(1815-1871)

Introduction

Nationalism arose mainly after the Napoleon attack in 1796. He consolidated the four major areas and people of Italy wanted revival of rich culture as during that of Renaissance period.

Congress of Vienna (1815)

As Italy was a large area, it could emerge as another powerful state. Therefore it was not declared as an independent state but distributed among kingdoms of France, Spain and Austria.

Like German unification, Italian unification was also done in three parts.

• 1858-59 : War against Austria and integration of Lombardy
• 1860 : Integration of Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Naples and Sicily
• 1866 : Integration of Venice and in 1871, Rome.

(Nationalism arose in 1815 but actually started in 1858.)

Causes of Unification

• Nationalism Wave of nationalism swept across Europe in nineteenth century, Language, Religion and Territory.
  • Italian thinkers, writers, artists started bringing up cultural traditions
  • Secret societies were formed for political change to overthrow Austrian government.
  • Carboneria was a secret organisation (1800-31) aimed simply ato remove foreign rule and tyranny.
  • Guiseppe Mazzini was the first person who gave idea of unification. In 1831 formed YOUNG ITALY a nationalist group. He gave the Republican ideology and was exciled to France but smuggled patriotic pamphlets to Italy. However, all his insurrections sadly failed.

• Cound Cavour who was the Prime Minister of Piedmont Sardinia (1852) under King Victor Emanuel II was the architect of Italian Unification.
  • He founded nationalistic newspaper Il Risorgiments. Gave civil rights freedom of press and economi development.

Cavour’s policies

• Built up Sardinian economy
• Believed unified Italy should be reborn as monarchy
• Spread telling of unification to neighbouring states
• Helped France and British soldiers in crimean War. At the conference, he highlighted Austria’s suppression over Italy. Thereby gained sympathy.

Phase I (1858-59)

• Lombardy and Venice were instigated by cavour against Austria
• Austria declared war on Sardinia
• Italy with French helped emerged as victor and liberated Lombardy
• But could not lierate Venice
• Lombardy was therefore integrated

Phase II (1860)

• Parma, Modena, tuscany was ruled by client state of Habsburg.
• Plebiscite was conducted here and people voted to join Piedmont- Sardinia.
• Some popal states were also unified.
• Challenge: cavour had a deal with France only for Austria. the Southern Italy was under Bourbon dynasty who were relatives of Napoleon III. This could dismantle Cavour and Napoleon III’s relation.
• Guiseppe Garibaldi came to rescue. Cavour asked him to lead Sardinian army against Sicily. these armies were called Red Shirts. With this, Naples and Sicily were also liberated.
• On this Cavour said to Napoleon III- Bourban dynasty =had been overthrown by a revolutionary garibaldi. I will not attack Pope. Kindly ask pope yo let my army pass through so that I can go attack Sicily.
• In 1861, Victor Emannuel II provclaimed the kingdom. Sadly Cavour died at the age of 50, due to over work.

Phase III 1866, 71

• The King signed treaty with Prussia with following terms
  • both against Austria
  • Italy will help in Austria-Prussia war.
  • Venice will be given to Italy after any such war.
  • There was a Battle of Sodowa (1866) where Prussia won and Venice was given to Italy.
• Papal State was still under France.
  • But in Franco Prussian war france lost. Napoleon III was captured.
  • Rome was captured and made capital of Italy.
  • But since they respected Pope, Vatican city is still under the control of Pope.

The story begins after the end of World War 2. The second World War was fought between Axis (Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria) and Allied powers (U.S., Britain, France, USSR, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Yugoslavia). Axis lost. After Hitler, Allied powers decided to divide Germany into 4 parts. Later they merged and divided into two- became West Germany and East Germany. It was divided on the basis of Capitalist and Communist ideas.

On August 13, 1961, the Communist government of the German Democratic Republic (GDR, or East Germany) began to build a barbed wire and concrete “Antifascistischer Schutzwall,” or “antifascist bulwark,” between East and West Berlin. The official purpose of this Berlin Wall was to keep so-called Western “fascists” from entering East Germany and undermining the socialist state, but it primarily served the objective of stemming mass defections from East to West. 

Even though Berlin was located entirely within the Soviet part of the country (it sat about 100 miles from the border between the eastern and western occupation zones), the Yalta and Potsdam agreements split the city into similar sectors. The Soviets took the eastern half, while the other Allies took the western. This four-way occupation of Berlin began in June 1945.

Permanent Migrations also started. This was uni-directional- communism was centralised, with less job opprtunities, the conditions deteriorated so much that until 1961, 20 percent (around 3.5 million people) of east population had settled to west.

The east government started thinking of solution to this Brain drain. The post war agreement divided the capital Berlin into two. The eastern part would be under the influence of Soviet Union and west would be under the influence of allies.

On 13th August 1961, the wall was revealed to the world. But the public was definitely disappointed. Some people simply tried to climb over the wall at night when the guards were not able to see. so the east government put barbed wires on the top of the wall. As time passed government started making the wall stronger and with this, people also got creative in ways of escaping.

On February 1989, a man hit the wall with a very heavy cargo truck. he escaped through the hole. To stop these kind of escapes, government started using innovative ideas.

In February 1985, East Germany got a new leader Mikhail Gorbachev. He recognised and acknowledgd the problems. He decentralised the political and economic controls, brought two measures Perestroika (reconstructing and Glasnost (Transparency), allowed private company to enter.

Finally eastern government decided to ease the regulations. On November 9 1989, due to a misunderstandimg by spokesperson, the news spread that the Fall of Berlin would come into effect immediately.

Saul Bellow was born in 1915 in Canada to his immigrant parents who moved from Russia to Montreal an year before his birth.

“Bellow is one of the giants of the twentieth century novel.”- Irish Times

His family moved to Chicago when Bellow wa nine years old. This city has often been mentioned in his novel. He went to University of Chicago later Northwestern University. He initially wanted to pursue English but felt English faculty was anti -Jewish. Therefore opted for Sociologyand Anthropology. As a result we find his knowledge of human behaviour significant in his novels.

“Bellow and Bloom inhaled books and ideas the way we breathe air.”- John Podhoretz (Bellow’s friend0

His major works include Dangling Man (1944), The Victim (1947), Adventures of Augie March (1954), Seize the Day (1956), Herzog (1964), Humboldt’s gift (1975), Mr. Scrambler’s Planet (1970). He is the only ovelist to have been awarded with three National Book Award for Fiction in 1954, 1965 and 1971 reapectively.

Characterisation

Characterisation in Bellow’s novels are peculiar. His protagonists are mostly picaresque. They have atypical yet extraordinary characterisations. His noel The Adventures of Augie March was compared to Spanish Classic “Don Quixote”.

The protagonist shows affirmation after facing all the predicaments. For example Tommy Wilhelm of Seize the Day and protagonist of Herzo, they both are living an alienated life and searching for happiness throughout. At the end came out successful.

Autobiographical Tone is often found in Saul Bellows novels. His protagonists reflect his intentions, Chicago is the setting and heroes are mostly Jewish. In Dangling Man the hero waits to be drafted in world war 2 and in Adventures of Augie MArch, Bellow depicted his father’s ordeals and how life was during Great Depression.

“His ability to show how Great Depression felt instead of showing Depression distinguishes him from the rest.”

Individualism and quest for self identity are also his major themes. Writing style of Bellow is often descriptive- he provides minute details. For example in Seize the day, while talking about a normal conversation between Tommy and Dr. Tamkin, he provides minute details in this way:

”…. whose fingers in his pockets were feeling in the little envelops for the Phenaphen Capsules.”- Seize the Day.

He writes in a colloquial tone. He writes about blatant culture and gives historical references. As a modern novelist he considered Modern Age as=Literature as Victim Literature, His protagonist were often Victimized.

The thing which sets him apart from others is the Optimism he gave to his endings.

Tommy for example the protagonist of Seize the Day realizes the futility of materialism after getting so many failures. Therefore he was full of optimism.

Bellow’s novels have mindset different from their contemporaries. They did not contain story rather stream of consciousness was important.

He died in 2005 in Brooklyn.

Never Let Me Go is an English novel by Kazuo Ishiguro. Ishiguro is a British novelist, screen writer, musician and short story writer. His novels are majorly based on memory and have a great emotional force. His most celebrated works include The Remains of the Day, When we were Orphans, Never Let Me Go. He has received Man Booker Prize in 1989 and Nobel Prize in Literature in 2017.

Never Let Me Go is a dystopian science fiction novel written in 2005. It is a novel showing what happens when a society is allowed to use scientific experiment without considering the consequences. It is a story with systematised and legalised cloning.

Kathy is the central character and narrator telling of their lives at Hailsham, the seemingly idyllic place with dark secrets. The characters are shown to be normal humans at first. Eventually we coe to know that they were clones made to support the humanity by donating their organs. And eventually completing (a euphemism for dying)

Ishiguro examines many important issues like identity crisis, nostalgia and friendship. Questioning humanity and morality is also a prominent theme. The novel contemplates on the the way clones were treated. It allows the reader to question the ethics of human cloning.

Friendship and Love depict the human relationship. Giving these dimensions to clones directly indicates towards their humane feelings. Jealousy is also one of the factors of the humane side of the scientifically developed clone.

Memory plays an important role in Kazuo Ishiguro’s novels. The novel is a record of 30 years old kathy’s recalling of past memories. She preserves the memory of closed Hailsham, her completed- friends. The novel epitomises the desire to hold on. When in Hailsham, Kathy dances to a song by Judy Waterbridge, Never Let Me Go, holding an imaginary baby. Through these small incidents we see how memory holds an important position.

“Memories, even your most precious ones, fade surprisingly quickly. But I do not go along with that. The memories I value most, I do not ever see them fading.”

The novel has various themes and symbols enhancing the emotional and artistic quality of author to deal with such deplorable topics.

Otto Von Bismarck (1815-1898) was a Conservative Statesman from Prussia. He was appointed as the Prime Minister of Prussia by William II. He remained the first chancellor of German federation from 1871 to 1890.

After joining the office, his primary objective was Unification of Germany. For this he chose the path of diplomacy throughout the process.

He believed in Real Politik, an ideology of Machiavelli, i.e. the policy to be applied rather than have a handbook. In his famous Blood Iron Speech he said:

"Germany doesn't look to Prussia's Liberalism but to her power... not by speeches and majorities will the Great queestions of the day be decided but by Iron and Blood."

Role in Unification of Germany

Diplomacy

He won the support of Liberals and Socialists with following policies:

• He banned Social Democratic Party but started Social Welfare Program which included health insurance, accident insurance and old age pensions.

For liberals he diminished church rights. Also made anti church and anti Catholic policies. The struggle between the church and Bismarck was called Kulturkamph.

Bismarck was also in favour of Industrialization which added points in favour of Liberals.

War strategies

i) Prussia + Austria againdst Denmark (1864)

(Diplomacy to gain Austrian support)

Denmark lost

Prussia and Austria took over Schelweig and Holstein respectively.

ii) Austria-Prussian War (1866)

(Prussia was supported by Italy)

prussia won in 7 weeks

Austria’s allies were annexed and Prussia became leader of German unification

iii) Franco Prussian War (1871)

(Planned to arouse Nationalism by France attack on Germany)

Aims of policy:

Wanted to isolate France thereby remaining in good terms with Austria and Russia

1. Driekaiserbund (League of Three Emperors) was Bismarck’s policy of isolating France
2. He hosted Congress of Berlin 1878. The result left Russia angry and signed out of Driekaiserbund.
3. To safeside Germany he made Reinsurance Treaty 1887, with Russia.
4. Dual Alliance 1879, with Austria became “the way to cornerstone of the foreign policy” says Caer.
5. Bismarck wanted to remain neutral and did not want to disturb Balance of Power. However pressure built during Scramble of Africa.

Bismarck enjoyed formidable reputation. His handling of Vongress of Berlin helped prevent war in Europe. Biggest criticism for him is his disregard for people of small nations. He ignored the wish of people of Ottoman Empire during Berlin Conference.

Nelson Mandela, the figurehead of Africa’s Anti-aparthied movement and the first Black President was born on this day, July 18, 1918  into the Thembu royal family in South Africa. He was the first elected Black President who was elected in a fully democratic election. Mandela became involved in protests against the racist policies of South Africa’s government in his 20s, and is known for having spent 27 years in prison for political offenses.  He served as the president of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997. The South Africans who love him refer to him as Tata, father. He was an active member of African National congress. Mandela had always looked for peaceful ways to protest.

However, the Sharpville massacre in March 1960, where 69 Black South Africans were shot and killed by police and hundreds wounded during a peaceful protest; contributed to deteriorating relations with the White minority government. The resistance fighter who for years had denounced violence suddenly saw a need to use arms in the struggle for equality.

Mandel abandoned his peaceful stance and started advocating sabotage against the White Government. He went underground and co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), the military wing ofhe ANC. During this time he was known as Black Pimpernal for his ability to evade capture. In 1962, he went to Algeruia to eran the Guirella warfare tactic. On the way of his return he was arrested along with other members at a road block. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for guerrilla war actions against the government. International pressure to free Mandela grew over time and he was released after 27 years of imprisonment. He declared his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the country’s white minority on the day of his release, which turned into a large-scale celebration that included a global media presence. People in the street cheered in support of Tata.

Mandela’s biggest influence on the new South Africa was his personal determination that anger over the crimes of the past, including his 27 years as a political prisoner, should not motivate future laws and actions. Key to this was his 1995 establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission that investigated historic human rights violations and gave vent to grievances.

His negotiations with the South African president in the early 90s, F.W. de Klerk helped in cession of aparthied system of racial segregation. Mandela along with Klerk received Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts in 1993.

Mandela’s other key legacy is his extensive charitable work, including the creation of the Nelson Mandela Foundation,  the Nelson Mandela Children’s Fund. Starting from 2002, Mandela encouraged AIDS awareness and treatment. 46664 – the HIV-AIDS initiative was named after his prison number.

In 2009, the United Nations declared that July 18, Mandela’s birthday, would be a worldwide day of community service known as Nelson Mandela International Day.