Social Media and Reality

 Uh oh, check this out before that new notification distracts you and makes you waste another 2 hours stalking someone you think is superior to you and make yourself sulk for nothing.

Social Media VS Reality

If we start comparing the pre-social media phase and post-social media phase, many of us will have different views on the same. Let’s say that it was so much better when we didn’t have to spend hours before the screen and actually had some goals specifically for the day.

The physical meet-up with friends and families had its own advantages and better exposure for anyone who liked interacting with people. The white light of phone screens has literally snatched it away from all of us.

We all will accept the fact that technology has brought so many facets that are helpful for us all and provides us a such a level of education and productivity that we wouldn’t have been able to realize without it. If we talk about social media it has allowed for larger and quicker access to information. The information coming to us may be about some celebrity activity, fashion, or recent natural disaster but we cannot claim that we are not informed. 

                     
                   

Like every other thing, social media has its own downsides. There are a lot of questions that arise that if the information we receive is correct? Do we trust the sources giving us the information? Would the addiction of it affect our normal life? Does social media alter one’s understanding of reality? 

The chaos of looking better than the rest in your Instagram posts, sharing your travel location on Facebook, and tweeting on Twitter over the topics that you aren’t even aware of, is just another reason to feel accomplished at that time and then feel anxious upon it. 

THE FAKE BUBBLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA

Don’t get me wrong- social media is amazing. From information, comedies to one’s personal stories, ideas to marketing and targeting people for little to no cost. But as great as all of it is, social media is the most damaging aspect of our generation.

From the new teens to the ones in their 40s, almost everyone participates in the marathon of looking presentable over social media, the cold war between Instagram influencers and digital creators within this marathon is something that can’t be ignored or go unnoticed. It is very common these days where one might create all the scenarios over their online love interest and later realize that it was nothing but treachery with a whole fake identity and several trap accounts, playing with people’s emotions and this act that may sound fun to one, might lead someone with serious trust issues and on the edge of loneliness.

It is high time for every one of us to understand that being on social media platforms can be great and help us deal with almost any kind of boredom, be it by being a part of random group chat, recreating pictures like some “victoria secret” model, and being the queen bee amongst your friend circle, but as far as it looks so fascinating and attractive, one must know that it is nothing but a well-composed online game which was visually created with the actually existing people and none that happens on it, is real and holds any existence. 

ACID RAIN- THE STEADY DESTROYER

In 1963, Scientists studying Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire made a shocking discovery. Their most recent rainfall samples were nearly 100 times more acidic than the usual rainfall samples. At these levels, additional downpours of acid rain would destroy the region’s marine and arboreal ecosystems in a matter of decades. Urgently haring their findings with the fellow researchers, they were determined to answer two questions: What was causing this deadly rainfall? and what could be done to stop it?

Rain is never just composed of water. Chemicals and particulates in the atmosphere can be found in every drop, and some compounds like carbon dioxide make even regular rainfall slightly acidic. But this pales in comparison to the powerful acids produced when water interacts with oxides of nitrogen or sulfur dioxide. On the pH scale which measures acidity, each whole number is ten times more acidic than the one above it. And where normal rain has a pH of roughly 5.4, rain that’s interacted with these gases(carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide or oxides of nitrogen) can rank as low as 3.7. Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide can appear naturally as a short-lived byproduct of volcanic eruptions or lightening strikes. But power plants, refineries and vehicles that use fossil fuels consistently pump large quantities of these harmful gases into the air. These dangerous gases travel with the wind spreading hundreds of kilometers from the pollution’s source. Acting like roaming clouds of destruction, their presence dramatically increases the acidity of local precipitation, creating acid rain, acid snow and acid fog. These all acidify lakes and streams, kill crops and forests, and damage soil to inhibit future growth on it. Overtime, acid rain can even corrode human structures made up of stone or metal.

  • Diagram showing acid rain pathway illustration

By the 1970s, Scientists in North America and Europe classified acid rain as a major environmental threat. But despite clear evidence tying the problem to air pollution, companies denied responsibility and cast doubt on the research. In the United States, corporations lobbied against regulating pollution, and convinced politicians that such policies would raise energy costs and threaten jobs. These obstacles led the government to delay changes, and mandate further research into the issue. But after a decade of mounting concern, Congress finally took action. Since the bulk of sulfur dioxide emissions came from power plants, the government set a limit on the total amount of it the electric power sector could emit each year. Then, they divided the permitted emissions into a fixed number of “allowances” distributed to each power plant. A plant could then choose to emit as much sulfur dioxide as they were allowed, or reduce their emissions and sell their unused allowances to the other power plants. This system is known as “Cap and Trade”, offered power plants the economic flexibility to keep costs low while strictly limiting pollution.

Many critics called these allowances licenses to pollute or said the government was selling clean air. But since the Cap was set to lower five years into the program, it forced every utility company to reduce emissions in the long term. Some plants added desulfurizing scrubbers to their smokestacks, or switched to low-sulfur coal and natural gas. Oxides of nitrogen emissions were also reduced with relatively low-cost technologies. These advances allowed the power sector to grow while the cap kept pollution under control.

ACID RAIN- THE STEADY DESTROYER

In 1963, Scientists studying Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire made a shocking discovery. Their most recent rainfall samples were nearly 100 times more acidic than the usual rainfall samples. At these levels, additional downpours of acid rain would destroy the region’s marine and arboreal ecosystems in a matter of decades. Urgently haring their findings with the fellow researchers, they were determined to answer two questions: What was causing this deadly rainfall? and what could be done to stop it?

Rain is never just composed of water. Chemicals and particulates in the atmosphere can be found in every drop, and some compounds like carbon dioxide make even regular rainfall slightly acidic. But this pales in comparison to the powerful acids produced when water interacts with oxides of nitrogen or sulfur dioxide. On the pH scale which measures acidity, each whole number is ten times more acidic than the one above it. And where normal rain has a pH of roughly 5.4, rain that’s interacted with these gases(carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide or oxides of nitrogen) can rank as low as 3.7. Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide can appear naturally as a short-lived byproduct of volcanic eruptions or lightening strikes. But power plants, refineries and vehicles that use fossil fuels consistently pump large quantities of these harmful gases into the air. These dangerous gases travel with the wind spreading hundreds of kilometers from the pollution’s source. Acting like roaming clouds of destruction, their presence dramatically increases the acidity of local precipitation, creating acid rain, acid snow and acid fog. These all acidify lakes and streams, kill crops and forests, and damage soil to inhibit future growth on it. Overtime, acid rain can even corrode human structures made up of stone or metal.

  • Diagram showing acid rain pathway illustration

By the 1970s, Scientists in North America and Europe classified acid rain as a major environmental threat. But despite clear evidence tying the problem to air pollution, companies denied responsibility and cast doubt on the research. In the United States, corporations lobbied against regulating pollution, and convinced politicians that such policies would raise energy costs and threaten jobs. These obstacles led the government to delay changes, and mandate further research into the issue. But after a decade of mounting concern, Congress finally took action. Since the bulk of sulfur dioxide emissions came from power plants, the government set a limit on the total amount of it the electric power sector could emit each year. Then, they divided the permitted emissions into a fixed number of “allowances” distributed to each power plant. A plant could then choose to emit as much sulfur dioxide as they were allowed, or reduce their emissions and sell their unused allowances to the other power plants. This system is known as “Cap and Trade”, offered power plants the economic flexibility to keep costs low while strictly limiting pollution.

Many critics called these allowances licenses to pollute or said the government was selling clean air. But since the Cap was set to lower five years into the program, it forced every utility company to reduce emissions in the long term. Some plants added desulfurizing scrubbers to their smokestacks, or switched to low-sulfur coal and natural gas. Oxides of nitrogen emissions were also reduced with relatively low-cost technologies. These advances allowed the power sector to grow while the cap kept pollution under control.

Transmission Mode :

When two computers are in communication,data transmission may occur in one of the three modes

🔸️one way only
a) Simplex mode

🔸️Both ways but one way at a time
b) Half- duplex mode

🔸️Both ways simultaneously
c) Full-duplex mode

🌟Simplex mode🌟:

In Simplex mode,data can be transmitted in one direction as shown in below.
The device using the Simplex mode of transmission can either send or receive data, but it cannot do both. An example is the traditional television broadcast, in which the signal sent from the transmitter to the TV. There is no return signal. In order words a TV cannot send a signal to the transmitter.

🌟Half duplex mode🌟:

In Hslf duplex mode data csn be transmitted back and forth between two stations. But at any point of the time data can go in any one direction only. This arrangement resembles traffic on a one-lane bridge. When traffic moves in one direction, traffic on the opposite direction is to wait and take their turn. The common example is walky-talky, wherein one waits for his turn while the other talks.

🌟Full duplex mode🌟:

In full duplex mode a device can simultaneously send or received data. This arrangement resembles traffic on a two-way bridge, traffic moving on both directions simultaneously. An example is two people on the telephone talking and listening simultaneously. Communication in full duplex mode is faster. Full duplex transmission is used in large computer systems. Products like “MicrosoftNet Meeting” supports such two way interaction.

What is Intruders ?

One of the two most publicized threats to security is the intruder (the other is viruses), often referred to as a hacker or cracker. Significant issue for networked systems is unwanted access either via network or local.

Classification of Intruders

  1. Masquerader : An individual who is not authorized to use the computer and who penetrates a system’s access controls to exploit a legitimate user’s account. The masquerader is likely to be an outsider.
  2. Misfeasor : A legitimate user who accesses data, programs, or resources for which such access is not authorized, or who is authorized for such access but misuses his or her privileges :the misfeasor generally is an insider.
  3. Clandestine user : An individual who seizes supervisory control of the system and uses this control to evade auditing and access controls or to suppress audit collection. User can be either an outsider or an insider.

Intruders : Intrusion Techniques

The objective of the intruder is to gain access to a system or to increase the range of privileges accessible on a system. Most initial attacks use system or software vulnerabilities that allow a user to execute code that opens a back door into the system. Typically, a system must maintain a file that associates a password with each authorized user. If such a file is stored with no protection, then it is an easy matter to gain access to it and learn passwords. The password file can be protected in one of two ways:

  1. One-way function : The system stores only the value of a function based on the user’s password. When the user presents a password, the system transforms that password and compares it with the stored value.
  2. Access control : Access to the password file is limited to one or a very few accounts.

On the basis of a survey of the literature and interviews with a number of password crackers, [ALVA90] reports the following techniques for learning passwords:

  1. Try default passwords used with standard accounts that are shipped with the system. Many administrators do not bother to change these defaults.
  2. Exhaustively try all short passwords (those of one to three characters).
  3. Try words in the system’s online dictionary or a list of likely passwords. Examples of the latter are readily available on hacker bulletin boards.
  4. Collect information about users, such as their full names, the names of their spouse and children, pictures in their office, and books in their office that are related to hobbies.
  5. Try users’ phone numbers, Social Security numbers, and room numbers.
  6. Try all legitimate license plate numbers for this state.
  7. Use a Trojan horse to bypass restrictions on access.

Intrusion Detection

Inevitably will have security failures, So need also to detect intrusions so can
 Block if detected quickly
 Act as deterrent
 Collect info to improve security
Assume intruder will behave differently to a legitimate user, But will have imperfect distinction between.

Transmission Mode :

When two computers are in communication,data transmission may occur in one of the three modes

🔸️one way only
a) Simplex mode

🔸️Both ways but one way at a time
b) Half- duplex mode

🔸️Both ways simultaneously
c) Full-duplex mode

🌟Simplex mode🌟:

In Simplex mode,data can be transmitted in one direction as shown in below.
The device using the Simplex mode of transmission can either send or receive data, but it cannot do both. An example is the traditional television broadcast, in which the signal sent from the transmitter to the TV. There is no return signal. In order words a TV cannot send a signal to the transmitter.

🌟Half duplex mode🌟:

In Hslf duplex mode data csn be transmitted back and forth between two stations. But at any point of the time data can go in any one direction only. This arrangement resembles traffic on a one-lane bridge. When traffic moves in one direction, traffic on the opposite direction is to wait and take their turn. The common example is walky-talky, wherein one waits for his turn while the other talks.

🌟Full duplex mode🌟:

In full duplex mode a device can simultaneously send or received data. This arrangement resembles traffic on a two-way bridge, traffic moving on both directions simultaneously. An example is two people on the telephone talking and listening simultaneously. Communication in full duplex mode is faster. Full duplex transmission is used in large computer systems. Products like “MicrosoftNet Meeting” supports such two way interaction.

What is Intruders ?

One of the two most publicized threats to security is the intruder (the other is viruses), often referred to as a hacker or cracker. Significant issue for networked systems is unwanted access either via network or local.

Classification of Intruders

  1. Masquerader : An individual who is not authorized to use the computer and who penetrates a system’s access controls to exploit a legitimate user’s account. The masquerader is likely to be an outsider.
  2. Misfeasor : A legitimate user who accesses data, programs, or resources for which such access is not authorized, or who is authorized for such access but misuses his or her privileges :the misfeasor generally is an insider.
  3. Clandestine user : An individual who seizes supervisory control of the system and uses this control to evade auditing and access controls or to suppress audit collection. User can be either an outsider or an insider.

Intruders : Intrusion Techniques

The objective of the intruder is to gain access to a system or to increase the range of privileges accessible on a system. Most initial attacks use system or software vulnerabilities that allow a user to execute code that opens a back door into the system. Typically, a system must maintain a file that associates a password with each authorized user. If such a file is stored with no protection, then it is an easy matter to gain access to it and learn passwords. The password file can be protected in one of two ways:

  1. One-way function : The system stores only the value of a function based on the user’s password. When the user presents a password, the system transforms that password and compares it with the stored value.
  2. Access control : Access to the password file is limited to one or a very few accounts.

On the basis of a survey of the literature and interviews with a number of password crackers, [ALVA90] reports the following techniques for learning passwords:

  1. Try default passwords used with standard accounts that are shipped with the system. Many administrators do not bother to change these defaults.
  2. Exhaustively try all short passwords (those of one to three characters).
  3. Try words in the system’s online dictionary or a list of likely passwords. Examples of the latter are readily available on hacker bulletin boards.
  4. Collect information about users, such as their full names, the names of their spouse and children, pictures in their office, and books in their office that are related to hobbies.
  5. Try users’ phone numbers, Social Security numbers, and room numbers.
  6. Try all legitimate license plate numbers for this state.
  7. Use a Trojan horse to bypass restrictions on access.

Intrusion Detection

Inevitably will have security failures, So need also to detect intrusions so can
 Block if detected quickly
 Act as deterrent
 Collect info to improve security
Assume intruder will behave differently to a legitimate user, But will have imperfect distinction between.

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

ISS is a large spacecraft which can house astronauts. It goes around in low Earth orbit at approximately 400 km distance. It is also a science laboratory. Its very first part was placed in orbit in 1998 and its core construction was completed by 2011. It is the largest man-made object in space which can also be seen from the Earth through the naked eye. The first human crew went to the ISS in 2000. Ever since that, it has never been unoccupied by humans. At any given instant, at least six humans will be present in the ISS. According to the current plan, ISS will be operated until 2024, with a possible extension until 2028. After that, it could be deorbited, or recycled for future space stations.

Benefits of ISS

According to NASA, the following are some of the ways in which the ISS is already benefitting us or will benefit us in the future.

Supporting water-purification efforts

Using the technology developed for the ISS, areas having water scarcity can gain access to advanced water filtration and purification systems. The water recovery system (WRS) and the oxygen generation system (OGS) developed for the ISS have already saved a village in Iraq fry being deserted due to lack of clean water.

Eye tracking technology

The Eye Tracking Device, built for a microgravity experiment, has proved ideal to be used in many laser surgeries. Also, eye tracking technology is helping disabled people with limited movement and speech. For example, a kid who has severe disability in body movements can use his eye-movements alone and do routine tasks and lead an independent life.

Robotic arms and surgeries

Robotic arms developed for research in the ISS are providing significant help to the surgeons in removing inoperable tumours (e.g. brain tumours) and taking biopsies with great accuracies. Its inventors say that the robot could take biopsies with remarkable precision and consistency.

Apart from the above-mentioned applications, there are many other ways in which the researches that take place in the ISS are helpful. They are: development of improved vaccines, breast cancer detection and treatment, ultrasound machines for remote regions etc,.

ISS and International Cooperation

As great as the ISS’ scientific achievements are, no less in accomplishment is the international co-operation which resulted in the construction of the ISS. An international collaboration of five different space agencies of 16 countries provides, maintains and operates the ISS. They are: NASA (USA), Roskosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), JAXA (Japan) and CSA (Canada). Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Holland, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK are also part of the consortium.

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

ISS is a large spacecraft which can house astronauts. It goes around in low Earth orbit at approximately 400 km distance. It is also a science laboratory. Its very first part was placed in orbit in 1998 and its core construction was completed by 2011. It is the largest man-made object in space which can also be seen from the Earth through the naked eye. The first human crew went to the ISS in 2000. Ever since that, it has never been unoccupied by humans. At any given instant, at least six humans will be present in the ISS. According to the current plan, ISS will be operated until 2024, with a possible extension until 2028. After that, it could be deorbited, or recycled for future space stations.

Benefits of ISS

According to NASA, the following are some of the ways in which the ISS is already benefitting us or will benefit us in the future.

Supporting water-purification efforts

Using the technology developed for the ISS, areas having water scarcity can gain access to advanced water filtration and purification systems. The water recovery system (WRS) and the oxygen generation system (OGS) developed for the ISS have already saved a village in Iraq fry being deserted due to lack of clean water.

Eye tracking technology

The Eye Tracking Device, built for a microgravity experiment, has proved ideal to be used in many laser surgeries. Also, eye tracking technology is helping disabled people with limited movement and speech. For example, a kid who has severe disability in body movements can use his eye-movements alone and do routine tasks and lead an independent life.

Robotic arms and surgeries

Robotic arms developed for research in the ISS are providing significant help to the surgeons in removing inoperable tumours (e.g. brain tumours) and taking biopsies with great accuracies. Its inventors say that the robot could take biopsies with remarkable precision and consistency.

Apart from the above-mentioned applications, there are many other ways in which the researches that take place in the ISS are helpful. They are: development of improved vaccines, breast cancer detection and treatment, ultrasound machines for remote regions etc,.

ISS and International Cooperation

As great as the ISS’ scientific achievements are, no less in accomplishment is the international co-operation which resulted in the construction of the ISS. An international collaboration of five different space agencies of 16 countries provides, maintains and operates the ISS. They are: NASA (USA), Roskosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), JAXA (Japan) and CSA (Canada). Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Holland, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK are also part of the consortium.

Hard Working

S. Ilavazhagi

The hard working and the passionate people, always chase their dream and live it. Ilavazhagi is one among the many to achieve her dreams amidst all odds. Mr. A. Irudayaraj, her father, was a district level champion in carrom. His dream shattered, since his family did not encourage and support him. He was determined to achieve his dream through his daughter. He used to put his daughter on the carrom board, while she listened to the sounds of striker and coins. When she was two years old, he would carry her with him to the tournaments ; he played with his friends at local clubs. Her father began coaching her when she was around five. One day her father called her for a match, and she won that match, which gave her confidence. The confidence led her to win. Her victories included the Asia Cup and ( South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) cup and the world championship.

Irudayaraj, a fish- cart driver who transports materials like pipes to make a living for his family – a wife and three daughters. They lived in a small one – room apartment in Vyasarpadi, Chennai, is not enough to accommodate the family. The trophies, she has won over the years are too many, and her home is just not big enough to keep them. The trophies left over after filling the space under the bed, were given to the neighbours and relatives. Financing the trips has always been a big trouble, though she has been playing for the state for almost 14 years. Still she says “Victories follow me”. Ilavazhagi is a member of the Thiruvallur District Carrom Association and also represented India at the Carrom World Championship, Asian Championships.

Hard Working

S. Ilavazhagi

The hard working and the passionate people, always chase their dream and live it. Ilavazhagi is one among the many to achieve her dreams amidst all odds. Mr. A. Irudayaraj, her father, was a district level champion in carrom. His dream shattered, since his family did not encourage and support him. He was determined to achieve his dream through his daughter. He used to put his daughter on the carrom board, while she listened to the sounds of striker and coins. When she was two years old, he would carry her with him to the tournaments ; he played with his friends at local clubs. Her father began coaching her when she was around five. One day her father called her for a match, and she won that match, which gave her confidence. The confidence led her to win. Her victories included the Asia Cup and ( South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) cup and the world championship.

Irudayaraj, a fish- cart driver who transports materials like pipes to make a living for his family – a wife and three daughters. They lived in a small one – room apartment in Vyasarpadi, Chennai, is not enough to accommodate the family. The trophies, she has won over the years are too many, and her home is just not big enough to keep them. The trophies left over after filling the space under the bed, were given to the neighbours and relatives. Financing the trips has always been a big trouble, though she has been playing for the state for almost 14 years. Still she says “Victories follow me”. Ilavazhagi is a member of the Thiruvallur District Carrom Association and also represented India at the Carrom World Championship, Asian Championships.

LGBT COMMUNITY

BY: VAIBHAVI MENON

LGBT or GLBT is an initialism that stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. In use since the 1990s, the term is an adaptation of the initialism LGB, which began to replace the term gay in reference to the broader LGBT community beginning in the mid-to-late 1980s. The first widely used term, homosexual, now carries negative connotations in the United States. It was replaced by homophile in the 1950s and 1960s, and subsequently gay in the 1970s; the latter term was adopted first by the homosexual community. As lesbians forged more public identities, the phrase “gay and lesbian” became more common. A dispute as to whether the primary focus of their political aims should be feminism or gay rights led to the dissolution of some lesbian organizations, including the Daughters of Bilitis, which disbanded in 1970 following disputes over which goal should take precedence.

As equality was a priority for lesbian feminists, disparity of roles between men and women or butch and femme were viewed as patriarchal. Lesbian feminists eschewed gender role play that had been pervasive in bars as well as the perceived chauvinism of gay men; many lesbian feminists refused to work with gay men, or take up their causes. Lesbians who held the essentialist view, that they had been born homosexual and used the descriptor “lesbian” to define sexual attraction, often considered the separatist opinions of lesbian-feminists to be detrimental to the cause of gay rights. Bisexual and transgender people also sought recognition as legitimate categories within the larger minority community. After the elation of change following group action in the 1969 Stonewall riots in New York City, in the late 1970s and the early 1980s, some gays and lesbians became less accepting of bisexual or transgender people. Critics said that transgender people were acting out stereotypes and bisexuals were simply gay men or lesbian women who were afraid to come out and be honest about their identity. Each community has struggled to develop its own identity including whether, and how, to align with other gender and sexuality-based communities, at times excluding other subgroups; these conflicts continue to this day. LGBTQ activists and artists have created posters to raise consciousness about the issue since the movement began.

From about 1988, activists began to use the initialism LGBT in the United States. Not until the 1990s within the movement did gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people gain equal respect. This spurred some organizations to adopt new names, as the GLBT Historical Society did in 1999. Although the LGBT community has seen much controversy regarding universal acceptance of different member groups (bisexual and transgender individuals, in particular, have sometimes been marginalized by the larger LGBT community), the term LGBT has been a positive symbol of inclusion. Despite the fact that LGBT does not nominally encompass all individuals in smaller communities (see Variants below), the term is generally accepted to include those not specifically identified in the four-letter initialism. Overall, the use of the term LGBT has, over time, largely aided in bringing otherwise marginalized individuals into the general community. Transgender actress Candis Cayne in 2009 described the LGBT community as “the last great minority”, noting that “We can still be harassed openly” and be “called out on television”.

WHAT REALLY ARE VACCINES?

BY: VAIBHAVI MENON

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body’s immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future. Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by a natural or “wild” pathogen), or therapeutic (to fight a disease that has already occurred, such as cancer).

The administration of vaccines is called vaccination. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases; widespread immunity due to vaccination is largely responsible for the worldwide eradication of smallpox and the restriction of diseases such as polio, measles, and tetanus from much of the world. The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified; for example, vaccines that have proven effective include the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine, and the chicken pox vaccine. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that licensed vaccines are currently available for twenty-five different preventable infections. The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Edward Jenner (who both developed the concept of vaccines and created the first vaccine) to denote cowpox. He used the phrase in 1798 for the long title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae Known as the Cow Pox, in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox. In 1881, to honor Jenner, Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms should be extended to cover the new protective inoculations then being developed. The science of vaccine development and production is termed vaccinology. There is overwhelming scientific consensus that vaccines are a very safe and effective way to fight and eradicate infectious diseases. The immune system recognizes vaccine agents as foreign, destroys them, and “remembers” them. When the virulent version of an agent is encountered, the body recognizes the protein coat on the virus, and thus is prepared to respond, by first neutralizing the target agent before it can enter cells, and secondly by recognizing and destroying infected cells before that agent can multiply to vast numbers. Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist. Sometimes, protection fails because of vaccine-related failure such as failures in vaccine attenuation, vaccination regimes or administration or host-related failure due to host’s immune system simply does not respond adequately or at all. Lack of response commonly results from genetics, immune status, age, health or nutritional status. It also might fail for genetic reasons if the host’s immune system includes no strains of B cells that can generate antibodies suited to reacting effectively and binding to the antigens associated with the pathogen.

Even if the host does develop antibodies, protection might not be adequate; immunity might develop too slowly to be effective in time, the antibodies might not disable the pathogen completely, or there might be multiple strains of the pathogen, not all of which are equally susceptible to the immune reaction. However, even a partial, late, or weak immunity, such as a one resulting from cross-immunity to a strain other than the target strain, may mitigate an infection, resulting in a lower mortality rate, lower morbidity, and faster recovery. Adjuvants commonly are used to boost immune response, particularly for older people whose immune response to a simple vaccine may have weakened.

Management of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes

⚫Management of hazardous wastes

Hazardous wastes may remain dangerous for thousands of years.Tye hazardous waste include radioactive refuse, metallic compounds, organic solvents, acid asbestos, organic cyanide’s, hospital wastes, disposable medical equipments and tools.

The hazardous methods are adopted for the disposal of hazardous wastes.

⭐Landfills:There are permanent storage facilities for military related liquid and radioactive waste materials in secured lands.High level radio active wastes are stored in deep underground storage.

⭐Deep well injection:It involves drilling a well into dry,porous material below ground water.Hazardous waste liquids are pumped into the well.They are soaked into the porous material and made to remain isolated indefinitely.However fractures in the impermeable layer may permit the injected wastes to escape and contaminate ground water.

⭐ Surface impoundments:This method is used to dispose large amounts of water carrying relatively small amounts of chemical wastes.Surface impoundments are simple excavated depressions(ponds)into which liquid wastes are drained.Solid wastes settle and accumulate which water evaporates.If the pond bottom is well sealed and if evaporation equals input,wastes may be stored in the impoundment indefinitely.

⭐Incineration:The hazardous biomedical wastes are usually disposed off by means of Incineration.Human anatomical wastes,discarded medicines,toxic drugs,blood,pus, animal wastes,microbiological and biotechnological wastes etc are called Bio medical wastes.

⭐ Bioremediation:This is another rapidly developing clean up technology.Cleaning environment with biological options such as microbes and plants is called Bioremediation.Some naturally occurring bacteria and other microorganisms have the capability to degrade or absorb or detoxify the wastes such as heavy metals.

⚫ Management of non hazardous wastes

⭐ Sanitary land fills:The refuse is spread in a hollow land or in a trench and compacted with a layer of clear sand fill.The sanitary land fills are far more desirable than open dumps but the ground water contaminated is always a potential problem.Once a land fill operation has been completed the site must be inspected periodically.This land fill is suitable for recreational activities such as parks and play ground.

⭐Incineration:Municipal incinerators burn combustible solid waste and melt certain non combustible materials.Since the high temperature destroys pathogens and their vectors,it is a good method of disposal from health point of view.

⭐Reuse and recycling techniques: Resource recovery is a broad term that is used for the retrieval of valuable materials or energy from a waste.The separating out of materials such as rubber,glass,paper and scrap metal from refuse and reprocessing them for reuse is named as reclamation of waste or recycling.

Paper(54% recovery) can be repulped and reprocessed into recycled paper, cardboard,and other paper products.

Glass(20% recovery)can be crushed, remelted and made into new containers or crushes used as a substitute for gravel or sand in construction materials such as concrete and asphalt.

Some forms of plastics(2.2% recovery) can be remelted and fabricated into carpet fibre,fill for insulated apparel, irrigation drainage,tiles and sheet plastics.

Metals can be melted and fabricated (39% recovery).

Food wastes and yard wastes(leaves,grass etc.) can be composted to produce humus soil conditioner.

Textiles can be shredded and used to strengthen recycled paper products.

Management of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes

⚫Management of hazardous wastes

Hazardous wastes may remain dangerous for thousands of years.Tye hazardous waste include radioactive refuse, metallic compounds, organic solvents, acid asbestos, organic cyanide’s, hospital wastes, disposable medical equipments and tools.

The hazardous methods are adopted for the disposal of hazardous wastes.

⭐Landfills:There are permanent storage facilities for military related liquid and radioactive waste materials in secured lands.High level radio active wastes are stored in deep underground storage.

⭐Deep well injection:It involves drilling a well into dry,porous material below ground water.Hazardous waste liquids are pumped into the well.They are soaked into the porous material and made to remain isolated indefinitely.However fractures in the impermeable layer may permit the injected wastes to escape and contaminate ground water.

⭐ Surface impoundments:This method is used to dispose large amounts of water carrying relatively small amounts of chemical wastes.Surface impoundments are simple excavated depressions(ponds)into which liquid wastes are drained.Solid wastes settle and accumulate which water evaporates.If the pond bottom is well sealed and if evaporation equals input,wastes may be stored in the impoundment indefinitely.

⭐Incineration:The hazardous biomedical wastes are usually disposed off by means of Incineration.Human anatomical wastes,discarded medicines,toxic drugs,blood,pus, animal wastes,microbiological and biotechnological wastes etc are called Bio medical wastes.

⭐ Bioremediation:This is another rapidly developing clean up technology.Cleaning environment with biological options such as microbes and plants is called Bioremediation.Some naturally occurring bacteria and other microorganisms have the capability to degrade or absorb or detoxify the wastes such as heavy metals.

⚫ Management of non hazardous wastes

⭐ Sanitary land fills:The refuse is spread in a hollow land or in a trench and compacted with a layer of clear sand fill.The sanitary land fills are far more desirable than open dumps but the ground water contaminated is always a potential problem.Once a land fill operation has been completed the site must be inspected periodically.This land fill is suitable for recreational activities such as parks and play ground.

⭐Incineration:Municipal incinerators burn combustible solid waste and melt certain non combustible materials.Since the high temperature destroys pathogens and their vectors,it is a good method of disposal from health point of view.

⭐Reuse and recycling techniques: Resource recovery is a broad term that is used for the retrieval of valuable materials or energy from a waste.The separating out of materials such as rubber,glass,paper and scrap metal from refuse and reprocessing them for reuse is named as reclamation of waste or recycling.

Paper(54% recovery) can be repulped and reprocessed into recycled paper, cardboard,and other paper products.

Glass(20% recovery)can be crushed, remelted and made into new containers or crushes used as a substitute for gravel or sand in construction materials such as concrete and asphalt.

Some forms of plastics(2.2% recovery) can be remelted and fabricated into carpet fibre,fill for insulated apparel, irrigation drainage,tiles and sheet plastics.

Metals can be melted and fabricated (39% recovery).

Food wastes and yard wastes(leaves,grass etc.) can be composted to produce humus soil conditioner.

Textiles can be shredded and used to strengthen recycled paper products.