Examining the Place of Colonization and Its Effect on African Traditional Religion

Citation

Nweke, I. O., Oguechuo, A. G., Akpevwe, A. J., & Obi, D. K. (2026). Examining the Place of Colonization and Its Effect on African Traditional Religion. International Journal of Research, 13(4), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.26643/ijr/edupub/4

¹Dr Innocent Ogbonna Nweke

Department of Religion and Human Relations, Faculty of Arts,

Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, University,

Igbariam Campus

Email: ekedaion@yahoo.com

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5774-8728

²Afamnede Godfrey Oguechuo

Department of Religion and Human Relations, Faculty of Arts,

Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, University,

Igbariam Campus

Email: ag.oguechuo@coou.edu.ng 

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1137-0994

³Awana Judith Akpevwe

Department of Religion, Practical Theology and Human Relations, Faculty of Arts,

Dennis Osadebay University, Asaba

Email: awana.akpevwe@dou.edu.ng 

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0007-0164-0703

⁴Dieli Kingsley Obi

Department of Religion and Human Relations, Faculty of Arts,

Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, University,

Igbariam Campus

Email: kingsleydieli0@gmail.com

ORCID:  https://orcid.org/0009-0008-9600-7667

ABSTRACT

This study examines the profound impact of colonization on African Traditional Religion (ATR), highlighting the challenges and transformations that occurred as a result of European imperialist expansion. The paper makes use of library and online sources to explore the complexity of colonization as it affects and challenges the progress of African Traditional Religion. The study found that despite suppression, ATR has demonstrated remarkable resilience, adapting to colonial pressures and serving as a vital source of cultural and spiritual identity for many Africans. Its evolution reflects both the scars of colonization and the enduring strength of indigenous African traditions. As this paper has argued, the way forward lies not in a passive coexistence between ATR and colonial religions but in an active and intentional return to the moral and communal foundations of ATR.

KEYWORDS: African Traditional Religion, Colonization, Communal foundation, Cultural identity, Moral foundation , Spiritual identity

INTRODUCTION

African traditional religion is a foundational aspect of African culture, and in the African worldview, religion permeates all facets of life, including politics, economics, and social systems. This religion is whole in the sense that you cannot extricate any part of African life from the other (Nweke, 2022, p. 237). Nweke (2024, p. 82) deepens this point by affirming that ATR “incorporates the entirety of the Nigerian people’s worldview and understanding of reality”, an aspect which is lacking in other religions found in Nigeria and indeed across Africa. This total claim on African life is precisely what made ATR the primary target of colonial suppression — to dismantle the religion was to dismantle the entire social and spiritual fabric of African society. Thus, the intrinsic connection between religion and everyday life explains the deep-rooted impact of external forces such as secularism, colonization, and urbanization on ATR. Today, colonization, brought about as a result of the western scramble for Africa, has had its negative effect on ATR, though ATR has been able to rebuild itself and keeps rebuilding itself over time. Colonization is presently a force to reckon with, and today it comes in the form of neo-colonization. Presently, African Traditional Religion is rebuilding itself to reshape the African traditional religious landscape, creating a tension between traditional beliefs and the newer influences which this work sets out to discuss, especially as regards colonization.

COLONIZATION AND ATR

Colonization refers to the political domination of one nation over another, where the colonial power imposes its own political, social, and religious systems on the colonized society. This process often brings about the suppression of indigenous beliefs, practices, and structures. It is, therefore, accurate to argue that colonialism played a significant role in promoting destabilizing Traditional Religion in Africa. As colonial powers established their rule, they also introduced their religion, education, and social systems, all of which deeply influenced the fabric of African societies. Nweke (2021, p. 97) asserts that colonization and religion are closely interwoven as most of the colonial leaders came along with their religion, education and social lives.

As colonial rule progressed, missionaries came to be regarded as ideological shock troops serving the colonial agenda, with their zeal obscuring the realities of colonial exploitation (Anderson, 2010, p. 20). This shift reflects the complex relationship between religion and colonialism, where religious teachings were often used by colonial powers to justify their domination there by increasing the influence of foreign religion and diminishing the African Traditional Religion. The end product of such practices is succinctly expressed by Nweke (2021, p. 98) when he gave an example of how for example Christianity which accompanied the colonial master tend to give rise to the devaluation of African values such as African regards for God, who for them is the source and give of life.

Boer (1998, p. 50) argues that colonialism was often framed as a divine mission, with the colonial powers claiming to bring spiritual, cultural, and economic liberation to the colonized. These powers justified their actions by portraying African societies as diseased and oppressed, with the aim of rescuing them from what they described as Satanic or inferior religious practices The colonial powers, thus, presented themselves as saviors, bringing civilization and enlightenment through Christianity and other Western ideals.

Sameh (2010, p. 106) contends that many Christian missionary efforts were deeply intertwined with Western imperialism, with missionaries often serving as agents of colonial expansion. These missionaries were not only spreading Christianity but were also promoting a Western cultural agenda, reinforcing the power dynamics between the colonizers and the colonized. In Africa, colonization went hand-in-hand with the introduction of Christianity, Islam, secularism and other form of religious and ideological agendas which was often presented as the only legitimate form of religion hence terming ATR fetish and paganic in nature.

As Ekwuru (1999) as quoted by Nweke (2021, p. 98) explains, the primary aim of the colonial powers was not to liberate African societies but to exploit their human and material resources for the benefit of the colonizers. We can adequately still agree that inspite of  all, Colonization still has some sort of positive influences but on the larger scale, looking at what colonization has done to ATR, we can agree that it has done more harm than good. This is captured well in the thought of Nweke (2021, p. 99) when he asserts that reasoning and individualism were enthroned; communalism and regard for the sacred were dethroned. This was thus the basis of ATR, regard for the sacred. Today, people can confidently do evil and know they will go free because of the influence of colonization with its falsehood.

NEGATIVE IMPACT OF COLONIZATION ON AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION

1. Suppression and Marginalization: Colonization has historically been a significant tool for the suppression of African Traditional Religions (ATR). When colonial powers expanded into African territories, they sought to impose foreign religions and cultural systems on the indigenous populations (Ngugi, 2012, p. 49). They created created some delusion which links to the superiority complex of the missionaries that resulted into their false conception of African people as less human, without any idea of God or any spiritual reality even of the devil and with no sense of morality (Nweke, 2022, p. 240). These imposed religions were foreign to African peoples, and despite years of effort, they have largely failed to resonate with or replace the indigenous African belief systems (Mbiti, 1990, p. 92). The suppression of ATR was also driven by the colonizers’ belief in the superiority of their religion and culture, leading them to label ATR with derogatory terms such as ‘paganism’ and ‘fetishism. These labels were part of the colonial agenda to convert Africans through what they termed ‘evangelism’ (Mugambi, 1995, p. 112).

However, the religious practices introduced by colonizers were not inherently new; they paralleled indigenous African practices. For instance, while Europeans revered saints, Africans revered ancestors, both of which fulfilled similar functions within their respective cultures (Wiredu, 1996, p. 81). This suppression led to a marginalization of ATR, reinforced by policies that sought to restrict or outlaw ATR practices such as festivals and rituals, while permitting the free practice of colonial religions. The result has been a stigmatization of ATR adherents, a stigma that persists strongly in some parts of Africa to this day, contributing to a decline in the practice of ATR (Boserup, 2006, p. 57).

• Disruption of Traditional Structures: In regards to this, Ossai & Nweke (2023, p. 363), using Igboland as a case study, posit that before colonization, Igboland had a decentralized system of administration, with each community functioning largely independently and by its own set of traditions and customs. They further detail the traditional institutions that anchored this system: the council of elders, the umuanna, the umuada, and age-grade systems, all of which were “essential to upholding social order and enforcing the law” and served simultaneously as custodians of cultural heritage and religious identity (Ossai & Nweke, 2023, p. 364). These institutions were not merely political structures; they were the living vessels of ATR. This assertion can also be said to be true of the traditional structure of African Traditional Religion across Africa, since in African society, community and religion are interwoven. The suppression and stigmatization of ATR through colonization led to significant disruptions in these traditional structures that ATR had sustained for generations. The loss of interest in ATR by many people led to a decline in the number of religious leaders and priests, weakening the spiritual fabric of African societies (Adeyemi, 2014, p. 134). Moreover, colonial powers often targeted the economic centers of ATR communities, exacerbating internal conflicts and further diminishing the power and influence of ATR leaders (Benedict, 2011, p. 89).

Then there is a shift that led to a breakdown in the transmission of ATR practices to younger generations, as fewer people remained in rural areas where these traditions were upheld (Pinderhughes, 2017, p. 103). Additionally, the colonial authorities deliberately situated vital institutions, such as churches and administrative centers, in urban areas while allowing rural communities that practiced ATR to languish. In many instances, lands belonging to ATR shrines were forcibly seized, and these sacred sites were either destroyed or repurposed for churches, factories, or other non-religious uses (Murray, 2018, p. 64). Nweke (2025, p. 155) identifies this loss of sacred spaces as one of the most damaging consequences of modernization and colonization, noting that urbanization and industrialization caused many sacred spaces to be “destroyed or even neglected,” leading to the diminishing of their cultural and spiritual importance in the life of the community. The desecration of these sacred sites led to a profound loss of reverence for ATR and further alienated indigenous religious practices (Nzinga, 2019, p. 77).

• Cultural Assimilation and Syncretism: One of the significant negative impacts of colonization on African Traditional Religion (ATR) is what can be termed as syncretism. The efforts to completely eradicate ATR were largely unsuccessful, as many Africans, although embracing the new religion due to its perceived benefits, continued to retain their ATR beliefs and practices in their hearts (Asante, 2000, p. 45). This led to the assimilation of ATR elements into the new colonial religions. While some scholars and religious leaders have referred to this process as inculturation when it favors the growth of the colonial religion, it can also be understood as syncretism, particularly when ATR practices are incorporated into the new faith (Okot, 1991, p. 112). This blending resulted in the creation of various hybrid religious systems that sought to integrate aspects of ATR worship with the new religious doctrines. Nweke (2025, p. 155) offers a perceptive explanation for this development, arguing that because of modernity and colonial influence, many Africans began to “rationalize the core values, customs, indigenous religion and its rituals by equating the teachings of the ancestors with western scientific methodology.” This rationalism — the measuring of sacred ancestral wisdom by the yardstick of Western science — is perhaps the deepest form of cultural assimilation, as it did not merely change what Africans practised but how they thought about their own tradition. However, this process of syncretism weakened the original structure of ATR, as it became a mixed system that no longer fully represented its indigenous practices and beliefs (Afigbo, 2008, p. 134). While syncretism served as an adaptation strategy that allowed ATR to survive under colonial pressure, it also led to the development of a religious landscape that is, at times, confused and fragmented.
• Identity Crisis: Nweke (2021, p. 99) sees the issue of this crisis as that which leaves the searching African empty and devoid of a central belief system at the core. This emptiness is rooted in the fact that the religion colonialism replaced ATR with cannot fully satisfy the African soul. Nweke (2024, p. 82) makes a compelling case for this, arguing that ATR “incorporates the entirety of the Nigerian people’s worldview and understanding of reality” — an aspect which is lacking in other religions found in Nigeria. In other words, the colonial religions, however sincerely embraced, were structurally incapable of addressing the totality of African existence, leaving a permanent void at the centre of African identity. Colonization thus precipitated an identity crisis among ATR adherents, leading to a profound sense of confusion about their cultural and spiritual identity. While colonizers succeeded in eroding many aspects of ATR, they were unable to alter the physical and cultural identity of Africans. As a result, many Africans found themselves caught between two worlds — the one defined by their colonial rulers and the other by their indigenous heritage (Horton, 2000, p. 160). This identity crisis is especially evident in the context of religious practices, as African worship involves both body and spirit, with rituals often accompanied by loud drums, music, and dancing. Such practices starkly contrast with the more restrained and formal worship styles promoted by colonial powers (Mbiti, 1990, p. 121). Consequently, many African adherents found it difficult to fully embrace the worship practices of their colonial masters, as it conflicted with their deeply ingrained cultural and spiritual identity. This internal conflict continues to affect the self-perception of many Africans, as they struggle to reconcile their traditional beliefs with the imposed foreign ideologies (Shay, 2011, p. 89).
• Secularism: colonialism as one of the causes of secularism has created a monster that continues to produce a non-religious society. For Nweke (2021, p. 95) secularism is the transformation of a society from close religious identification toward non-religious values identification…this implies that secularization creates an avenue through which ATR is watered down. Nweke (2025, p. 151) provides important theoretical grounding here, explaining that secularism “involves the shift of societies from religious to non-religious values, influenced by modernization and rationalization,” and that it is “linked to the decline of religion’s authority in social life and governance.” He further identifies consumerism and the focus on scientific rationality as key fuels of secularism in Africa, noting that these forces challenge traditional African religiosity in ways that go far deeper than mere disbelief — they restructure the very priorities and consciousness of African people. Furthermore, secularism also creates a major issue, that is, the reduction of the population of worship (Nweke, 2021, p. 94). Nweke (2025, p. 155) reinforces this by observing that the contemporary generations have moved away from traditional roles, causing a decline in the number of traditional priests and worshippers and continuously threatening the preservation of ATR’s cultural heritage. Today, secularism continues to eat deep into ATR as it advocates that morality should be separated from religion (Nweke, 2019, p. 104). This remains something ATR was not known for before the advent of colonialism.

HOW ATR HAS RESISTED THE IMPACT OF COLONIZATION

1. Secretive Practices: In response to the pressure of colonization, some adherents of African Traditional Religion (ATR) went underground to continue practicing their beliefs in secret. These individuals, often custodians of sacred lands and traditions, took great risks to preserve their cultural and spiritual identity from the forces that sought to eradicate them (Murray, 2018, p. 76). Many of these individuals paid the ultimate price, sacrificing their lives or losing their family heritage. In some cases, they were ostracized by their communities, with their families being seen as bad omens by those who had adopted colonial religions (Wiredu, 1996, p. 95). Despite the immense pressure, these secretive practices ensured the survival of ATR during colonial rule, allowing its adherents to preserve their connection to their spiritual roots.
2. Syncretism: While syncretism is often viewed as a compromise, it was another important strategy through which ATR resisted colonization. For many Africans, it was not feasible to practice ATR openly, so they adapted by blending elements of the new colonial religions with their indigenous beliefs. This practice of mixing ATR with Christianity, for example, allowed them to maintain their spiritual practices while also benefiting from the societal and political advantages offered by the colonial religion (Gyekye, 1997, p. 104). In this way, they would wear charms while attending church services and, upon returning home, pay homage to their divinities (Mbiti, 1990, p. 142). This syncretism provided a means for Africans to hold on to their traditions while navigating the colonial structures that sought to suppress them. …all this shows the fact that Africans find it very difficult to leave their way of life especially in matters of religion (Nweke, 2020, p. 45)
3. Anti-Colonial Movements: The resistance of ATR to colonization is also evident in the various anti-colonial movements throughout Africa. Many of these movements were inspired and supported by ATR beliefs, with leaders like Samory Touré, an Islamic warrior who fought the imperier powers in West Africa using ATR as a foundation for their resistance efforts. Touré, for instance, drew upon the spiritual strength and cultural unity provided by ATR to mobilize followers against colonial powers (Benedict, 2011, p. 89). These movements were essential in the broader struggle for independence, as they tied the resistance to a deep sense of cultural and spiritual pride that ATR provided.
4. Clinging to ATR: Nweke (2019, p. 298) assertionthat where is something golden about African Traditional Rituals means that for some Africans, the only way to preserve their cultural and spiritual identity was to cling to ATR at all costs. These individuals rejected colonial religion entirely, choosing to either practice ATR in secret. This unwavering commitment to ATR served as a powerful symbol of resistance against the colonial forces that sought to erase African heritage (Asante, 2000, p. 47). Whether through secret worship or syncretism, these adherents preserved the essence of their beliefs, ensuring that ATR survived the colonial era and continues to thrive in the modern world.

THE FRUIT OF THE RESISTANCE OF ATR

1. Post-Colonial Revival: The resistance of African Traditional Religion (ATR) during the peak of colonization has contributed significantly to the post-colonial revival of ATR. Despite colonial efforts to suppress ATR, many African communities managed to retain and protect their religious practices, resulting in a cultural and spiritual resurgence after independence. One of the key aspects of this revival has been the reclamation of ATR’s integrity, as adherents work to erase the negative stereotypes imposed by colonial powers, such as the labels of paganism and fetishism (Gyekye, 1997, p. 125). This shift has allowed ATR to be celebrated openly in art, education, and public discourse, helping it gain recognition as a legitimate and vibrant religious tradition (Mbiti, 1990, p. 150). Nweke (2024, p. 84) makes a clarion call in this direction, arguing that there is urgent need for “a massive return to the African roots” and that the publicity of ATR — its active promotion and reintroduction to younger generations — is essential to reversing the damage of colonialism. He further observes that African scholars must grab every opportunity to write about ATR, ensuring that “its origins, its tenets, its benefits and advantages” are widely known and appreciated. This scholarly activism is itself a form of post-colonial resistance and revival. Furthermore, the post-colonial period has seen efforts to restore cultural heritage, including the return of stolen artifacts by colonial powers. This has played an important role in affirming the value of ATR as an integral part of African identity and history (Asante, 2000, p. 102).
2. Global Recognition and Adaptation: ATR is gradually gaining modern recognition not only within Africa but also on a global scale. The movement towards global recognition has helped foster a new respect for ATR, encouraging greater interest in its practices and beliefs from people outside of Africa. This international attention allows ATR to evolve in ways that enable it to adapt to contemporary contexts while retaining the core principles of its practices (Shay, 2011, p. 120).

WAYS TO RECONCILE ATR AND COLONIZATION

Both African Traditional Religion (ATR) and the religions introduced through colonization are unlikely to disappear anytime soon. Nweke (2022, p. 244) remarks that the Christian religion has come to stay in Africa leaves no doubt as it is visibly clear to all around. Given their continued presence, it is essential to find ways for these two belief systems to coexist harmoniously in today’s world. The following approaches can help facilitate this reconciliation:

1. Recognition and Respect: One key step in reconciling ATR with colonial religions is recognizing and respecting the place of ATR among the world’s religions. ATR, with its deep-rooted indigenous adherents, deserves the same recognition as other global religions. This recognition can help reduce tensions between ATR followers and those who adhere to religions brought by colonial powers (Mbiti, 1990, p. 169). By fostering an environment of mutual respect, both religions can coexist peacefully, with each maintaining its unique cultural and spiritual identity. Nweke (2024, p. 86) goes further to argue that this recognition should not remain merely symbolic but must be structural: he recommends that governments inculcate in citizens, legislators, and the judiciary the ethical principles and eschatological concepts of ATR through workshops and seminars, so that these principles can serve as “check and balances between members and leaders” of African societies. This is a bold and practical vision of reconciliation — not just tolerance between religions, but the active integration of ATR’s moral framework into the governance and legal architecture of post-colonial African nations. Of this, Africa should develop the character of self-acceptance against self-rejection (Nweke, 2019, p. 105) and this should spread to other aspects of African life.
2. Inter-Religious Dialogue: The advancement of inter-religious dialogue is another important strategy for reconciling ATR and the impacts of colonization. Efforts in this area have created platforms where individuals from different religious backgrounds can share their views on how their faith contributes to the well-being of humanity. Inter-religious dialogue allows people to appreciate that different religions, while diverse in expression, often seek the same ultimate truth and work toward similar goals. This dialogue can help bridge the gap between ATR and colonial religions by emphasizing shared values and promoting understanding (Asante, 2000, p. 114). One way the awareness of the importance of ATR can be created is through the media about the tools of ATR since has access to the media (Nweke, 2019, 105).
3. Cultural Revitalization: Revitalizing local cultures and promoting freedom of cultural expression can also play a significant role in reconciling ATR with colonial influences. This involves teaching and celebrating pre-colonial cultural practices, not as a rejection of colonial contributions but as a means of preserving African heritage. Education systems, communities, and families should emphasize the importance of cultural traditions, teaching younger generations about the customs, rituals, and beliefs of ATR in a way that respects both indigenous practices and the positive aspects of colonial influences (Wiredu, 1996, p. 88). Nweke (2025, p. 159) powerfully articulates this vision, arguing that for modernization to work effectively in Africa, it “must fully embrace the culture, custom and the traditional religion of the people” and must also “embrace the diverse perspective of the people’s ideologies, fostering resilience and harmony in a rapidly changing world without leaving out any iota of the people’s beliefs that is positive.” This is not a rejection of progress but a demand that progress be genuinely African — rooted in the soil of African religion, culture, and communal values. This cultural revitalization fosters pride in African traditions while also accepting the contributions of other cultures in shaping contemporary African society.

CONCLUSION

Colonization had a dual impact on ATR, simultaneously threatening its survival while catalyzing its transformation. Despite suppression, ATR has demonstrated remarkable resilience, adapting to colonial pressures and serving as a vital source of cultural and spiritual identity for many Africans. Its evolution reflects both the scars of colonization and the enduring strength of indigenous African traditions. As this paper has argued, the way forward lies not in a passive coexistence between ATR and colonial religions, but in an active and intentional return to the moral and communal foundations of ATR. Nweke (2024, p. 82) captures this imperative eloquently, asserting that “the moral salvation of Nigerians lies in their immediate and conscious return to traditional socio-religious values and morals system which is the foundation for genuine conscience and national development.” This verdict applies not only to Nigeria but to Africa as a whole. The colonization of Africa was, at its core, the colonization of a religious worldview. The recovery of Africa must therefore begin with the recovery of that worldview — ATR in its fullness, dignity, and enduring relevance.

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