Tag: human body

VACCINE TECHNOLOGY

BY DAKSHITA NAITHANI

ABSTRACT

The immune system is a system that operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week to keep assaults at bay and diseases at bay. The whole system is made up of organs, tissues, and a variety of cell types that work together to defend the body. Immune cells must be able to tell the difference between native and non-native cells and proteins. Microbial cells have antigens that serve as identifiers. Antigens can induce an immune response in the human body. Each species has its own set of characteristics. Vaccines function by inducing an antibody memory response in the body without producing illness. As a result, you build immunity without becoming sick. It must include at least one antigen from the target species to trigger a response.

INTRODUCTION TO VACCINE TECHNOLOGY

A vaccination, often known as an immunisation, is a biological substance that protects people from disease-causing microorganisms. They make advantage of our immune system’s built-in ability to fight infection.

They’re produced from the same pathogens that cause the disease. They have, however, been destroyed or reduced to the point that they are no longer a source of it. Certain medicines just contain a part of the microorganism.

This is why they work so well as medications. They don’t treat or cure diseases like conventional medications; instead, they prevent them. They deceive the immune system that it has been invaded by a real intruder. When real germs enter our bodies, the same thing happens, but you don’t become ill. If you ever come into touch with a pathogen, your immune system will remember it and eradicate it before it can damage you.

TYPES

Vaccines are made using a number of techniques. Various vaccine types need different techniques to development. Antigens can be used in a variety of ways, including:

These can be delivered by a needle injected into the human skin, or ingested orally or through the nasal route.

LIVE (CHICKEN POX AND MMR)

Attenuated vaccines can be made in a variety of ways. All methods involving the transmission of a virus to a non-human host result in a virus that can be recognised by the immune system but cannot replicate in humans. When given to a human, the resulting will not be able to proliferate sufficiently to cause disease, but it will protect the individual from infection in the future. Its protection outlasts that of a dead or inactivated vaccination in most cases.

INACTIVATED (POLIO VIRUS)

A pathogen is inactivated using heat or chemicals to create this sort of vaccination. Because destroyed viruses are unable to replicate, they cannot revert to a more virulent form capable of causing disease. They are, however, less effective than live vaccines and are more likely to require renewals in order to acquire long-term protection.

RECOMBINANT (HPV)

They have been genetically modified in a lab. This method may be used to duplicate a certain gene. The HPV vaccine may be tailored to protect against strains that cause cervical cancer.

SUBUNIT (INFLUENZA AND ACELLULAR PERTUSSIS) AND CONJUGATE VACCINES (HAVING ONLY PIECES OF THE PATHOGEN)

Subunit vaccines use only a fraction of a target pathogen to elicit a response. This can be accomplished by isolating and administering a specific pathogen protein as a stand-alone antigen.

Conjugate vaccines, like recombinant vaccines, are made up of two different components. The “piece” of microbe being supplied would not typically elicit a substantial reaction on its own, but the carrier protein would. The bacterium is not the sole cause of the disease, but when combined with a carrier protein, it can render a person resistant to subsequent infections.

TOXOIDS (DIPHTHERIA AND TETANUS)

Some diseases are caused by a toxin produced by bacterium rather than by the bacterium themselves. Toxoids are inactivated toxoids that are used in vaccinations. Toxoids are classed as killed vaccines, although they are sometimes given their own category to emphasise the fact that they include an inactivated toxin.

DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION

Vaccine development is a lengthy process that involves both public and private parties and takes almost a decade. Millions of individuals receive them each year, and the most of them have been in use for decades. Before being included in a country’s vaccination programme, they must undergo extensive testing to ensure their safety. Each vaccine in development must first go through screenings and evaluations to determine which antigen should be utilised to elicit a reaction. This step is completed without the use of humans. Animals are used to assess the safety and disease-prevention potential of experimental vaccinations.

STAGE 1

It takes around 2-4 years to produce and necessitates some fundamental research. Antigens, whether natural or synthetic, are identified by scientists and may help in disease prevention or therapy. Antigens might be virus-like particles, attenuated viruses or bacteria, weakened bacterial toxins, or other pathogen-derived substances.

STAGE 2

Using tissue or cell-culture techniques and animal testing, studies assess the candidate vaccine’s safety or ability to elicit an immune response. Animal topics include fish, monkeys, and mice. These studies give an idea of what to expect in terms of cellular responses in people. This period often lasts 1-2 years.

PHASE I TRIALS

The vaccine is administered to a small number of volunteers to determine its safety, confirm that it induces a reaction, and determine the optimum dosage. This round of testing is carried out on young, healthy adult participants. The goals are to determine the type and number of reactions generated by the candidate vaccine, as well as to assess the candidate vaccine’s safety.

PHASE II TRIALS

The vaccine is then given to several hundred participants to assess its safety and ability to elicit a response. Participants in this phase share the same traits as the vaccine’s intended recipients. Several studies are often undertaken during this phase to test various age groups and vaccination formulations. In most studies, a non-vaccinated group is included as a comparison group to check if the changes in the vaccinated group were due to chance or medicine.

PHASE III TRIALS

The goal is to assess vaccine safety in a large group of patients. Certain rare side effects may not have showed themselves in the low numbers of people tested in the first phase. Thousands of volunteers are given the vaccination compared to a similar number of individuals who did not receive the injection but received a comparator product to assess the vaccine’s efficacy against the illness. It is meant to protect against and to examine its safety in a much bigger group of people. To guarantee that the performance findings are applicable to a wide variety of persons, the bulk of phase three trials are conducted across various countries and different sites within a country.

PHASE IV TRIALS

Firms may conduct optional studies following the launch of a vaccine. The producer may do additional testing to determine the vaccine’s safety, efficacy, and other potential applications.

REVERSE VACCINOLOGY

Reverse vaccinology is the use of genetic information combined with technology to make vaccines without the use of microorganisms. It assists in the study of an organism’s genome for the purpose of identifying novel antigens and epitopes that may be utilised as prospective candidates. This method has been around for at least a decade. By unravelling the entire genomic sequence, it is possible to determine what molecules make up the genomic sequence. Without needing to grow the pathogen for a longer amount of time, candidate antigens can be discovered.

Reverse vaccinology has been used to create vaccines for meningococcal and staphylococcal diseases all over the world. Infections are caused by Staphylococcus bacteria, which can be found on the skin or in the nose of even healthy persons. The bacteria Neisseria meningitidis causes a serious infection of the thin covering of the brain and spinal cord.

PRODUCTION QUALITY CONTROL AND COMMERCIALIZATION

Vaccines are biological compounds that are frequently hybridised and complex to understand. They are made through a succession of manufacturing and formulation steps, with the finished product often containing a large number of component items. As a result, unlike a tiny molecule medicine, the finished product is impossible to classify. This needs a highly controlled production system as well as a personnel capable of performing such processes on a continual basis. Control testing takes over two years and occupies more than half of the time in the subsequent manufacturing process.

 STEP 1- PRODUCTION

Following clinical trials, when a vaccine reaches the pre-approval stage, it is evaluated by the applicable regulatory authority for quality, safety requirements.

STEP -2 MAKING

Businesses will create development plans for a vaccine on their own. Once a vaccine is approved, production begins to pace up. The antigen has been rendered inactive. All of the components are mixed to make the final product. The entire process, from testing to manufacturing, can take a lengthy time to complete.

STEP- 3 PACKAGING

It is then bottled in glass vials and packed for safe cold storage and transportation once it is produced in bulk. It must be able to resist severe temperatures as well as the dangers associated with international shipping. As a result, glass is the most often used material for vials since it is robust and can keep its integrity under severe extrinsic factors.

 STEP- 4 STORAGE

When it is excessively hot or cold, it loses its effectiveness and may even become inert. Vaccinations can be destroyed or rendered dangerous to use if kept at the improper temperature. Most vaccinations must be kept chilled between 2 and 8 degrees Celsius, necessitating the use of specialist medical freezers.

STEP-5 SHIPPING

They are transported out using particular equipment so as to maintain its integrity. Lorries deliver them from the airport to the warehouse cool room after supplies arrive in the market. New innovations have resulted in the development of portable devices that can keep vaccines cold for several days without the need of power.

QUALITY CONTROL

Once they are given out, authorities continuously check for – and assess the severity of – any potential side effects and responses from the recipients. Safety is a top priority, with frequent reviews and post-approval clinical trials reporting on its effectiveness and safety.

CAREER SCOPE

There are several prospects in vaccine research and development, clinical trials, vaccine manufacturing, and public distribution. These jobs are available at universities, companies, government laboratories and agencies, hospitals, and on the front lines of vaccine distribution all around the world. When different components of a project are handled by different groups at the same time in industry, greater teamwork is usually required, whereas a scientist in an academic lab may be a lone worker overseeing all parts of a project.

The balance between creative science and all of the business administration that comes with securing money, maintaining a budget, and overseeing other scientists or assistants is the most challenging aspect.

 Research allows scientists to work on a project that has the potential to have a direct influence on public health, whether it’s on a lab bench, a production line, or to support a clinical trial.

FACTS ABOUT HUMAN BODY

1.You are taller in the morning

Measure yourself in the morning, then again at night. You’re going to be taller in the morning because of how the cartilage in your bones compresses during the day.

2.Your heart beats about 100,000 times a day

Depending on your beats per minute, your heart beats about 100,000 times a day. That implies it sends 2,000 gallons of blood through the body.

Biometric Identifies You in a Heartbeat - Scientific American

3.Your highest blood flow is in your kidneys

The most noteworthy blood stream isn’t in your heart, liver, or cerebrum, it’s in your kidneys. That’s because kidneys are the body’s normal filtration framework.

4.Lungs which are pink in color are healthy

Healthy lungs look pink and rubbery outwardly. The more you smoke however, the more falter and dark they become.

Your lungs are really amazing. An anatomy professor explains why

5.Dreaming in black and white

12% of people dream in black and white. What’s stranger is that people used to rest and dream in high contrast significantly more before color television (~15%). The normal individual actually dreams in color, yet it’s intriguing to perceive how the human cerebrum is defenseless to media.

20 Amazing facts about dreams that will change your perception! - Trendpickle

6.Your blood vessels could circle the globe

However people have little veins, the systems administration is incredibly long. In case they were spread out they would quantify in excess of 60,000 miles.

7.The normal human grown-up has 2000-4000 taste buds

They aren’t just situated on the tongue. These minuscule receptors that enable us to taste are additionally situated toward the rear of your throat, your nose, and your throat. Truth be told, your nose doesn’t simply smell, it can taste as well! The feeling of smell is a vital part of tasting.

8.Your body has more than 600 muscles


Your strongest muscle is located in your jaw known as the masseter muscle. The stapedius muscle, located in the middle of your ear, is your weakest muscle.

How many muscles are there in the human body? - Quora

9.Your skin has 1000 unique types of microorganisms on it

Your skin is imperative in assurance of the body against microscopic organisms, which is the reason the external layer of your skin persistently reestablishes itself. The whole course of skin cell recharging requires around 28 days.

Team:Paris Bettencourt/SkinMicrobiome - 2020.igem.org

10.You’re presumably more like your father

Specialists showed that in the scales between the female egg and male sperm that your qualities will in general support your father, particularly over numerous ages. This phenomena is known as “gene expression”.

RESOURCES:

  1. https://www.nectarsleep.com/posts/fun-facts-about-the-human-body/

2. https://www.osgpc.com/amazing-facts-about-the-human-body/


Why do we sneeze?

Sometimes dust, flakes of dead skin, pollution, microbes, or your own booger build up from a cold find their way into your nose’s passages. When mucous membranes in the lining of your nose detect this intruders, they sent an urgent message to your brain : Unleash a sneeze !

How do we sneeze?

You don’t have to do anything.react Sneezing is a lightning-fast-involuntary reaction, in which your chest,stomach, throat, and face muscles work together to blast particles from your nasal passages. The whole process last less than 3 secondsprofiles The whole process last less than three seconds, and it propels spit, boogers, chewed food, and other particles from your nose and mouth at nearly 100 miles per hour or 161 kph.

Why do we upchuck when we get sick?

If you catch a stomach flu ( usually a virus in your guts ), swallow food spoiled by bacteria, or simply pig out your body rebels, your stomach will kick into reverse to eject whatever’s causing the trouble. Your guts churn, your head spins, and your throat begins to burn.Before you know it, blaaargh! You have launched your lunch !Clammy skin, waves of uneasiness, and a queasy feeling known as nausea usually precede puking, giving you a heads-up to hang your head over the toilet. Motion sickness – a condition brought on by winding roads, rocking boats,or back to back rides on the Tilt-a-Whirl – can lead to hurling, too.

Why does throw – up burn my throat?

Your stomach contains powerful acids that help break down food, and some of this sour-tasting gastric juice get pumped up and away when you puke. Although a wave of spit and mucus helps protect your throat and mouth when you vomit, you will still feel the burn. Particularly forceful barfing sessions will propel puke into your sinuses and out your nose, producing an eye-watering sting. Nasty !

Why hasn’t medical science found a cure for the common cold?

You’d think curing a case of the sniffles would be a cinch for the scientists who invented artificial hearts and defeated lethal diseases like smallpox and polio. But eliminating the common cold is tricky because it is actually caused by more than 200 evolving viruses that all produce the same symptoms ( whereas smallpox was caused by just one virus).

Why does my nose run when we get a cold?

Your nasal membranes make mucus – aka snot – and this sticky substance serves as security against germs, dust, and pollen particles that would make breathing difficult if they reached our lungs. Moved along by tiny nostril hairs called cilia, snot pummels and pushes invading particles toword the exit – your nostrils – or dumps them down your throat. Your body produces nearly wo gallons (7.6 L) of mucus each week. You usually swallow all that snot without giving it a second thought. Catch a cold virus or come under an allergy attack, however, and the membranes pump up the volume. Your nose turns into a leaky snot faucet. You start coughing up globes of phlegm – a type of mucus produced in your throat and lungs. A hacking cough and runny nose are your body’s ways of flushing all the bad stuff.

Where do boogers come from?

Snot is sticky for a reason – it collects all the crud that get up your nose. Once snot reaches the nostrils, it dries into crumbly little boogers for easy disposal. Polite people blow them into tissues ; everyone else engages in rhinotellexis. The technical term for nose -picking.

How can we avoid germs?

  • Wash your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds after you touch any potentially infected surface or person.
  • Don’t touch your face after touching an infected surface. It’s a sure fire way to get sick !
  • Get vaccinations for all the major germ based illness from your doctor. Vaccine contains trace amounts of ( or weakened )microbes that trigger your body into making antibodies to fight against specific diseases, making you immune to them.
  • Be careful about sharing food or drinks with sick friends.
  • If you get sick, remember : the inside of your elbow makes a great sneeze shield. You might coat your arm in snot, but at least you will avoid infecting everyone in your launch zone.

How are germs spread?

Every time an infected person coughs or sneezes, he or she spreads sickness. One sneeze alone can launch thousands of germ-jammed droplets nearly 20 feet (6m), potentially infecting anyone in the blast radius. Bacteria and some viruses can survive for a short time on door handles, bathroom counter, and other surfaces.

References :

WHY?-Answers to everything, Image publications.

Why can I survive without all my organs?

It is a no-brainer that you need your brain and your heart, hurtand you wouldn’t last long if your liver failed.

But the lungs and Kidneys come in pairs, so you could survive if one of them failed. People who have lost their spleens in accidents have gone on to live healthy lives. The tonsils and appendix, meanwhile, are practically useless and are routinely removed when they become inflamed.

Why are some body parts pointless?

Called “vestigial” organs, this useless body parts are leftovers from our evolutionary ancestors, who actually needed them. Take your wisdom teeth, for example.Today crowd our mouth and often need to get yanked by the dentist, but our primate ancestors had larger jaws and needed the extra choppers in case some rotted away in the days before tartar-control toothpaste. Our tailbone – or coccyx – is a leftover from animals that needed tails for balance or grasping branches.

Why do we have eyebrows?

Humans have evolved to become less hairy in the past six million years or so, but we still have those clumps of fur above our eyes.Beyond their role in facial expressions, eyebrows act like natural sweatbands, preventing rain and sweat from running directly into our eyes.

Why do we have nipples?

They were there even before you were even born. Human embryos in the womb develop according to a blueprint that’s design for males and females. Eventually, the embryo begin to take on features specific to their gender, but not until after they have already developed nipples. Later in life, chemicals called hormones trigger changes in females so that they can nurse their young. Males don’t have those hormones, so they are stuck with nipples that are nothing more than chest accessories. Other than a few exceptions ( mice, platypuses, stallions), most male mammals have nipples. Nipples don’t cause males any harm, which is probably why evolution hasn’t given them the ol’ heave – ho.

Why do people get goosebumps?

Like youryou are wisdom teeth and your tailbone, goose bumps serve no purpose in modern humans. They are created by itty-bitty muscles in our hair follicles, which raise the bumps as a reflex reaction sudden drop in temperature or feelings of panic, or anger, or extreme fear. Goosebumps fluffed up the body hair of our much furrier ancestors to help trap heat or make them look larger to threatening animals. Today, goose bumps just make you look like you need to borrow a sweater.

Why do we have a belly button?

For the same reason dolphinsthe same reason dolphins, cats, dogs, bats, and other “placental mammals ” – animals nourished inside their mothers before birth – have navels. In other words, you can thank your mother for that link connector on your stomach. Before you were born, when you were still developing in the womb, you were hooked up to your life – support system through a special code that plugged into your navel. Through this “umbilical cord “, you received food and oxygen and passed waste. The day you were born, you let out a cry and began breathing on your own. That let the doctor know he or she could cut off the umbilical cord, leaving you with a belly button as a souvenir. Whether it’s an “innie” or an “outie,” we all have one !

References :

WHY – Answers to everything, Impulse publications.

HEADACHE

Headache is a common problem that does not allow us to concentrate on our work. Nothing can take away the throbbing pain that headache causes. It may be caused due to injury, stress, eye strain, anxiety, or other medical conditions. Headache is called Cephalgia in medical terms. Many people suffer this discomfort frequently and don’t pay attention to it. But this simple headache may cause serious illnesses if left untreated. 

WHAT HAPPENS DURING A HEADACHE?

Our brain can recognize pain in various parts of the body. A headache is caused by the swelling of the blood vessels present in and around the brain. Most headaches occur in the nerves and muscles of the head and neck region. These nerves and muscles generate signals and send them to the brain which makes us feel the pain.

TYPES OF HEADACHES

Headaches are of two types – Primary headache and Secondary headache.

PRIMARY HEADACHE

There are types of primary headaches. However, some common types include

  1. Tension headache – It is the most common type which is caused due to stress and tension in the muscles of the head. It may start with a slow onset of moderate pain. It usually hurts on or around both sides of the head, in the back neck, and head. It usually goes away on its own but sometimes may need a pain reliever. For prolonged pain and chronic conditions, a doctor’s advice is required.
  2. Migraine – Migraine headaches are associated with throbbing pain along with some symptoms like nausea or vomiting, sensitivity and can last for several hours to few days. It may be caused also due to genetic reasons. Rescue medicine is prescribed by doctors to get immediate relief from the pain and preventive medicines to prevent future occurrences.
  3. Clustered headache – It is least common when compared with the other two types. It is characterized by sudden pain in any one side of the head and face. It occurs multiple times in a day and stays for 1-3 hours each time. It may be caused due to alcohol intake or tobacco usage. Treatment includes lifestyle changes and prescribed medication by the doctor.

SECONDARY HEADACHE

Secondary headaches occur because of any underlying issue or mental condition. It must be diagnosed and treated as soon as possible as it may create life-threatening situations at times. It may be caused due to bleeding of the blood vessels in the brain, tumors, abscesses, or high blood pressure. Symptoms include pain during changing postures, chewing food, etc. There are many subtypes of this headache according to the affected area and symptoms. It must be given at most care to avoid worsening of the condition.

SITUATIONS THAT NEED IMMEDIATE HELP

Sometimes headaches may be a symptom of a serious issue and occur to warn us of the disorder. If it is accompanied by drowsiness, seizures or fits, changes in vision, etc. then immediate consultation of a physician is mandatory.

CARE AND CURE

  • A healthy balanced diet of fruits and vegetables may help to stay fit and reduce the intensity.
  • Stress management relaxations and lifestyle changes can bring betterment.
  • Some counter medicines could be taken and soothing herbs such as peppermint, eucalyptus, flax seeds reduce pain as they have pain-relieving properties.

FEVER

Fever is the sudden rise in body temperature. It is a signal that our body gives us that something bad is happening inside our body. It is a normal reaction or response of our immune system. Whenever a foreign particle enters our body and infects the cells, our antibodies fight against it. It is our body’s way of giving alerts by increasing the normal temperature. Fever is also called Pyrexia or Controlled Hyperthermia. When the body temperature goes to 100o F (38o C) or more, we consider it as a significant temperature rise. If it persists for more than 24 hours, the causes of it should be suspected, diagnosed, and treated. 

WHEN SHOULD WE TAKE IT SERIOUSLY?

Fever is just a normal function of our body that lets us know the correct response against an infection. But it should be taken care of especially in children or infants if there are symptoms like

  • Temperature is 102o F or more and if it continues for more than 36 hours.
  • Cold, cough, and loss of appetite.
  • Chills and night sweats.
  • Fever accompanied by vomiting and diarrhea.
  • Weakness, dizziness, body ache, or fatigue.
  • Having seizures or fits with high temperature.
  • Cough, sore throat, mucus accumulation, and chest tightness.
  • Inability to swallow foods even liquids.
  • Fever recurring after particular hours.

TYPES OF FEVER AND VARIATIONS

There are many kinds and causes of fever. Most commonly it may be due to viral or bacterial infections. Viral fevers usually stay for 1-3 days but the recurrent fever may persist for almost 14 days or more. A person with viral infections may experience nausea, coughing, running nose, body pain, etc. Not all viral fevers are contagious but most of them appear to be contagious. For example, common cold, influenza, malaria, dengue, HIV, covid-19, etc. are contagious and may spread from person to person by various means. Bacterial infections are similar to viral infections and there is no major difference in symptoms. It persists for few days or until treated with an antibiotic. Bacterial fever does not subside by itself and it is higher than a viral fever. It worsens day after day instead of showing better improvement.

Other than the common infections, fever may occur also due to other less common causes like hepatitis, sinusitis, gastroenteritis, tuberculosis, urinary tract infections, etc. Body temperature also varies with age and physical activities. It may be lower in the mornings and higher in late noon or after heavy workout sessions and hot showers.

WHERE TO TAKE THE TEMPERATURE?

There are four ways to measure the rise in body temperature.

  1. Rectal method – It is the most accurate way of measuring temperature, especially for children. It is taken by inserting the thermometer in the rectum or bum.
  2. Tympanic method – It is the next accurate method where the temperature is taken by keeping the thermometer into the ear canal.
  3. Axillary method – This temperature which is taken from the underarms is considered to be less accurate when compared with tympanic and rectal methods.
  4. Oral method – It is the least accurate method of all where the temperature is taken by keeping the thermometer under the tongue. But it is the most common method of reading the temperature.

THE BOTTOM LINE

Fever can be controlled by following some home remedies or by taking antipyretics which can only reduce the temperature but doesn’t treat the reasons. Few antipyretics or fever-reducing drugs are paracetamol, aspirin, or Anacin. These drugs can be taken rarely, however consuming them too often may cause unwanted side effects.

Evolution

When you think of evolution the first name that comes to one’s mind is that of Charles Darwin. However, the fact is that he was not the first person to put forward the idea of evolution. Lamarck had suggested it earlier but the concept was not popular. In fact zoology professor Robert Grant lost his job because he supported Lamarck theory! An anonymous work titled, ‘The Vestiges of creation’ was ridiculed. It was Charles Darwin who first made the theory acceptable and he was able to do so because he supported it with a huge amount of evidence. Darwin, an English naturalist put forward his theory in a book titled ‘On the origin of the species’. He established that all species descended from common ancestors and that the different species evolved through a process he called natural selection. Darwin’s theory gained acceptance because it was able to explain the diversity of life.


Ramapithecus belongs to an extent group of primates that lived from about 12 to 14 million years ago. Fossils of Ramapithecus were discovered in India and Africa beginning in 1932. Fossil evidence suggested that it had a short face, heavy jaws and enamelled teeth like hominids. Its importance lies in the fact that it was regarded as a possible ancestor of Australopithecus and therefore of modern humans. Later for sale finds indicated that Ramapithecus was more closely related to the orangutan and Ramapithecus is now regarded by many as a member of a group known as Sivapithecus.


It has been long known that humans share a common ancestor with apes but it was only in the last 30 years that techniques for develop to provide strong evidence in support of the theory that humans are more closely related to chimpanzees than they are to gorillas orangutans or Gibbons. The DNA of a chimpanzee is 98% identical to that of a human being. However our bodies adapted for walking on 2 legs. This is possible because the lower portion of the human body evolved to facilitate load bearing and balancing while walking upright. Chimpanzees not only share most of our genes they seem to be able to handle tools and they are able to grasp language pretty well too. Now researchers have found that we share a similar brain pattern when communicating. But in spite of these similarities there are clear differences in body structure intellect and behaviour.


Australopithecus was an early hominid which is now extinct. Fossil evidence suggests that these individuals lived from approximately 4- 2 million years ago after evolving on the continent of Africa. Sense the fossils were recovered from south Africa they were called south African man apes or australopithecines. Australopithecines are believed to have been around 1 to 1.5 metre tall and probably fed on leaves fruits and the remaining of dead animals. Their brains were larger than those of apes but smaller than human brains while their teeth would like human teeth it is believed that Australopithecus eventually evolved into modern humans.


Neanderthal man first appeared in Africa about 200,000 years ago and migrated to the rest of the world around 100,000 years ago. The name Neanderthal comes from Neander valley where an early skull was found. Neanderthals would different from other species of early man. They were much taller and very strong for stop the brains were actually larger than ours are today. They were marvellous hunters. They often used caves as their homes. They were adept at fire making and probably cooked their food routinely. Neanderthals buried their dead. The Neanderthals died out by around 30,000 BC.
Cro-Magnon man lived some 40,000 -10,000 years ago. Their remains were first found in France in 1868 and then throughout other parts of Europe.

Cro-Magnon man was anatomically identical to modern humans and deferred significantly from Neanderthal man who disappeared in the fossil record shortly after Cro-Magnons appearance. Cromagnon man was tall and had an erect posture. He had a prominent chin a surprising forehead and skull shaped like hours. These man was killed hunters toolmakers and artists. Cro-Magnon man was a true human and looked just like us. He is represented by the remains of 5 individuals found in March 18683 adult males one adult female and one child.


•First family.
In 1975 Donald Johansson discovered the remains of at least 13 individuals of all ages at her there in Ethiopia. The sizes of the specimens varied greatly and Johansson believed that they all belong to a single species Australopithecus afarensis in which men were much larger than the females.

Thank you for reading. Have a nice day!🌼

Human Physiology

Human physiology is the study of how the human body functions. This includes the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, from organs to the cells of which they are composed. It serves as the foundation of modern medicine. The human body consists of many interacting systems of organs. These interact to maintain homeostasis, keeping the body in a stable state with safe levels of substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood. Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. 

As a discipline, it connects science, medicine, and health, and creates a framework for understanding how the human body adapts to stresses, physical activity, and disease. Human physiology is closely related to anatomy, in that anatomy is the study of form, physiology is the study of function, and there is an intrinsic link between form and function. The study of human physiology integrates knowledge across many levels, including biochemistry, cell physiology, organ systems, and the body as a whole.

History of Human Physiology

The study of human physiology began with Hippocrates in Ancient Greece, around 420 BCE, and with Aristotle (384–322 BCE) who applied critical thinking and emphasis on the relationship between structure and function. Galen (ca. 126–199) was the first to use experiments to probe the body’s functions. The term physiology was introduced by the French physician Jean Fernel (1497–1558).In the 17th century, William Harvey (1578–1657) described the circulatory system, pioneering the combination of close observation with careful experiment. In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate with the cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann in 1838, that organisms are made up of cells. Claude Bernard (1813–1878) created the concept of the milieu interieur (internal environment), which Walter Cannon (1871–1945) later said was regulated to a steady state in homeostasis.

Study of human physiology

The major systems covered in the study of human physiology are as follows:

  • Circulatory system – including the heart, the blood vessels, properties of the blood, and how circulation works in sickness and health.
  • Digestive/excretory system – charting the movement of solids from the mouth to the anus; this includes study of the spleen, liver, and pancreas, the conversion of food into fuel and its final exit from the body.
  • Endocrine system – the study of endocrine hormones that carry signals throughout the organism, helping it to respond in concert. The principal endocrine glands – the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads – are a major focus, but nearly all organs release endocrine hormones.
  • Immune system – the body’s natural defense system is comprised of white blood cells, the thymus, and lymph systems. A complex array of receptors and molecules combine to protect the host from attacks by pathogens. Molecules such as antibodies and cytokines feature heavily.
  • Integumentary system – the skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands (secreting an oily or waxy substance).
  • Musculoskeletal system – the skeleton and muscles, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. Bone marrow – where red blood cells are made – and how bones store calcium and phosphate are included.
  • Nervous system – the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. Study of the nervous system includes research into the senses, memory, emotion, movement, and thought.
  • Renal/urinary system – including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, this system removes water from the blood, produces urine, and carries away waste.
  • Reproductive system – consisting of the gonads and the sex organs. Study of this system also includes investigating the way a fetus is created and nurtured for 9 months.
  • Respiratory system – consisting of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. This system brings in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide and water.