakes a comparative feminist analysis of The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne and A Married Woman by Manju Kapur to examine how patriarchal societies across two distinct eras and cultures discipline female sexual transgression. Although separated by more than a century, divergent cultural contexts, and different narrative modes, both novels reveal a striking continuity in the moral double standards governing adultery. Female desire is rendered visible, punishable, and socially destabilising, while male transgression is concealed, excused, or institutionally protected. The paper argues that adultery in these texts functions less as a moral failing and more as a mechanism through which patriarchal authority asserts control over female autonomy. By analysing public punishment, moral surveillance, and gendered accountability, this study demonstrates how patriarchal justice adapts its methods while preserving its fundamental logic.

Keywords: adultery, gendered morality, patriarchy, feminist criticism, Hawthorne, Manju Kapur

1. Introduction

Across cultures and historical periods, adultery has rarely been judged as a gender-neutral transgression. Instead, it has functioned as a moral fault line along which societies articulate anxieties about female sexuality, social order, and institutional authority. While male sexual transgressions are often treated as private indiscretions or psychological lapses, female adultery is repeatedly framed as a public threat demanding social correction.

This paper examines the persistence of this gendered double standard through a comparative reading of The Scarlet Letter (1850) and A Married Woman (2003). Despite their vastly different contexts—Puritan New England and modern urban India—both novels expose how patriarchal societies punish female desire while shielding male authority. The comparison reveals not moral evolution but ideological continuity: patriarchy alters its methods of regulation without relinquishing control.

Indian and Western feminist critics alike have noted that sexuality remains one of the most tightly regulated aspects of women’s lives. As Elaine Showalter observes, women’s writing frequently documents “the painful process of becoming conscious” rather than triumphant emancipation (13). In both Hawthorne and Kapur, adultery becomes the narrative moment where such consciousness collides with institutional power.

2. Adultery, Patriarchy, and Moral Regulation: A Theoretical Framework

Feminist theory has consistently identified sexuality as a central site of patriarchal control. Simone de Beauvoir argues that society treats male sexuality as an act, while female sexuality is treated as destiny, thereby burdening women with enduring moral consequences for sexual transgression (The Second Sex 411). Adultery thus becomes less an ethical breach than a mechanism for enforcing gender hierarchy.

Michel Foucault’s analysis of sexuality as a domain regulated through surveillance rather than mere prohibition is particularly instructive here. He contends that power operates most effectively when it is internalised, functioning through confession, guilt, and moral normalisation (History of Sexuality 94). This framework allows for a comparative understanding of how Puritan America’s public punishment evolves into modern India’s moral containment.

Gerda Lerner further argues that the institutional regulation of female sexuality is foundational to patriarchy itself (198). Whether through law, religion, or respectability politics, women’s desire is consistently framed as socially dangerous. These insights provide the conceptual basis for examining adultery not as personal failure but as patriarchal justice in action.

3. Public Punishment and Spectacle in The Scarlet Letter

In The Scarlet Letter, adultery is constructed as a public crime requiring ritualised punishment. Hester Prynne’s transgression is immediately translated into spectacle: she is displayed on the scaffold, branded with the scarlet “A,” and subjected to continuous communal surveillance.

The letter is not merely punitive but symbolic. Hawthorne describes it as having “the effect of a spell, taking her out of the ordinary relations with humanity” (53). Hester’s body becomes a moral text, permanently marked and socially isolated. The punishment extends beyond legal sanction into daily existence, transforming her identity into a cautionary emblem.

Feminist critics have argued that Hester’s punishment is designed less to reform her than to stabilise a patriarchal order threatened by female autonomy. Nina Baym notes that Hester’s suffering functions as “a warning rather than a correction” (88). The public nature of her punishment ensures that female desire remains visible and regulated.

4. Male Guilt and Institutional Immunity

While Hester’s punishment is public and corporeal, Arthur Dimmesdale’s suffering is private and psychological. Although equally culpable, Dimmesdale retains his social authority as a minister. Hawthorne observes that his anguish was “of the inward sort, and therefore the more terrible” (129), a statement that transforms guilt into spiritual depth.

This narrative sympathy exposes the moral asymmetry of patriarchal justice. Dimmesdale’s silence is interpreted as complexity and suffering, while Hester’s silence is read as defiance. Judith Butler’s concept of gendered accountability is useful here: women are required to “give an account of themselves,” while men retain moral opacity (Giving an Account of Oneself 42).

Thus, male transgression is internalised and humanised, whereas female transgression is externalised and criminalised. Patriarchal justice operates not through equal law but through differential visibility of punishment.

5. Moral Surveillance and Emotional Containment in A Married Woman

In A Married Woman, adultery is no longer a legal offence but remains a moral one. Kapur shifts the terrain of punishment from public spectacle to internalised surveillance. Astha’s extra-marital relationship does not invite public condemnation, but it subjects her to intense emotional scrutiny and guilt.

Astha recognises that she has “stepped outside the circle” and that return is possible only through denial (214). This statement reveals how modern patriarchy disciplines women through silence rather than exposure. Moral containment replaces legal punishment, yet the burden remains gendered.

Astha’s husband, Hemant, faces no comparable judgment. His emotional neglect is normalised, while Astha’s desire is treated as excess. Kapur underscores this imbalance when she notes that Astha “carried the burden of feeling too much, while Hemant carried none” (218). As in Hawthorne’s novel, male authority remains intact despite relational failure.

Veena Das observes that such moral containment is characteristic of middle-class respectability, where women’s transgressions are absorbed through silence rather than confrontation (132). Kapur’s narrative exemplifies this process.

6. Gendered Accountability across Cultures

Despite cultural and temporal differences, both novels expose a shared moral logic. In Puritan America, patriarchal justice operates through law and religious spectacle. In modern India, it functions through respectability politics and internalised guilt. Yet the outcome is identical: female desire is punished, male authority preserved.

Adrienne Rich’s concept of compulsory heterosexuality is relevant here. She argues that marital fidelity operates as a system ensuring women’s emotional and sexual compliance (648). Both Hester and Astha threaten this system, not merely through adultery, but through the assertion of autonomous desire.

Thus, adultery becomes a site where patriarchy reveals its deepest anxieties. It is not fidelity that is protected, but control.

7. Continuity Rather Than Progress

The comparative reading challenges narratives of linear feminist progress. While modern society abandons physical branding, it retains moral regulation. Hester is publicly marked; Astha is privately contained. One suffers spectacle, the other silence. Yet both are disciplined for destabilising male-centred institutions of marriage and authority.

Foucault’s insight that power adapts rather than disappears is crucial here. Patriarchal justice evolves in form but not in function. The regulation of female sexuality remains central to social order.

8. Conclusion

This paper has argued that The Scarlet Letter and A Married Woman reveal a persistent gendered double standard in the moral regulation of adultery. Despite differences in historical context, narrative strategy, and cultural background, both novels demonstrate how patriarchal justice punishes female desire while shielding male transgression.

Adultery, in these texts, functions not as a moral absolute but as a diagnostic category through which societies police women’s autonomy. Hester Prynne and Astha do not merely violate marital norms; they expose the fragile foundations of patriarchal morality.

Feminist disillusionment thus emerges not as failure but as critique. By placing these texts in dialogue, the study underscores the enduring nature of gendered moral control and invites a rethinking of adultery as feminist resistance rather than moral deviance.

References

Baym, Nina. Revisiting Hawthorne’s Feminism. Rutgers UP, 2002.

Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Translated by H. M. Parshley, Vintage, 1989.

Butler, Judith. Giving an Account of Oneself. Fordham UP, 2005.

Das, Veena. Critical Events: An Anthropological Perspective on Contemporary India. Oxford UP, 1995.

Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality, Volume I. Translated by Robert Hurley, Vintage, 1990.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. Edited by Leland S. Person, Norton Critical Edition, Norton, 2018.

Kapur, Manju. A Married Woman. Penguin India, 2003.

Lerner, Gerda. The Creation of Patriarchy. Oxford UP, 1986.

Rich, Adrienne. “Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence.” Signs, vol. 5, no. 4, 1980, pp. 631–660.

Showalter, Elaine. A Literature of Their Own. Princeton UP, 1977.

Dr. Aparna Mishra

English

Bhopal, India

Email: aparnaamishra24@gmail.com

Abstract

Education is widely conceptualised within feminist theory and social-development discourse as a transformative instrument capable of enabling women’s empowerment, autonomy, and social mobility. In the Indian context, however, literary narratives frequently complicate this assumption by revealing the emotional, cultural, and structural consequences of education for women situated within rigid caste and gender hierarchies. This paper examines education as a site of feminist disillusionment in Bama’s Karukku and Manju Kapur’s Difficult Daughters and A Married Woman. It argues that while education sharpens feminist consciousness and ethical awareness, it often intensifies social and emotional marginalisation when institutional and cultural structures remain unchanged. By integrating literary analysis with feminist social theory, the study demonstrates that education often produces awareness without emancipation, exposing the gap between developmental promises and lived realities. The paper concludes by outlining policy implications for gender and education that emerge from these narratives.

Keywords: women and education, feminist disillusionment, caste and patriarchy, social exclusion, Indian society

1. Introduction

Within international social-studies scholarship, education is consistently positioned as a cornerstone of social progress. Development indices, policy frameworks, and feminist advocacy alike emphasise women’s education as a solution to gender inequality, poverty, and social stagnation. Education is assumed to foster rational agency, economic independence, and democratic participation, thereby enabling women to transcend traditional constraints. However, this assumption presupposes that social institutions are willing and able to absorb the transformed consciousness that education produces. In societies structured by caste hierarchy, patriarchal family systems, and moral regulation of women’s lives, education may heighten awareness without ensuring social acceptance. It is within this contradiction that feminist disillusionment emerges—not as personal despair, but as structural betrayal. Indian women’s writing offers a particularly incisive lens through which to examine this paradox. Rather than celebrating education as an unqualified emancipatory force, many narratives document the emotional, ethical, and social costs of educational awakening. As Elaine Showalter observes, women’s literature often records “the painful process of becoming conscious” rather than triumphant liberation (13).

This paper examines such consciousness in the works of Bama and Manju Kapur. Writing from distinct social locations—Dalit Christian Tamil society and North Indian middle-class Hindu patriarchy—both authors foreground women whose educational attainment intensifies their awareness of injustice without securing belonging or fulfilment. The paper argues that education functions as a paradoxical force: it empowers the mind while isolating the self.

2. Education, Feminism, and the Problem of Structural Limits

Liberal feminist theory has traditionally foregrounded education as a primary route to women’s emancipation. Simone de Beauvoir asserts that women’s subordination persists because they are denied access to institutions that produce autonomy, among which education is central (37). From this perspective, education appears as a corrective capable of dismantling gender inequality.

Yet postcolonial and subaltern feminists challenge the universality of this claim. Education, they argue, does not operate outside power relations; it is embedded within them. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak cautions that access to education does not automatically confer voice or agency, particularly for subjects positioned at the margins of social power. Institutional systems often absorb educated marginal subjects without altering the hierarchies that silence them (Spivak 287).

Dalit feminist scholarship further complicates the narrative of educational empowerment. For Dalit women, education frequently produces heightened awareness of exclusion while leaving caste structures intact. Knowledge becomes a means of recognition rather than escape. Disillusionment, therefore, emerges not from the failure of education itself but from the failure of society to respond to the consciousness education generates.

This theoretical tension provides the framework for the present analysis. In the texts examined, education produces critical consciousness without social legitimacy, resulting in feminist disillusionment.

3. Education and Caste Alienation in Bama’s Karukku

Bama’s Karukku occupies a central position in Dalit feminist literature, offering a searing critique of caste oppression as experienced within educational and religious institutions. Education initially appears as a promise—a means to dignity, equality, and escape from inherited humiliation. As a student, Bama internalises the belief that learning will enable transcendence.

This belief, however, is systematically dismantled. Bama states with stark clarity: “No matter how educated we are, the label of ‘Paraiya’ can never be erased” (Bama 29). This assertion encapsulates the fundamental paradox governing education in the text. Education sharpens awareness of injustice but does not dismantle caste as a social determinant.

Educational spaces, rather than functioning as neutral sites of meritocracy, become arenas where caste prejudice is reproduced. Bama recounts repeated experiences of humiliation within Church-run schools, exposing the hypocrisy of institutions that preach equality while practising discrimination. She observes that “they spoke of love and justice, but treated us as if we were born to be humiliated” (Bama 41).

As is evident from the narrative, education intensifies emotional alienation. The more Bama learns, the more acutely she perceives the injustice surrounding her. Education estranges her not only from dominant institutions but also from her own community, which often discourages questioning as a threat to collective survival. The educated Dalit woman thus occupies a liminal position—critically aware yet socially marginalised.

From a social-studies perspective, Karukku demonstrates the limitations of educational inclusion without structural reform. Education exposes inequality but lacks the institutional authority to dismantle it. Feminist disillusionment here emerges as a rational response to systemic betrayal rather than personal pessimism.

4. Education, Gender, and Nationalist Modernity in Difficult Daughters

Manju Kapur’s Difficult Daughters situates women’s education within the socio-political context of nationalist India, a period that outwardly promoted female education as a symbol of progress and reform. Yet the novel reveals that this promotion was conditional and deeply gendered.

Virmati’s education enables intellectual awakening and feminist questioning. She becomes increasingly dissatisfied with domestic confinement and marriage as destiny. However, this awareness does not translate into autonomy. Reflecting on her educational journey, Virmati recognises that it made her “restless, dissatisfied, and incapable of fitting into the life laid out for her” (Kapur, Difficult Daughters 143).

Education destabilises her social position without providing alternatives. As can be understood from the narrative, educated women are perceived as disruptive rather than empowered. Virmati’s learning threatens patriarchal order, yet the same order refuses to accommodate her aspirations. She becomes a figure of moral anxiety rather than progress.

Kapur thus exposes a central contradiction of nationalist modernity: women’s education is celebrated rhetorically but constrained materially. The educated woman is expected to embody progress without demanding autonomy. Feminist awareness produces isolation rather than solidarity, revealing the emotional cost of consciousness.

5. Education, Sexual Identity, and Emotional Estrangement in A Married Woman

In A Married Woman, Kapur extends the theme of feminist disillusionment by linking education to political and sexual awareness. Astha’s education enables her to engage with art, activism, and alternative forms of intimacy. This expansion of consciousness allows her to perceive the emptiness of her marriage with clarity.

Astha acknowledges that education has given her “the ability to see the emptiness of her marriage clearly” (Kapur, A Married Woman 212). Yet clarity does not produce freedom. As is conveyed in the text, education sharpens perception but does not dismantle the structures that enforce marital conformity.

Astha’s feminist awareness intensifies emotional fragmentation. She becomes increasingly alienated within domestic life, unable to reconcile intellectual fulfilment with social expectation. Education destabilises patriarchal arrangements but leaves her without viable alternatives. This condition reflects what feminist theorists describe as the emotional cost of consciousness—awareness becomes a burden when society lacks the capacity to absorb transformed subjectivities.

6. Comparative Analysis: Awareness without Emancipation

Across Bama and Kapur’s works, education functions as a catalyst for feminist consciousness while simultaneously producing alienation. In Karukku, caste hierarchy renders education socially ineffective. In Kapur’s novels, gendered respectability neutralises its emancipatory potential.

As Elaine Showalter notes, women’s writing frequently records “a struggle for self-definition within structures that deny legitimacy” (19). Education intensifies this struggle by exposing injustice without resolving it. The educated woman becomes hyper-aware of exclusion but remains constrained by institutions unwilling to change.

From a social-studies standpoint, these narratives challenge education-centric models of empowerment. They demonstrate that education, when divorced from structural reform, risks producing disillusionment rather than liberation.

7. Implications for Gender and Education Policy

The literary insights offered by Bama and Kapur carry significant implications for gender-responsive education policy. First, the narratives reveal that access to education alone is insufficient to ensure empowerment. Policies that focus solely on enrolment and attainment must be re-evaluated, as they risk overlooking the lived realities of educated women who remain socially marginalised.

Second, the texts underscore the necessity of addressing structural inequalities alongside educational expansion. In Karukku, caste discrimination persists within educational institutions themselves, suggesting the need for institutional accountability, inclusive pedagogy, and enforceable anti-discrimination mechanisms. Without confronting caste hierarchies, education may amplify awareness without enabling mobility.

Third, Kapur’s novels highlight the gap between educational advancement and social accommodation. Gender-sensitive policy must address not only access but also the social conditions that shape women’s post-educational lives—marriage norms, workplace discrimination, and moral surveillance. Education that disrupts traditional roles without institutional support can intensify emotional vulnerability.

Finally, these narratives emphasise the importance of integrating emotional and ethical dimensions into educational policy. Empowerment must be understood not only in economic terms but also in terms of belonging, dignity, and legitimacy. Feminist disillusionment, as portrayed in these texts, serves as a critical diagnostic tool, revealing where policy promises fail to translate into lived justice.

8. Conclusion

This paper has examined education as a site of feminist disillusionment in the works of Bama and Manju Kapur. While education enhances critical awareness and ethical questioning, it often deepens social and emotional marginalisation when caste hierarchies, gender norms, and institutional resistance remain intact.

Rather than rejecting education, these narratives demand a re-evaluation of its role within social transformation. Education alone cannot guarantee empowerment unless accompanied by systemic change. Feminist disillusionment thus emerges not as failure but as critique—a powerful indicator of the gap between educational promise and social reality.

For international social-studies scholarship, these texts underscore the necessity of coupling educational access with structural reform. Without such integration, education risks producing awareness without emancipation.

References

Bama. Karukku. Translated by Lakshmi Holmström, Oxford UP, 2012.

Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Translated by H. M. Parshley, Vintage, 1989.

Kapur, Manju. A Married Woman. Penguin India, 2003.

—. Difficult Daughters. Penguin India, 1998.

Showalter, Elaine. A Literature of Their Own. Princeton UP, 1977.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, U of Illinois P, 1988, pp. 271–313.

Dhand, D. (2016). Representation of subaltern voices in Indian English writings highlighting the narrative of subalternity in women. Research journal of English language and literature, 4(01).

Sharma, P., & Dwivedi, A. K. (2025). Colonial Echoes. Indian Literature, 69(6 (350), 42-49.

Kavitha, T. N. K., & Rajaram, M. (2025). Fragmented Selves and Commodified Bodies: A Posthumanist Exploration of Gender, Identity and Power in Shobhaa De’s Sisters.

Sharma, D. (2017). Insights of Feminist Epistemology in Some Selected Novels of Alice Walker. Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities.

Citation

Anamica, U. (2026). Impact Of Covid-19 on Haptics Communication-A Study among Middle School Children. International Journal of Research, 13(2), 146–153. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/2026/39

Dr. U. Anamica

Assistant Professor of English,

Jayaraj Annapackiam College for Women(Autonomous)

Periyakulam.

anamicaeng@annejac.ac.in.

Abstract

Communication attaches humans with the universe. Solid communication among individuals and loved one’s shape character. Both Verbal and nonverbal communication reinforced relationships. Humans are trained to seek positive non-verbal communication at times of vulnerability, loneliness, and fearful situations. This paper attempts to prove that the lack of non-verbal communication during the pandemic has affected the learning experiences of the students and it specifically focuses on haptics, one of the forms of non-verbal communication.

Key Words:

Non-verbal, communication, kinesics, psych muscular, COVID-19, Pandemic.

Introduction

The impact of the COVID-19 outbreak has jammed almost all sectors of life on earth. The intimacy among the human community is traumatized. However people were at home on the days of wide-ranging lockdown, communication was interrupted.  Higher education has experienced great changes, the indeterminate environment, health issues among family members, online classes, financial shocks, and lack of personal communication have caused  adverse results. Online learning might have troubled the students’ routine learning experiences in academics, their plans for education, and their future employment chances. Above all communication among individuals and groups was troubled and schoolchildren were affected a lot because of this hostile situation.

Communication attaches humans with the universe. Solid communication among individuals and loved one’s shape character. Both Verbal and nonverbal communication reinforced relationships. Humans are skilled in seeking positive non-verbal communication at times of helplessness, isolation, and dreadful situations. This paper attempts to prove that the lack of non-verbal communication during the pandemic has affected the learning experiences of the students and the research specifically focuses on Haptics, one of the forms of non-verbal communication.

Non-Verbal Communication

Interpersonal communication was distressed because of social distancing and face masks. In reducing the spreading of the virus, technology was used as it guarantees remote communications. Applications such as Zoom, Google Meet, Skype, and Microsoft teams have become the medium of communication, predominantly in education. Though technology aided to have connectivity in education, it affected the non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication connects without words in a sense it is deep, because it has emotive involvement. A small touch, facial expressions, gestures, postures, and eye contact penetrates the heart more than verbal communication. A teacher’s non-verbal communication expresses volumes more than her adorable lecture.  A teacher’s smile, paralanguage, pitch, talking style, and other elements of nonverbal communication increase the holistic development of the students. Nonverbal communication has different forms: a) Proxemics b) Eye Contact c) Haptics d) Chronemics e) Posture f) General appearance g) Paralanguage h) Kinesics i) Facial Expression. Proxemics is physical space around oneself which varies based on our relationship with the individual.

The teacher services the students to be alert in the classroom by moving around.  Without adopting successful proxemics, the teacher cannot give a successful learning experience or strong interaction. Eye contact is a powerful non-verbal communication that has a large impact on a student’s behaviour. Haptics is physical touch in the form of a handshake, pat on a shoulder, back-slapping, and the like, these behaviours impress the receiver and convey the message of the sender properly. A teacher’s positive haptics plays a vital role in the learning experience of the students. Chronemics is the type of non-verbal communication where an individual is ready to spare her/his time as a well-wisher. The punctuality of the teacher and willingness to wait and listen to the needs of the students make this type of non-verbal communication amiable. The posture of a teacher communicates to the students can develop confidence, power, and positivity. Arm position, body orientation, relaxed look, calm and assertive behaviour. The general appearance of the teacher like physique, height, weight, hair colour, skin, and clothing conveys non-verbal messages while the teacher interacts. The Facial Expression of a teacher has a great effect on communication. Among facial expressions like sadness, anger, fear, and happiness, a smile is a powerful positive non-verbal communication. Kinesics is bodily movements that communicate the content effectively. Kinesics holds the attention, emphasizes specific points, maintains the flow of classroom activity, and makes the students involved in the classrooms. Paralanguage includes pitch, inflection, voice, and rhythm which elicit students’ approval and enthusiasm.

Haptics

Non-verbal communication penetrates the heart than verbal communication. The COVID-19 pandemic horrified its core of it, so many students lost their attention in studies. Online classes can never be a replacement for regular classes. Because of this idea, a survey was taken among the middle school children of Theni district. 100 random samples were taken for the study. VII, VIII & IX standard students were chosen from various schools in Theni district. Twenty questions were prepared based on non-verbal communication which was devoid in their educational life during COVID-19. Most of the students accepted that they missed their teachers and friends. Though they met them during the virtual classroom, they could not get the satisfaction of meeting them personally.

A Socio-emotional development is inculcated among school children through non-verbal communication especially through haptics. Haptics communication comprises pat, slap, hug, handshake, tickle, hit, kick, embrace and etc. Haptics elicits different responses like fear, disgust, love, encouragement, gratitude, sympathy, anger, pain etc. Intentional or unintentional touch might have consequences either positive or negative. It sends information through sensory nerves and gets information through brain sensors and influences the psychological stimulus. Human feels abandoned and thwarted when there is no communication through touch as human beings are sense organisms. A teacher uses touch as an effective way of communication to nurture children. Specially among middle and below middle school children.

Results of the Survey

The results of the survey proved that students were unable to learn fully because they missed the psycho-muscular learning. The following diagrams would prove the importance of haptics communication in teaching and learning. Though twenty questions were given for a survey, the questions related to haptics alone is analysed here.

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1 proved that students missed the patting of their teacher who gave them confidence through their touch. Positive Touch helps the students to move on in life. Sixty students missed the patting of their teacher and 33 students were in a dilemma, which proved that they might have liked the patting or expected a patting of their teachers. It indicates that may be could be considered in positive light.

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2 proved that the physical intimacy among friends has entertained the students to work well on their academics. The isolated atmosphere during COVID-19 affected peer learning which is effective among learners. Fifty-two students said that they missed the peer teaching of their friends since they were not allowed to go outside. Thirty-three students marked as May be which means that they were confused in answering. It indicated that they would have missed peer learning experiences.

Figure 1.3

The result of figure 1.3 asserted that the students missed the touch of their friends which develops socio-emotional communication.  At the middle school level children develop confidence, self-esteem inclusiveness through touch which diminish inequality . Forty-Four students actively admitted that they have missed the touch of their friends. Thirty-five students were in a confusion and they answered as may be which means they also might have missed the experiences of haptics.

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.4 asserted that they missed comfort of security from their teacher who developed confidence through touch. A congratulating handshake, or lovely kick to indicate teachers’ warmth towards the students might be the sources of happy school life. Thirty-three students said yes, as they missed their teachers comforting words or touch. Fifty students were so confused, that they were unable to decide which means that they would have experienced warmth of their teacher.

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.5 showed that fifty-seven students lost intimacy among classmates as they were isolated from schools and from society at large. School life is a happy life for children especially in the middle school level but the pandemic has deprived it from the students. Forty-three students replied Maybe which meant that sometimes they felt the same like others who said yes.

Summation:

            Nonverbal communication links the sender and receiver. Even among grown-ups’ nonverbal communication works chiefly. A touch of a teacher or friend gives the students confidence and they feel secured. They believe in the systems and community through acceptance. Haptics communication develop self-esteem.   At the middle school level, students learn social and emotional things through haptics communication. They need the fullest attention of the teacher and classmates. They learn and unlearn things through haptics communication. Most people remember our middle school life happily than other levels of learning. COVID-19 has disturbed haptics communication which are essential for interactive learning. The diagram showed that the students missed their physical activities in school as well as their teacher’s bodily communications. The minimum number of students have opted for No and most of them admitted that they missed playful learning processes. Few have answered as may be which also has to be considered as yes. The majority of them were in a dilemma and unable to decide whether they missed their teacher’s/friends physical presence  or not. In prudential light, those who were in dilemmas have fifty percent of opportunities for answering yes. It is evident from the survey that the learning process is virtually incomplete, especially among middle school children.

Works Cited :

Wharton, Tim.(2009) Pragmatics and Non-Verbal Communication. Cambridge University Press.

Calero, Henry H. (2005) The Power of Nonverbal Communication. Silver Lake Publishing.

Jones, Lynette A. (2018).Haptics. The Mit Press Essential Knowledge Series.

Web Sources:

Haptic Communication

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34909231/

Acknowledgement:

The author Dr. U. Anamica, Assistant Professor of English) acknowledges the Financial Support from Jayaraj Annapackiam College for Women(Autonomous), Periyakulam under JACFRP SCHEME Ref: JAC/JACFRP-FACULTY/2/2021-’22.

¹Mrs Shende Deepali Haridas and ¹Dr. Sharmila. V. Gadge

¹Y.C.S.P.

Mandal’s Dadasaheb Digambar Shankar Patil Arts, Commerce & Science College, Erandol, Maharashtra, India.

Email : sharmilagadge@gmail.com

¹KBC, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India.

Email: nashik2009@gmail.com

Abstract

Information is central to scientific research, directly influencing research quality, innovation, and productivity. This study examines the information needs and information-seeking behaviour of scientists at the National Centre for Cell Science (NCCS), Pune, a leading cell biology research institute in India. It explores the types of information scientists require, the sources and channels they use, the resources they prefer, and the challenges they encounter while fulfilling their information needs. A mixed-method approach combining surveys and interviews was adopted. The findings show that online databases and peer-reviewed journals are the most frequently used sources of information. However, scientists often face difficulties such as restricted access to paywalled content and information overload. The study recommends improving access to digital resources and strengthening information support services to enhance research efficiency and productivity at NCCS.

Keywords: Information, Cell Science, Information Seeking Behaviour, Scientists

1) Introduction

Scientific research is inherently information-intensive. Scientists continuously depend on current research findings, experimental protocols, specialised datasets, and collaborative networks to design and validate their work. Information needs arise when researchers recognise a knowledge gap and actively seek reliable sources to address it. Understanding these needs and behaviours at an institutional level helps libraries, research support units, and policymakers design better information systems and training programs.

The National Centre for Cell Science (NCCS), Pune, is an autonomous institute supported by the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India. It focuses on advanced research in areas such as cancer biology, genomics, immunology, microbial ecology, and stem cell research. With modern facilities in proteomics, microscopy, flow cytometry, and bioinformatics, NCCS generates and consumes vast amounts of scientific information through both formal and informal channels.

2) Background

NCCS was established to strengthen cell biology research in India and has grown into a prominent research institution over the past three decades. Its work addresses both fundamental biological questions and emerging public-health concerns. Over time, the institute has expanded its scientific scope to include structural and computational biology, neurobiology, regeneration and development, proteomics, and immunology. These newer domains complement its earlier strengths in cancer research, cellular metabolism, intracellular transport, and infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, and AIDS. Research activities are supported by advanced laboratory infrastructure and a well-maintained experimental animal facility that provides technical assistance to scientists.

3) History of NCCS

NCCS began in 1986 as the National Tissue Culture Facility with a mandate for basic research, teaching, training, and maintaining national cell repositories. Initially focused on developing and distributing animal and human cell lines to academic and research institutions, it gradually expanded into broader areas of cell and molecular biology, genomics, proteomics, and immunology. Today, it continues to serve as a national resource centre while advancing high-quality scientific research.

4) Areas of Research

The institute emphasises high-impact research publications and quality scientific output. Its major domains include cell biology, cancer research, genomics, immunology, proteomics, and related interdisciplinary areas. Over the past decade, the institute has produced a substantial number of peer-reviewed journal publications, reflecting its strong research culture and academic contribution.

5) Number of Employees

Designation	Total
Scientist G	11
Scientist F	03
Scientist E	08
Scientist D	08
Scientist C	02
Scientific & Technical Support	09
Staff	16
Multi-Tasking Staff	07
Total	64

6) International Collaboration

NCCS scientists actively collaborate with research organisations across countries such as the USA, China, Japan, the UK, Switzerland, France, Germany, Italy, Norway, Australia, and several African nations. These collaborations include joint research projects, academic exchanges, and training opportunities, enabling students and scholars to gain international exposure and strengthen interdisciplinary research.

7) Objectives of the Study

• To identify the types of information required by NCCS scientists.
• To examine the sources and channels used for information seeking.
• To analyse challenges faced in accessing information.
• To suggest strategies for improving information access and utilization

8) Scope and Limitation

The study is limited to scientists and research fellows working at the National Centre for Cell Science, Pune, and does not extend to other research institutions.

9) Review of Literature

Athukorala (2013) This study examined the information needs and search behaviour of computer science researchers in Finland using case studies and a web survey. It found that researchers mainly search information to stay updated, explore new topics, review literature, and collaborate. Searching was often collaborative, and different tools and strategies were used depending on the purpose of the search. Acheampong & Dzandu (2013) Focusing on crop research scientists in Ghana, this study showed that scientists preferred journal articles, especially in electronic format, and frequently used libraries and scientific meetings as information sources. It recommended better journal subscriptions and training in information search skills. Abubakar & Akar (2017)
This research investigated the availability and use of electronic databases in Nigerian agricultural research institutes. Results indicated that electronic databases improved research output and information literacy, but challenges such as poor internet connectivity, lack of subscriptions, and weak ICT infrastructure limited effective use. Jamali(2010) The study explored how physicists and astronomers use Google for information seeking. It revealed that Google is increasingly used as a starting point for finding scholarly articles due to its simplicity, and it suggested that academic databases should adopt similar user-friendly features. Goswami & Choudhury (2014)
This study on R&D organisations in Jharkhand found that researchers relied on both formal and informal sources. Informal channels such as meetings, seminars, and workshops played a significant role in knowledge sharing and information acquisition. Makinde(2019) Conducted in a Nigerian federal research institute, this study highlighted that poor internet connectivity and inadequate ICT facilities negatively affected researchers’ information-seeking behaviour. It recommended improving internet services, conducting information audits, and ensuring reliable power supply to support access to e-resources.

10) Methodology

A descriptive survey method was adopted using questionnaires and interviews to gather both quantitative and qualitative data. The study population included scientists and research fellows at NCCS. Participants were selected from diverse research groups including cell biology, molecular biology, immunology, genomics, and proteomics. Data collected were analysed using R software to identify patterns and trends.

11) Data Analysis

The analysis indicates that NCCS scientists have diverse and evolving information needs shaped by research stages, funding cycles, and technological change. Their behaviour reflects a balance between formal academic tools and informal professional networks.

Major Information Needs

• Research Literature: Peer-reviewed journals, reviews, and preprints remain the most critical sources for staying updated.
• Experimental Protocols: Standardizedlaboratory methods and workflows are essential for reproductivity
• Scientific Data Repositories: Genomic, imaging, and metabolic datasets support data-driven research.
• Technical Documentation: Manuals and tutorials for bioinformatics and statistical tools are increasingly important.
• Collaboration & Funding Information: Grant calls and partnership opportunities support professional growth.

Information Seeking Channels

Formal: Electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science), institutional journal subscriptions, data repositories, and internal training workshops.
Informal: Peer discussions, conferences, seminars, and academic social networks such as ResearchGate and LinkedIn.

Preferred Resources

Scientists favour journals over books, online databases over printed indexes, and direct consultation with collaborators or supervisors over mediated library assistance. This preference highlights the demand for speed, accessibility, and specialized expertise.

12) Results and Findings

The findings reinforce that literature and research data form the core of scientists’ information needs. Both structured databases and informal professional interactions play vital roles in their research process. Digital resources dominate usage patterns due to convenience and up-to-date content.

13) Suggestions

Key challenges identified include:

• Limited access to subscription-based journals
• Information overload from excessive publications
• Time constraints due to heavy research workload
• Uneven technical skills in advanced search techniques

Recommended measures include expanding digital subscriptions, promoting open-access resources, offering regular training in search and data-management skills, and strengthening library liaison services.

14) Conclusion

Scientific information seeking at NCCS is multifaceted, combining traditional scholarly resources with collaborative and digital networks. Research success depends largely on timely access to reliable information and efficient search strategies. Strengthening information infrastructure, improving digital access, and providing targeted training can significantly enhance research productivity and reduce barriers, ultimately fostering innovation and high-quality scientific output.

References:

• Athukorala, K., Hoggan, E., Lehtiö, A., Ruotsalo, T., & Jacucci, G. (2013). Information‐seeking behaviors of computer scientists: Challenges for electronic literature search tools. Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 50(1), 1-11.
• Acheampong, L. D., & Dzandu, M. (2013). Information-Seeking Behaviour of Crops Research Scientists in Ghana. Information and Knowledge Management.
• Abubakar, M. S., & Akor, P. U. (2017). Availability and utilization of electronic information databases for research by agricultural scientists in federal university libraries in North Central Nigeria. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal), 1600, 1-34.
• Jamali, H. R., & Asadi, S. (2010). Google and the scholar: the role of Google in scientists’ information‐seeking behaviour. Online information review, 34(2), 282-294.
• Sahu, A. K., Goswami, N. G., & Choudhury, B. K. (2014). Information needs of library users of selective metallurgical institutions in Jharkhand. DESIDOC Journal of Library & Information Technology, 34(IF-0.645), 3-10.
• Makinde, O. B., Jiyane, G. V., & Mugwisi, T. (2019). Factors and challenges affecting the informationseeking behavior of science and technology researchers. Library Philosophy and Practice, 1-26
• Basimalla, S. R. (2000). Communication patterns and information seeking behaviour of health science researchers/scientists: a study of ICMR Institutes.
• Chudamani, K. S., & Nagarathna, H. C. (2006). A model of information use behavior by scientists.

¹Dr. P. P. Patil, ²Mr. J. S. Sonawane and ¹Dr. D. V. Nagarale^*

¹VVM’s S. G. Patil Arts, Commerce and Science College, Sakri

² D. M. Patil Jr. College, Dahivel

Abstract:

Natural products (NPs) derived from plants, microbes, and marine organisms remain a vital source of structural diversity for drug discovery, particularly in treating cancer and infectious diseases. While historically significant, challenges in screening, isolation, and optimization previously caused a decline in their use by the pharmaceutical industry. Modern advances in computational chemistry, artificial intelligence, and genomics are revitalizing this field, facilitating the screening of new molecules and the optimization of lead structures. 

Introduction:

Natural materials with demonstrated biological activity are frequently used as central research points for the development of new pharmacological lead candidates. In order to get must pass a comprehensive test that calls for effective and extraordinary synthetic systems. entry to these convoluted and fundamentally different communities, scientific specialists An alluring component of early drug development is the use of small molecule libraries motivated by bioactive natural compounds, which plays a crucial role in the drug discovery process. In this case, the possibility of presenting unique organic action may increase as one moves from planar structures with a sp2-rich nature to all the more fundamentally complex libraries that have diverse sp3 focuses.

Newfound awareness of environmental concerns has also led to the reevaluation of several previous breakthroughs, compelling veteran scientists to develop cutting-edge “green” methods. These loops should save energy, reduce the need for primary inputs, and generate as little waste as possible.

Review of Natural products:

Datta, Avhad & Alpana, Asnani& Shrikant. Mohurle et. al (2020) Benzotriazole is a derivative of a heterocyclic ring with three nitrogen atoms in the first, second, and third positions. Each nitrogen atom can be found in a separate solitary pair. Due to its unique electron pair, a five-membered ring can exhibit tautomeric structures. Benzotriazole belongs to the class of interwoven heterocycles that consists of a benzene ring fused to a traizole ring. The medical relevance of benzotriazole and its derivatives cannot be overstated. Researchery will be able to improvise with the concepts and structure activity correlations they learn about in this article⁰¹.

Review of Natural products:

Campos, Kevin and Coleman, Paul and Alvarez, Juan and Dreher, Spencer and Garbaccio, et al. (2019)

Many ground-breaking medications that have benefited human health over the past century could not have been found without the discoveries in synthetic science that have occurred over the previous century. New scientific discoveries are what will propel the pharmaceutical industry forward in the face of growing threats to existing treatments. Not only can these synthetic procedures make previously inaccessible chemical matter available, but they also spark novel ideas for the design and production of chemical matter. In this paper, we identify the most significant recent advancements in synthetic science and situations at the interface with partner fields that are prepared to revolutionize the process of drug discovery and development⁰¹.

Yao, Zhu-Jun and Yu, Shouyun (2018)

One of the main motivating factors for physicists to develop new synthetic processes is the growing need for more efficient synthetic developments and sustainable cycles. It also includes recent attempts at the photochemically aided complete synthesis of natural compounds. The complete synthesis of natural products might benefit from visible-light-mediated oxidation. An appealing method for the creation of organic molecules is electrochemical synthesis. The criteria of green and monetary science are met by the synthetic advancements, which exhibit features like short reaction times, optimized screening times, reduced waste, enhanced safety, heightened intensity and simple scalability⁰².

Khayyat, Suzan and SelvaRoselin, L (2018)

Flowers, leaves, organic items, natural product rinds, seeds, stems, roots, barks, and resins are all potential sources for essential oils.

They are used as ingredients in perfumes, cosmetics, foods, beverages, medicines, and treatments for a wide range of health problems. Essential oils are complex mixtures of many different components, and their effects can be unexpected. Essential oils can be extracted using a number of different methods. Essential oils’ biological functions have been uncovered through a number of studies. However, the extracted oils are not the same as the activities of the same forces⁰³.

Michelin, Clément and Hoffmann, Norbert (2018)

Organic synthesis is aided by photocatalytic processes. Synthesis of complicated nitrogen-containing heterocycles via photooxygenation of furan derivatives has proven successful. When coupled with photoredox techniques, protein-catalyzed asymmetric oxidations are reorganized .Preparing physiologically active products requires the production of fluoroorganic molecules. Therefore,. the pharmaceutical sector has a strong interest in the photoredox catalytic trifluoromethylation of aromatic and, in particular, heteroaromatic molecules⁰⁵.

Campbell, Ian and Macdonald, Simon and Procopiou, Pan (2017)

 Synthetic and medical research, as well as drug discovery science, are depicted as they have evolved over the past few decades in the context of big pharma. Larger societal shifts, such as the proliferation of personal computers, the rise of the internet, and the spread of globalization, have been essential in shaping these. The next generation of medical researchers will share information using methods that are more akin to social media and the outcomes of constant association between people and data⁰⁶.

Jakub Trawiński, Robert Skibiński (2017)

Even in high-income countries, the use of psychotropic medications is rising⁰⁷. The substantial amount that is released into the climate is one of the most important consequences of this reality. Waterways, lakes, and oceans were found to contain detectable levels of atypical antipsychotics, benzodiazepines, and antidepressants, as well as their metabolites. Multiple investigations confirmed their environmental harm. It should be obvious that the combination of psychiatric drugs and radiation can result in the development of possibly more lethal intermediates, However, photo-assisted wastewater treatment methods are an effective strategy for getting rid of them for good. There have been several recent proposals and developments of photolysis and photocatalysis-based methods, but the problem remains unresolved. However, recent research suggests that photocatalysis, rather than ordinary photolysis, may be the most promising and practical option. A schematic outlining the use of several catalysts in photocatalytic, homogeneous, and heterogeneous degradation processes is presented. There was also discussion on how drugs react to light and how phototoxic they can be.

Shahnavi, Iqbal and Ahmed, Sofia and Anwar, Zubair and Sheraz, Muhammad et al. (2014)

 In the pharmaceutical sector, studying the photostability of pharmaceuticals and drug products is a standard quality control procedure. These tests are conducted to ensure that the prepared goods maintain their quality, efficacy, and safety throughout the manufacturing, storage, and application processes. The concept of photostability and its related features are discussed, as well as the relevant literature. Different strategies for the photodegradation of pharmaceuticals are presented alongside representative molecules. Biological effects of light’s effect on medication breakdown are shown⁰⁸.

Amara, Zacharias and Bellamy, Jessica and Horvath, Raphael and Miller, Samuel et al, (2015)

 However, the semi-synthetic synthesis of artemisinin incurs relatively large environmental and monetary costs given its importance as an antimalarial medication today. These expenses are driven mostly by the complex acid-and-photograph-catalyzed final chemical steps that involve oxygenation via both singlet and triple oxygen. We show that many of the problems with present photochemical cycles can be avoided by adopting novel tactics based on the concepts of green science. The primary method incorporates a powerful acid/photocatalyst that performs double duty and the use of fluid CO2 as a dissolvable. Next, dihydroartemisinic acid, oxygen, and light are used in an aqueous combination of organic solvents at room temperature to produce pure, crystalline artemisinin. The photocatalyst, aqueous acid, and solvents can all be recycled⁰⁸.

Yusuf, Mohamad and Solanki, Indu and Jain, Payal and Kumar, Rupesh (2014)

When light is absorbed, it causes a chain reaction in a chemical process called a photochemical reaction⁰⁹. Carbonyl grouping and a double bond in conjugation characterize the bichromophoric atoms that make up chromones, bischromones, and anthraquinones. These particles are formed via photochemical reactions of these substances and cannot be obtained in any other way.

Morsy, Nagy (2014)

Numerous plants are commonly used by indigenous people all around the world for their purported medicinal benefits. The effectiveness of different plants and plant components in fighting different diseases has been a major focus of scientifice investigation. It has always been difficult to identify, quantify, and extract the bioactive plant ingredients¹⁰.

Bochet, Christian (2014)

The goal of organic photochemistry is to use photons (light) instead of heat or other reactive chemicals to alter organic compounds. When a substance is excited, it enters a highly energetic and often lively condition from which it can either progress toward the ideal product or degrade without discrimination. We have come a long way in the last century in our ability to predict and regulate the outcomes of photochemical reactions, and to identify and develop families of highly specific photochemical reactions. This chapter covers a subset of these general classes of reactions, drawing on recent literature fe its discussion and providing specific, synthetically relevant examples¹¹.

Conclusion:

Photochemistry as a useful tool for the synthesis of natural and unnatural compounds Synthetic organic photochemistry has given an amazingly ground-breaking strategy to the change of straightforward substrates into more mind boggling products. Although great large scale industrial applications (for example, vitamin D synthesis) are being directed, the pharmaceutical industry has not generally embraced photochemical reactions in the routine synthesis of new drug substances. Specifically, several challenges associated with the performance of preparative photoreactions on large scale have been seen to be a significant issue to be fathomed before their routine application.

REFERENCES

1. Datta, Avhad&Alpana, Asnani& Shrikant, Mohurle&Pratyush, Kumar & 11. 215-225. Abhibnav, Bais&Ruchita, Tale. (2020), Review on synthetic study of benzotriazole, GSC and Pharmaceutical Sciences. Biological 10.30574/gscbps.2020.11.2.0137.

2. Campos, Kevin & Coleman, Paul & Alvarez, Juan & Dreher, Spencer &Garbaccio. Robert &Terrett, Nicholas &Tillyer, Richard &Truppo, Matthew &Parmee, Emma (2019). The importance of synthetic chemistry in the pharmaceutical industry. Science. 363. caat0805. 10.1126/science.aat0805.

3. Yao, Zhu-Jun & Yu, Shouyun. (2018). Modern Technologies in Natural Product Synthesis. 10.1002/9781118940228.ch11.

4. Khayyat, Suzan &SelvaRoselin, L.. (2018). Recent progress in photochemical reaction on main components of some essential oils. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society. 22. 10.1016/j.jscs.2018.01.008.

5. Michelin, Clément & Hoffmann, Norbert. (2018). Photocatalysis applied to organic synthesis A green chemistry approach. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry. 10. 10.1016/j.cogsc.2018.02.009.

6. Campbell, lan& Macdonald, Simon &Procopiou, Pan. (2017). Medicinal chemistry in drug discovery in big pharma: Past, present and future. Drug Discovery Today. 23, 10.1016/j.drudis.2017.10.007.

7. Jakub Trawiński, Robert Skibiński, Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2017; 24(2): 1152-1199. Published online 2016 Sep 30. doi: 10.1007/s11356-016-7727-5

8. Shahnavi, Iqbal & Ahmed, Sofia & Anwar, Zubair &Sheraz, Muhammad & Sikorski, Marek. (2016). Photostability and Photostabilization of Drugs and Drug Products. International Journal of Photoenergy. 2016. 1-19. 10.1155/2016/8135608.

9. Amara, Zacharias & Bellamy, Jessica & Horvath, Raphael & Miller, Samuel &Beeby, Andrew &Burgard, Andreas &Rossen, Kai &Poliakoff, Martyn & George, Michael. (2015). Applying green chemistry to the photochemical route to artemisinin. Nature Chemistry. 7. 10.1038/nchem.2261.

[12:47 PM, 2/13/2026] Pooja Madam: 10. Yusuf Mohamad & Solanki, Indu& Jain, Payal& Kumar, Rupesh. (2014). Photochemical studies: Chromones, bischromones and anthraquinone derivatives.

10. Yusuf, Mohamad & Solanki, Indu& Jain, Payal&Kumar , Rupesh.(2014).Photochemical studies: Chromones, bischromones& anthraquinone derivatives. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 46. 10.1016/j.arabjc.2014.11.031,

11. Morsy, Nagy. (2014). Phytochemical analysis of biologically active constituents of medicinal plants. Main Group Chemistry. 13. 7-21, 10.3233/MGC-130117.

Mr.A.V.Patil^a,* ,Dr S.B.Patil^b, Dr.P.V.Dalal^c,*

^a,*SSVPS late. Dr. P.R.Ghogrey Science College Deopur, Dhule- 424 002, Maharashtra, India

^bS. S. M. M. Arts, Science and Commerce College, Pachora- 424 201, Maharashtra, India

^c*Nanomaterials Research Laboratory, Department of Physics, Shri. V. S. Naik, A.C.S. College, Raver,425508, India

Abstract:

ZnSnO₃ is a promising ternary oxide semiconductor owing to its favorable structural, electrical, and optoelectronic properties. In this work, ZnSnO₃ samples were synthesized using a simple and cost-effective technique and characterized through thermoelectric power (TEP), electrical, and photosensing studies. Thermoelectric power measurements revealed a positive Seebeck coefficient, indicating p-type conductivity and dominant hole transport. Electrical studies showed temperature-dependent conductivity, confirming the semiconducting behavior of ZnSnO₃. Photosensing measurements under ultraviolet (UV) illumination demonstrated a significant enhancement in photocurrent compared to dark current, along with stable and repeatable photoresponse. The observed photosensing behavior is attributed to efficient generation of charge carriers and surface-related trapping mechanisms under light illumination. The combined results highlight the potential of ZnSnO₃ for applications in photodetectors and optoelectronic devices.

1.Introduction

Researchers are very interested in ternary oxide semiconductors because they can change their physical properties and can be used in many different ways in optoelectronics, sensing, and energy devices. Zinc stannate (ZnSnO₃) has become a promising material because of its unique electrical and structural properties. ZnSnO₃ usually crystallises in a structure linked to perovskite that is orthorhombic. By changing the conditions under which it is made, you can change its phase purity, crystallinity, and microstructure. Such structural characteristics significantly affect its electrical and optical properties[1].
             X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a typical way to study the structural properties of ZnSnO₃. It shows that the phases are forming and the crystals are of good quality. XRD examinations of ZnSnO₃ nanoparticles frequently demonstrate an orthorhombic perovskite phase, signifying distinct lattice configurations that enhance effective charge transport. [1]Additionally, synthesis parameters like pH, precipitation conditions, and calcination temperature have a big effect on the size of the crystallites and the strain in the lattice, which in turn affects the optoelectronic performance[2].
            ZnSnO₃ has a broad band gap in the near-UV region, which makes it great for detecting ultraviolet light and for use in clear electronic devices. Studies using UV-visible spectroscopy have found that the band gap values for ZnSnO₃ nanoparticles are between 3.5 and 3.7 eV, which is compatible with how wide-bandgap semiconductors work. This broad band gap lets UV light be absorbed well while keeping the visible spectrum clear, which is critical for optoelectronic devices like UV photodetectors and clear conductors[3].
           The optoelectronic characteristics of ZnSnO₃ are intricately associated with its charge carrier dynamics and photodetection abilities. Photogenerated carriers improve electrical conductivity when exposed to UV light. This effect is used in photodetectors and photoresponsive sensors. Recent investigations show that ZnSnO₃-based structures have a strong photoresponse, which is similar to other wide band gap oxide semiconductors. This shows that ZnSnO₃ could be useful for high-performance photosensing applications[4].
          ZnSnO₃ is still being studied for use in sophisticated optoelectronic and sensing technologies because it has a stable structure, a large optical band gap, and reacts to light. Nonetheless, comprehending the interaction among crystal structure, defect densities, and carrier transport is essential for enhancing device performance[6-11].

2.Experimental details

2.1.  Preparation of ZnO-SnO₂ nanocomposites and pervoskite ZnSnO₃ thin films

Nanocomposite and perovskite thin films have been synthesized on glass substrates by employing spray pyrolysis technique. To create nanocomposite thin films of ZnO-SnO₂ and perovskite ZnSnO₃ on a glass substrate that has been preheated, zinc chloride (ZnCl₂ from Merck, extra pure) and tin (II) chloride pentahydrate (SnCl₂.5H₂O from Merck, extra pure) were utilized. Table 1 shows the results of mixing zinc chloride with tin (II) chloride pentahydrate in various ratios, including 25:75, 50:50, and 75:25 (1:3, 1:1, and 3:1).

Table 1: Varying amount of reactants and spraying solutions

Thin film Sample	ZnCl2 (cm3)	SnCl2.5H2O (cm3)	Volume Ratio	Reactants
S1	25	75	1:3	ZnO-SnO2
S2	50	50	1:1	ZnO-SnO2
S3	75	25	3:1	ZnSnO3

Based on the composition, the prepared films were label as S1 and S2 (both nanocomposites ZnO-SnO₂), and S3 (perovskite based ZnSnO₃ thin films). Depending on the size of the droplets, the chemical reaction, droplet landing, and solvent evaporation all play a critical role in the creation of the film. We optimized the synthesis parameters are listed in Table 2. The carrier gas pressure, to and fro nozzle movement and substrate temperature were kept constant during the process. Notably, the point during which the droplet approaches the glass substrate sufficiently for the solvent to completely evaporate is the optimal condition for film creation. The synthesized nanocomposites ZnO-SnO₂ and perovskite ZnSnO₃ thin films samples were annealed at 500 ⁰C for 1 h in the presence of air to enhance its electrical, morphological, microstructure properties and gas sensing capabilities.

3. Characterization of thin films:

3.1Electrical properties:

A) TEP measurement

Figure 1: Temperature dependence of thermoelectric power measurement.

An Arrhenius plot of ZnO-SnO2 and ZnSnO3 thin films is shown in Fig. 2. Figure 3.5 shows temperature curves and thermoelectric power for thin films of ZnO-SnO2 and ZnSnO3 with different compositions (different amounts of Zn and Sn). Figure 2 clearly shows that the thermoelectric power of all samples goes up as the temperature goes up. TEP is negative for all samples in the temperature range of 320–424 K, indicating n-type conductivity [15,16]. All of the samples act like semiconductors.
          The difference in temperature in the thermoemf measurement makes a carrier migrate from the hot end to the cold end. This generates an electric field that calculates the thermal voltage. The difference in temperature across the semiconductor is exactly equal to this voltage that is created by heat. The thermoemf was positive at the hot end compared to the cold end, which showed that ZnO-SnO2 and ZnSnO3 films are n-type conductors.

B) Electrical conductivity

The electrical conductivity of the nanocrystalline thin films was measured using the DC two-probe method in the temperature range of 298–423 K. The conductivity (σ) was evaluated using the Arrhenius-type relation (1):

                                                                            ———                                                 (1)

where σ₀ is the pre-exponential factor, ΔE is the activation energy, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute temperature.

Figure 2. Variation of log (σ) with inverse of operating temperature (K)

Figure 3 shows the variation of log(σ) with the inverse of temperature (1000/T). As the temperature increases, the conductivity of all samples increases, which is a characteristic feature of semiconducting materials with a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) of resistance. This confirms that the nanocrystalline thin films exhibit semiconducting behaviour [13].

The conductivity studies reveal two distinct activation energy regions, corresponding to low- and high-temperature ranges at 323-373 K and 373-423 K respectively. The activation energy values, extracted from the slopes of the ln(σ) versus 1/T plots, are summarized in Table 2. The presence of two activation energies indicates two donor levels – one deep and one shallow – located near the conduction band edge. At higher temperatures (423 K), the activation energy decreases slightly, which can be attributed to oxygen adsorption at the film surface. The adsorbed oxygen atoms capture free electrons from the conduction band and form weak bonds with zinc atoms, thereby affecting the conduction process through surface states.

Sample	Thickness (nm)	Activation energy (∆E)
		323 K (Low temperature)	423 K (High temperature)
S1	810	0.23 eV	0.19 eV
S2	843	0.17 eV	0.14 eV
S3	839	0.19 eV	0.17 eV

Table 2: Measurement of thickness with activation energy

It is evident from Table 2 that the activation energy decreases with increasing film thickness (S1 to S2). This behavior is likely due to improved crystallinity and grain growth with thickness, which reduces grain boundary scattering and enhances carrier mobility. However, for sample S3, although the thickness decreases slightly compared to S2, the activation energy increases. This anomalous behavior may be associated with structural modifications, possibly the formation of a perovskite-like phase, which alters the electronic structure and increases the barrier for conduction [14].Thus, the combined analysis of conductivity behavior and activation energy trends highlights the role of microstructural features and surface states in governing the charge transport mechanism in the nanocrystalline thin films.

 3.3.Photosensing of ZnO-SnO₂ and ZnSnO₃ sample:

Figure 3. Dark current (pA) vs DC voltage (V) for three samples (S1, S2, S3).

            Figure demonstrates how the dark current changes when different DC voltages are applied to samples S1, S2, and S3. For all samples, the dark current goes up steadily as the voltage goes up. This shows that the electrical conduction is stable and the electrode contact is good. S3 has the most dark current of the three samples, whereas S1 has the least current across the whole measured voltage range. The behaviour shown can be explained by differences in the concentration of charge carriers and the density of defects in the samples. The low dark current seen in sample S1 is very useful for photosensing applications because it improves the signal-to-noise ratio when there is light[16].

Figure 5. Illumination current (pA) Vs DC voltage (V) for three samples (S1, S2, S3).

When light is shown on them, all of the samples show a clear increase in current when the DC voltage goes up, which shows that they are photosensitive. Sample S3 exhibits the largest photocurrent, which is ascribed to an increased density of photogenerated carriers and diminished grain boundary barriers. In contrast, sample S1 has a relatively lower photocurrent but higher stability[17]. The clear difference between the dark and lighted current shows that the samples being studied are good at detecting light.

   Conclusion:

The research shows that thin films of ZnO-SnO2 and ZnSnO3 made by spray pyrolysis have good structural and morphological properties. The size of the crystals gets smaller as the Zn-to-Sn ratio changes. Dark and lit I–V measurements validate robust photosensing characteristics in all samples. Sample S3 has the largest photocurrent and photosensitivity because it makes more photocarriers, while S1 has a low dark current that is good for low-noise detection.

Acknowledgement:

The authors thank Shri. V.S. Naik, the Principal of the Art, Commerce, and Science College in Raver, for giving them access to the lab for this work.

References:

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¹Nitin B Baviskar,²Sachin J Nandre, ³Rajendra Ahire

¹Department of Physics, J. D. M. V. P.S. Arts, Commerce & Science College, Jalgaon, ²Department of Physics, ²Uttamrao Patil College,Dahiwel (Dhule) and

³Department of Physics, S.G.Patil College, Sakri (Dhule)

Corresponding authors email: sachinjnandre@gmail.com

Abstract

Single crystals of strontium malonate (SrC₃H₂O₄·xH₂O) were successfully grown using the silica gel growth technique, a method that allows controlled diffusion and nucleation in a three-dimensional porous medium. Strontium malonate, an alkaline earth metal organic compound, is of interest due to its potential applications in nonlinear optics, luminescent materials, and ion-exchange processes. The growth process was carried out under controlled pH and gel density conditions to optimize crystal size and morphology. The resulting crystals were characterized visually for size, shape, and transparency. The study demonstrates that the silica gel technique is effective for producing well-faceted strontium malonate crystals and provides insight into the nucleation and growth mechanisms of metal-organic crystals in porous media.

1. Introduction

Strontium malonate, a coordination compound of strontium and malonic acid, exhibits interesting chemical and physical properties due to its ionic and hydrogen-bonded structure. Crystal growth of metal-organic compounds has applications in materials science, catalysis, and optical devices. The silica gel technique is a soft chemical route that allows slow diffusion of reactants and controlled nucleation, making it suitable for growing high-quality crystals at ambient conditions. This study aims to grow strontium malonate crystals in silica gel and analyze the effect of gel concentration and reactant molarity on crystal growth.

Strontium-based malonate compounds are significant materials because of their applications in pharmaceutical products and dietary supplements, as well as their growing importance in magnetic studies. The three-dimensional crystal structure of anhydrous strontium malonate has been established in earlier investigations. Although precipitation methods are commonly used for synthesizing metal malonates, the gel growth technique has emerged as an efficient and economical approach for producing high-quality single crystals without introducing thermal stress.

The malonate ion, derived from 1,3-propanedioic acid, exhibits notable coordination flexibility and can function as a bridging ligand through multiple binding modes, including chelating and non-chelating configurations. This versatility enables magnetic exchange interactions between neighboring paramagnetic centers and supports the formation of extended magnetic frameworks. Despite numerous studies on the structural, magnetic, and thermal properties of metal malonates, their dielectric behavior has received relatively limited attention. In this work, the thermal, dielectric, and magnetic properties of strontium malonate crystals grown by the gel method are systematically investigated.

2. Experimental Technique

Materials

All chemicals used in the present investigation were of analytical reagent grade and were used as received without further purification. Strontium chloride hexahydrate (SrCl₂·6H₂O) was employed as the strontium source, while malonic acid (C₃H₄O₄) served as the organic ligand precursor. Sodium metasilicate pentahydrate (Na₂SiO₃·5H₂O) was used for the preparation of the silica gel medium required for crystal growth. Distilled water was used for preparing all solutions. Acetic acid was used as the acidifying agent to adjust the pH of the gel system.

Preparation of Silica Gel

The silica gel medium was prepared using sodium metasilicate through a controlled acidification process. Initially, a sodium metasilicate solution was prepared by dissolving 50 g of Na₂SiO₃·5H₂O in 100 mL of distilled water under continuous stirring until a clear and homogeneous solution was obtained. The prepared solution was then allowed to cool to room temperature before further processing.

Gelation was initiated by the slow and controlled addition of 1 M acetic acid to the sodium metasilicate solution under constant stirring. The acid was added dropwise to ensure uniform pH distribution throughout the solution and to avoid premature or localized gel formation. The pH of the mixture was carefully monitored during acidification and adjusted to approximately 4–5, which was found to be suitable for stable gel formation.

Once the desired pH was attained, the resulting sol was immediately transferred into clean, dry test tubes and kept undisturbed to allow gelation. The gel was allowed to set completely at room temperature. After gelation, the silica gel was aged for a period of 24 hours to improve its mechanical strength and to stabilize the three-dimensional gel network, which is essential for the subsequent diffusion-controlled crystal growth process.

2.3 Crystal Growth

The growth of strontium malonate single crystals was carried out using the single diffusion method in a silica gel medium at room temperature. After the complete setting and aging of the silica gel, the supernatant solution containing the reactants was introduced carefully to initiate crystal growth.

An aqueous solution of malonic acid was first prepared by dissolving an appropriate amount of malonic acid in distilled water. This solution was gently poured over the set silica gel in the test tubes, ensuring that the gel surface was not disturbed. Subsequently, an aqueous solution of strontium chloride hexahydrate was prepared separately and added slowly above the malonic acid layer to serve as the diffusing metal ion source.

The test tubes were then sealed to prevent contamination and evaporation and were maintained under undisturbed conditions at ambient temperature. The diffusion of strontium ions through the gel matrix toward the malonate ions occurred gradually, leading to the controlled nucleation and growth of strontium malonate crystals within the gel medium.

Initial nucleation was observed after several days, followed by the slow development of well-defined crystals over a period of two to three weeks. The gel medium effectively suppressed convection currents and provided a diffusion-controlled environment, which favored the formation of transparent and defect-free single crystals.

Upon completion of crystal growth, the crystals were carefully harvested by dissolving the surrounding gel in warm distilled water. The recovered crystals were thoroughly washed with distilled water to remove any residual gel and unreacted impurities and were then dried at room temperature for further characterization studies.

Table 1. Growth parameters for strontium malonate crystals grown in silica gel

Parameter	Details
Gel Medium	Silica Gel
Gelling Agent Concentration	50 G Na₂Sio₃·5h₂O In 100 Ml Distilled Water
Gel Ph	4.0 – 5.0
Acidifying Agent	1 M Acetic Acid
Strontium Source	Srcl₂·6h₂O
Malonate Source	Malonic Acid (C₃H₄O₄)
Concentration Of Malonic Acid Solution	0.5 M (Aqueous)
Concentration Of Strontium Chloride Solution	0.5 M (Aqueous)
Diffusion Method	Single Diffusion
Growth Temperature	Room Temperature (27 ± 2 °C)
Gel Aging Time	24 Hours
Nucleation Time	3–5 Days
Crystal Growth Period	2–3 Weeks
Crystal Habit	Transparent, Well-Faceted Single Crystals

Results and discussion

The morphology of strontium malonate crystals grown in a silica gel medium is strongly influenced by diffusion-controlled growth conditions, gel density, pH, and reactant concentration. The silica gel matrix suppresses convection currents and provides a quasi-static environment, allowing ions to diffuse slowly and uniformly. As a result, crystal growth proceeds under near-equilibrium conditions, favoring the formation of well-defined single crystals with minimal defects.

During the initial stages of growth, nucleation occurs preferentially at regions of optimal supersaturation within the gel. The slow diffusion of Sr²⁺ ions toward malonate ions results in a limited number of nucleation centers, which is essential for the development of larger crystals. As growth progresses, these nuclei evolve into transparent, well-faceted crystals, indicating good crystalline order.

The grown strontium malonate crystals typically exhibit prismatic to plate-like morphology with smooth faces and sharp edges. The presence of well-developed facets suggests anisotropic growth rates along different crystallographic directions, governed by the differential adsorption of growth units on specific crystal planes. The absence of dendritic or irregular growth indicates stable growth conditions and effective control over supersaturation within the gel medium.

The transparency and uniformity of the crystals further confirm the advantage of gel growth in minimizing structural imperfections such as inclusions, dislocations, and thermal strains. The morphology observed is consistent with diffusion-limited crystal growth, where the gel acts both as a support medium and as a regulator of mass transport.Fig. Different shape of Grown Strontium Malonate crystals 

Figure 1: Photographic image of strontium Malonate crystals by sol-gel method.

  Figure 2. XRD of Strontium Malonate Crystal grown by gel method.

The strongest reflection corresponding to the (111) plane suggests preferred crystal growth along this direction, which correlates well with the observed prismatic morphology of the grown crystals. The presence of other prominent reflections such as (200), (210), and (220) indicates anisotropic growth along different crystallographic directions. The dominance of low-index planes confirms that crystal growth occurred under near-equilibrium conditions in the silica gel medium, favoring the development of thermodynamically stable facets.

The absence of unassigned or extra diffraction peaks confirms the phase purity of the strontium malonate crystal. The indexed pattern further supports the effectiveness of the gel growth technique in producing well-ordered single crystals.

4. Conclusion

Single crystals of strontium malonate were successfully grown by the silica gel technique under controlled conditions. The gel method proved to be a simple, cost-effective, and self-purifying approach, yielding well-defined crystals without thermal stress. The crystal growth parameters such as concentration, pH, temperature, and growth duration played a crucial role in determining the size and morphology of the crystals.Powder X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the crystalline nature and phase purity of the grown strontium malonate crystals. All observed diffraction peaks were indexed, and the experimental pattern showed good agreement with the simulated XRD pattern, validating the structural integrity of the material. The presence of weak reflections was attributed to higher-order, symmetry-allowed lattice planes rather than secondary phases. Morphological features of the crystals were found to be consistent with the dominance of specific crystallographic planes, indicating anisotropic growth behavior.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Principal Dr Rajendra R Ahire, Dr Sachin J Nandre for their valuable guidance and support throughout this work. We also thank the Dept of Physics S.G.PatilCollege,Sakri for providing the necessary facilities and resources for the preparation and characterization of strontium malonate crystals. Special thanks are extended to colleagues and staff who assisted in experimental setup, observations, and discussions that contributed to the success of this research.

References

1. Hyde BG. Crystal chemistry of malonates. ActaCrystallogr B. 1977;33:1279–1283.
2. Chelikowsky JR, Cohen ML. Magnetic properties of strontium malonate complexes. J Solid State Chem. 1984;52(3):329–334.
3. Stahl K, Baur A, Belin EL. Three-dimensional structural network of strontium malonate. Inorg Chem. 1989;28:4054–4058.
4. Dixit RN, Kushwaha SK. Gel growth and spectroscopic characterization of strontium malonate crystals. Cryst Res Technol. 2002;37:735–740.
5. Selvam PM, Rama Rao MV, Vijayan N. Growth of single crystals in silica gel media—fundamentals and applications. Mater Chem Phys. 2002;74:117–124.
6. Kurmoo M. Magnetic metal–organic frameworks. ChemSoc Rev. 2009;38:1353–1379.
7. Kitagawa S, Kitaura R, Noro S. Functional porous coordination polymers. AngewChemInt Ed. 2004;43:2334–2375.
8. Coronado E, Day P. Magnetic interactions in molecular crystals. Chem Rev. 2004;104:5419–5448.
9. Miller JS, Drillon M, editors. Magnetism: Molecules to Materials. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2003.
10. Singh AK, Mishra DK. Thermal behavior of transition metal malonates. ThermochimActa. 2003;406:45–52.
11. Abrahams SC, Marks LB. Thermal decomposition of malonic acid and its derivatives. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2008;91:199–207.
12. Ramesh G, Sundar V. Dielectric studies on metal–organic materials. J Mater Sci Mater Electron. 2007;18:655–659.
13. Balasubramaniam R, Vasudevan PR. Dielectric and conductivity studies on malonate compounds. Mater Lett. 2008;62:3757–3760.
14. Suryanarayana C, Norton MG. X-ray Diffraction: A Practical Approach. New York: Plenum Press; 1998.
15. Cullity BD, Stock SR. Elements of X-Ray Diffraction. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall; 2001.

1. Conceptual Background and Academic Context

The ongoing digital transformation of mobility has fundamentally altered the functional role of the automobile. Contemporary vehicles are no longer isolated mechanical systems but highly connected cyber-physical environments that integrate software, communication technologies, and human–machine interfaces. Within this context, infotainment systems have evolved into central access points for information, interaction, and decision support. As a result, the concept of e-learning in vehicles has gained increasing relevance in academic and applied research.

Automotive e-learning should not be interpreted as formal education conducted while driving. Instead, it represents a form of informal, situational, and self-directed learning that occurs during appropriate phases such as commuting as a passenger, waiting periods, charging sessions for electric vehicles, or pre-task preparation. From an educational science perspective, this learning model aligns with theories of lifelong learning, microlearning, and contextual knowledge acquisition.

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2. Mobile E-Learning and the Productive Use of Idle Time

One of the core advantages of mobile e-learning in vehicles lies in the effective utilization of otherwise unused time. Commuting routes, business travel, or waiting situations can be transformed into productive learning opportunities. Through mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, or integrated infotainment displays, learners can access educational content independent of location.

Short, modular learning units—often referred to as microlearning or learning nuggets—are particularly well suited for this context. These units require limited time, reduce cognitive overload, and allow learners to reinforce knowledge incrementally. Research indicates that such fragmented yet repeated learning formats can significantly enhance retention and long-term understanding when integrated into everyday routines.

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3. Flexibility, Time Management, and Learning Efficiency

Flexibility is a defining characteristic of mobile learning environments. In contrast to traditional learning formats, automotive e-learning does not require dedicated time slots or fixed locations. Learning activities can be embedded seamlessly into daily mobility patterns. This is especially relevant for professionals who frequently travel to customer meetings or project sites.

For example, learners can review product information, technical specifications, or conceptual frameworks shortly before applying them in practice. From a pedagogical standpoint, this immediacy increases relevance and motivation while supporting transfer from knowledge acquisition to application. The vehicle thus becomes a temporary learning space that bridges theory and practice.

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4. Contextual Learning in Connected Vehicles

Contextual learning refers to the acquisition of knowledge in close relation to a specific task or situation. Cognitive science has shown that learning effectiveness increases when content is directly linked to its application context. Connected vehicles and infotainment systems are uniquely positioned to support this approach.

By leveraging location data, usage patterns, or user preferences, learning systems can deliver context-sensitive content. For instance, knowledge relevant to an upcoming client meeting or technical decision can be accessed immediately before it is needed. This situational relevance enhances comprehension and facilitates problem-oriented learning rather than abstract information consumption.

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5. Technological Requirements for In-Vehicle Learning Platforms

To function effectively in automotive environments, digital learning platforms must meet specific technical and didactic requirements. Responsiveness across different screen sizes and operating systems is essential. Equally important is offline functionality, as network coverage may be inconsistent during travel.

Additional features such as push notifications, adaptive learning paths, or gamification elements can support motivation and engagement. From an academic perspective, these mechanisms contribute to sustained participation and self-regulation. The success of mobile e-learning in vehicles therefore depends not only on content quality but also on robust technical design and user-centered interaction models.

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6. Voice Interfaces and AI-Supported Knowledge Access

Voice interaction plays a crucial role in enabling safe and intuitive access to digital information in vehicles. Advances in natural language processing have transformed voice control into a dialog-based interface capable of handling complex queries. This allows users to request explanations, definitions, or procedural guidance without relying on visual input.

Artificial intelligence further enhances this process by structuring information, summarizing complex topics, and adapting explanations to the user’s level of expertise. Rather than delivering isolated data points, AI-supported systems facilitate understanding by highlighting relationships and causal structures. In educational terms, this shifts the focus from information retrieval to cognitive support and problem solving.

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7. Safety, Ethics, and Responsible Use

Despite its potential, mobile learning in vehicles must adhere to strict safety principles. Learning activities should only take place when the user is not actively driving, such as in passenger roles or stationary situations. Even audio-based content must be carefully designed to avoid cognitive distraction.

Ethical considerations also play a significant role. Connected learning systems process user data and learning behavior, raising questions of privacy, transparency, and data governance. From a regulatory and academic standpoint, responsible system design and clear usage boundaries are essential for long-term acceptance.

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8. Practice-Oriented Knowledge Sources in the Automotive Domain

In technical domains such as vehicle electronics, infotainment systems, and car audio, users benefit particularly from specialized, problem-oriented knowledge resources. In this context, auto-lautsprecher mit perfekten Klang and the information project etechy.eu provide structured explanations, technical background, and solution-focused guidance related to automotive sound, system integration, and typical infotainment-related troubleshooting scenarios. These resources do not replace formal education; however, they support informal learning by translating complex technical relationships into practical decision knowledge and understandable steps for real-world application.

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9. Concluding Assessment

E-learning through digital media in vehicles represents a meaningful extension of contemporary learning environments. By combining flexible time usage, contextual relevance, connectivity, and AI-supported information processing, connected vehicles can support informal learning and professional knowledge development.

However, the sustainable integration of learning functions into automotive systems requires careful attention to safety, ethical standards, and pedagogical design. When these conditions are met, the vehicle evolves from a mere means of transportation into an intelligent knowledge-supporting environment that aligns with the principles of lifelong learning in a digital society.

Bharat G. Thakare¹, Niranjan S. Samudre¹, Amol R. Naikda¹, Navnath M. Yajgar¹, Bhushan B. Chaudhari¹, Sudam D. Chavhan¹*, R. R. Ahire¹, Sachin J. Nandre²*,

¹ Department of Physics, S. G. Patil Art’s, Science and Commerce College, Sakri (Maharashtra)

² Department of Physics, U. P. College, Dahivel (Maharashtra)

*Email: – sachinjnandre@gmail.com , sudam1578@gmail.com

Abstract

This study explores the optoelectronic properties of Sb₂Se₃ thin films grown via chemical bath deposition (CBD), selenosulphate solution prepared by refluxing method, alongside antimony potassium tartrate solution complexed with triethanolamine and ammonia, diluted to 100 mL. Clean glass substrates underwent room-temperature deposition for 4 hours in darkness to ensure controlled nucleation, followed by rinsing with deionized water, drying hot air using dryer. Optical and electrical properties of chemically deposited Sb₂Se₃ thin films were systematically investigated to assess their suitability. Transmittance analysis in the wavelength range of 500–1000 nm reveals moderate transparency (~35–40%) in the near-infrared region, while a sharp decrease in transmittance below ~800 nm indicates a distinct absorption edge. Correspondingly, the absorbance spectrum exhibits strong absorption in the visible region (500–700 nm), confirming efficient photon harvesting with absorption coefficients exceeding 10⁴–10⁵ cm⁻¹. The optical bandgap, determined using a Tauc plot for direct allowed transitions, is found to be approximately 1.4 eV, which lies within the optimal range for single-junction solar cell applications. Electrical characterization of the as-deposited films shows linear and symmetric I–V behavior with current increasing from 0 to ~35 pA over 0–14 V, indicating ohmic conduction dominated by high series resistance. This behavior is attributed to intrinsic film resistance arising from amorphous regions, selenium vacancies, and poor inter-grain connectivity typical of unannealed solution-grown films. The absence of rectifying characteristics suggests an incomplete photovoltaic device lacking a p–n junction. Post-deposition treatments such as annealing or selenization are expected to improve crystallinity, reduce defect density, and enable efficient charge collection for enhanced solar cell performance.

Keywords: –Reflux; TEA; Sb₂Se₃; CBD; Optical; I-V.

Introduction

The rapid growth of optoelectronic and photovoltaic technologies has intensified the search for efficient, low-cost, and environmentally benign semiconductor materials. In this context, antimony selenide (Sb₂Se₃) has emerged as a promising absorber material owing to its suitable band gap, high optical absorption coefficient, and favorable charge transport properties [1]. Sb₂Se₃ is a V–VI compound semiconductor composed of earth-abundant and non-toxic elements [2,3], which makes it attractive for sustainable large-scale optoelectronic applications.Sb₂Se₃ crystallizes in an orthorhombic structure consisting of one-dimensional (Sb₄Se₆)ₙ ribbons held together by van der Waals forces. This unique structural arrangement leads to strong anisotropy in optical and electrical properties and contributes to efficient light absorption and carrier transport along preferred crystallographic directions [4,5]. The material exhibits a direct band gap in the range of 1.1–1.3 eV and an absorption coefficient exceeding 10⁵ cm⁻¹ in the visible region, which is well suited for solar energy harvesting and photodetection devices [6].The optoelectronic properties of Sb₂Se₃ thin films are highly dependent on the deposition technique and growth parameters. Various vacuum-based methods such as thermal evaporation, sputtering, and vapor transport deposition have been employed to fabricate Sb₂Se₃ films with controlled properties [7, 8]. However, these methods often involve high processing temperatures, complex instrumentation, and increased fabrication costs. Consequently, solution-based deposition techniques have attracted considerable interest as viable alternatives due to their simplicity, low energy consumption, and potential for large-area and flexible substrates [9].Solution growth methods, including chemical bath deposition, hydrothermal synthesis, and spin coating, offer enhanced control over film morphology, stoichiometry, and thickness through optimization of precursor concentration, bath temperature, deposition time, and solution chemistry [10, 11, 12]. These parameters play a crucial role in determining the optical absorption behavior, band gap energy, carrier concentration, and electrical conductivity of Sb₂Se₃ thin films. Systematic optoelectronic studies of solution-grown Sb₂Se₃ are therefore essential to establish correlations between growth conditions and functional properties.In view of these considerations, the present study focuses on the optoelectronic investigation of solution-grown Sb₂Se₃ thin films. Detailed analysis of optical properties such as absorbance, transmittance, and band gap energy, along with electrical characteristics, provides valuable insight into the potential of these films for optoelectronic and photovoltaic applications [13, 14, 15]. Understanding and optimizing these properties is a key step toward the development of efficient, low-cost Sb₂Se₃-based devices.

Experimental Work

Materials. Antimony Potassium Tartrate Hemihydrate (C₄H₄O₇KSb.1/2H₂O; Extra pure AR, 99.5%-Sisco Research Laboratories Pvt. Ltd.), Selenium Metal Pellets (Se 99.999%), Sodium Sulphite Anhydrous (Na₂SO₃; AR-98%), Triethanolamine (C₆H₁₅NO₃; Extra pure 98%), Ammonia Solution (NH₄OH; Extra pure 30%), Acetone and Isopropanol Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd. were used as precursors, reducing agents, complexing agents, and pH adjusters, respectively. Acetone and Isopropanol Loba Chemie Pvt. Ltd.) served as solvents for substrate cleaning and post-deposition rinsing. All chemicals were used as received without further purification.

Synthesis of Sb₂Se₃

Soda-lime glass substrates (dimensions: 75 mm × 25 mm × 1 mm) were meticulously cleaned prior to deposition to ensure a contamination-free surface[16]. The cleaning protocol involved sequential ultrasonic treatment in the following sequence: (i) a mild detergent solution (e.g., Labolene) for 5 min to remove organic residues; (ii) double-distilled water for 5 min; (iii) ethanol (99.9% purity) for 5 min; and (iv) isopropanol (99.7% purity) for 5 min. After each ultrasonication step, substrates were thoroughly rinsed with copious amounts of DDW to eliminate residual contaminants and prevent cross-contamination. The cleaned substrates were then dried using a gentle nitrogen gas blow to minimize particulate redeposition, followed by UV-ozone treatment for 10 minutes to enhance surface hydrophilicity and remove any remaining adventitious carbon. Finally, the prepared substrates were stored in a dust-free laminar flow cabinet until use for thin film deposition.The selenide source, 0.4 M sodium selenosulphate solution, was synthesized by refluxing 100 mL of 1 M sodium sulfite solution with excess selenium metal pellets (Se, 99.999% purity) at 90°C for 6 hours under constant stirring, adapting the procedure reported by Rodriguez-Lazcano et al. [17]. In a separate 100 mL beaker, 0.12 M of antimony potassium tartrate hemihydrate was dissolved in 32 mL of DDW with magnetic stirring until a homogeneous clear solution. To this, 3 mL of triethanolamine was added as a complexing agent, followed by 15 mL of 30% ammonia solution to adjust pH and stabilize the Sb-complex. The mixture was stirred vigorously for 10 minutes. Subsequently, 12 mL of the freshly prepared 0.2 M solution was introduced dropwise, and DDW was added to adjust the total volume to 100 mL, yielding the final chemical bath deposition (CBD) precursor solution.Cleaned glass substrates were vertically immersed in the chemical bath with the bath covered in aluminium foil to prevent photodegradation of the selenosulphate precursor. The deposition was conducted in a dark environment at room temperature (24 °C) for 4 hours to promote controlled nucleation and growth of the Sb₂Se₃ thin film via the CBD mechanism. Upon completion, the substrate was gently removed from the bath and rinsed thoroughly with DDW to wash away loosely adhered particles, residual precursors, and byproducts. The film was initially dried using a hot air dryer at 60°C, followed by purging with high-purity nitrogen gas to ensure uniform drying without mechanical damage.The processed substrate was allowed optical, and electrical characterization.

Fig. 1 Experimental Set-up of CBD at

room temperature

Result and Discussion: The Fig. 2 (a) plots transmittance (%) on the y-axis (0–40%) against wavelength (nm) on the x-axis (500–1000 nm), with a blue curve labeled “Sb₂Se₃”. The film shows moderate transparency starting at ~35–40% around 900–1000 nm in the near-infrared (NIR) region, where longer wavelengths pass through with minimal absorption. As wavelength decreases toward the visible range (500–800 nm), transmittance drops sharply from ~30% at 850 nm to near 0% below 700 nm, indicating a distinct absorption edge. This behaviour reflects the fundamental absorption process where photons with energy exceeding the bandgap (~1.5 eV, corresponding to ~825 nm) are strongly absorbed, while lower-energy NIR photons transmit—ideal for top-cell applications in tandem solar cells or single-junction devices targeting AM1.5G spectrum utilization.Directly adjacent Fig. 2 (b) absorbance (arbitrary units, 0–1.4) versus wavelength (500–1000 nm) is shown in red (“Sb₂Se₃”),

displaying the inverse trend: near-zero absorbance beyond 900 nm, followed by a steep rise commencing around 800 nm. Peak absorbance (>1.2 units) occurs in the 500–700 nm visible range, plateauing at high values that imply absorption coefficients (α) exceeding 10⁴–10⁵ cm⁻¹—characteristic of direct bandgap chalcogenides like Sb₂Se₃. This profile confirms efficient photon capture from blue-green to red light, with the onset aligning precisely with the transmittance edge, as expected from the Beer-Lambert law (T = e^{-αd}, where d is film thickness, typically 200–1000 nm for chemical bath deposited films).The Fig. 2 (c)employs a Tauc representation for direct allowed transitions, plotting (αhν)² (units: cm⁻² eV², 0–3) versus photon energy (hν, 1.2–1.8 eV) in green (“Sb₂Se₃, Eg=1.4 eV”). Here, α is derived from absorbance via α = (ln(1/T))/d, assuming uniform thickness. The curve remains flat near zero below ~1.4 eV (sub-bandgap scattering), then rises linearly with a steep slope above 1.4 eV, characteristic of direct interband transitions described by the Tauc equation: (αhν)² = A(hν – Eg), where A is a constant and Eg is the optical bandgap. Extrapolating the linear portion (tangent from ~1.45–1.65 eV) intersects the x-axis at precisely 1.4 eV, confirming the film’s direct bandgap. This value falls within the optimal range (1.1–1.6 eV) for single-junction photovoltaics. The I-V characteristic of as-deposited Sb₂Se₃ thin films, shown in Fig. 2 (d)the attached plot, displays linear ohmic behavior with current increasing steadily from 0 mA at 0 V to approximately 35 mA at 14 V, reflecting symmetric conduction without rectification. This indicates high series resistance dominated by the intrinsic absorber layer—typical for unannealed chemical bath deposited films featuring amorphous regions, Se vacancies, and poor inter-grain contacts that limit charge transport. For photovoltaic applications, such ohmic response signals an incomplete device lacking a p-n junction (e.g., with n-CdS), as ideal solar cells require diode-like rectification to generate Voc, Jsc, and fill factor under illumination; annealing or selenization treatments typically enhance crystallinity, reduce defects, and enable carrier collection along the ribbon-like structure for efficiencies reaching 3-10%.[18, 19, 20]​

Conclusion

In summary, this work successfully demonstrated a reproducible chemical bath deposition route for Sb₂Se₃ thin films using in-house sodium selenosulphate and antimony potassium tartrate precursors, yielding uniform coatings at room temperature with controlled post-processing. Optical spectra confirmed strong visible absorption (α > 10⁴ cm⁻¹), NIR transparency (35-40%), and a direct bandgap of 1.4 eV-optimally matched to AM1.5G illumination for photovoltaic absorbers—while the linear ohmic I-V response highlighted intrinsic high resistivity from defects in as-deposited films, underscoring the need for annealing to form rectifying junctions and boost carrier collection. These findings validate solution-processing viability for low-cost Sb₂Se₃ optoelectronics, paving the way for tandem cell integration and efficiency gains beyond 10% through targeted defect passivation and texturing.

Acknowledgements

One of the authors, Mr. Bharat Thakare, expresses sincere gratitude to the Trible Research and Training Institute, Pune, for financial support through a Maharashtra Government-sponsored fellowship during his Ph.D. research. The authors also extend their heartfelt thanks to the Principal of S.G. Patil ASC College, Sakri, for providing access to essential research facilities and infrastructure that enabled this work.

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