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Theories of Urbanization

 Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to this change. Urbanization is an irreversible process. Urban region or city had first been noted in the Indus valley civilization in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC 116 in India. Hence one can say that there are several urban theories and some of which go back to the time of initial civilization. Most urban theories are derived ones some of which are: 

1. Suburbanization 
2. The dependency theory 
3. Theory of spatial disparities 
4. Migration theories 
a) Buffer’s theory of migration 
b) Stouffer’s law of intervening opportunities 
c) Migration theory of neo-classical economists 
d) Push and pull theories of migration 
e) Urban bias theory 
5. Lewis two sector model 
6. Concentric zone theory 
7. Bid rent theory 
8. Modern theory of urbanization 
9. Theory of evolutionary ladder of development 
10. Writh’s essay on “Urbanization: A typology of Changes”

1. Suburbanization 

Suburbanization means “beyond the city” thus it refers to peripheral areas of large cities around the world. As cities grow, it expands towards outskirt areas and thus peripheral or suburban areas develop and grow. Cities expand towards peripheral area due to high density, increasing urban land price, pollution and well developed transport and communication facilities. It is the responsibility of urban government to provide basic amenities in these areas as these suburban areas may not necessarily have a separate political unit. 

2. Dependency Theory 

The dependency theory argues that urban regions could establish expand and develop only if agriculture is well developed. The developing countries are sources of input for developed countries. Hence developing countries receive larger foreign investment in agriculture as well as non-agricultural sectors. Developed agriculture pushed rural farmer and labourer while developing industries attract labourer due to large employment scope in urban areas.

3. Theory of Spatial Disparities 

Spatial disparities theory states that disparities are created due to variation in geographically advantaged and disadvantaged regions, political importance of a city, economically favorable policies etc. Spatial forms divided the society. The problem of spatial disparities further leads to migration which creates pressure on urban amenities. 

4. Migration Theories 

Migration can be both a problem and a solution for various urban regions. There are several migration theories, some of them are discussed below. 

a) Buffer Theory of Migration 

Buffer theory of migration stated that “the workers who are imported on temporary base due to creation of short fall of labourer will return” However, it is not appropriate to make such assumption that labourer will go back. Migration cannot applicable always as adjustment mechanism. Hence, the Buffer’s migration law is not practical. 

b) Stouffer’s Law of Intervening Opportunities 

It states that “The number of persons going a given distance is directly proportional to the number of opportunities at that distance and inversely proportional to the number of intervening opportunities”. Stouffer explained that between the final destination and departure place if there are good opportunities them the migrant will settle down in between rather than their planned final destination. Stouffer argues that the volume of migration had less to do with distance and population than with the availability of opportunities in each location. 

c) Migration Theory of Neo-Classical Economists 

Neo- Classical economist argues that the main reason for labour migration is wage difference between two geographic locations. These wage difference are usually due to labour demand and supply in specific geography. 

d) Push and Pull Factors Theory 

The push and pull theory is based on various push and pull factors. Push factors are those things/ factors which are unfavorable about the specific area that one lives in and hence push them to move away from that particular area. Pull factors are those things that attract one to another area due to various reasons. Push factors can be less of employment opportunities, natural disaster, war, pollution, poor, housing etc. and pull factors can be better employment opportunities, better living conditions, healthy environment etc. 

e) Urban Bias Theory 

It is emphasizing on political perspective of urban regions. This theory argues that government policies favour the urban regions. While the amenities are provided on a larger scale in urban areas but the larger proportion of the population is found in rural areas of a country. Hence, there is migration from rural to urban areas. 

5. Lewis Two Sector Model 

Industrialization with the support of specialization supports urbanization process. Lewis presents two sector model of development with high productivity of modern urban industrial sectors. Lewis assumes that abundant labourer in agriculture can be absorbed in labour scarce industrial units. However agricultural migrants cannot always support and help these industries to grow. Hence the major limitation of Lewis model is the assumption that rural and agricultural labourer are having skills and ability to get employment in urban industries. 

6. Concentric Zone Theory 

Ernest Burgess with Chicago sociologist Robert Park put forward concentric zone theory of urbanization 

7. The Bid Rent Theory 

The Bid Rent Theory (BRT) theory is theory of geographical economy. It is based on geographical location rather than productivity of land. It refers to price and demand for real estate. The BRT explained that different land users would compete with one another for land close to the city centre. This theory is based upon the reasoning that the more is the accessible area (i.e. the greater the concentration of customers). It is higher the chance of earning more profit. Hence, to have land in inner city or central business district land users are willing to pay high price. This price of land paid by various users is known as “Bid Rent”.
 Bid rent theory
The above graph clearly indicates that commercial sectors are ready to pay higher rent so that they can establish near central business district as it is more accessible to larger population. Industry prefers next outer ring where rent is comparably low and still easily connected with commercial sector and with market. Residents and residential areas can be away from central business district. They can be in the outer most ring or peripheral areas. Bid rent and concentric zone theory assumed that inner city is wealthy and peripheral area is poorer. However, many cities around the world indicate the trend which is otherwise.

8. Modern Theory of Urbanization 

Modern theory was developed in the mid 20th century. It presented an idea that economic development is possible only if industries develop and expand by the introduction and use of advanced methods of production and use of modern technologies. According to modern school, the view which is shared by the classical economist, there cannot be urbanization without industrialization. 

9. Theory of Evolutionary Ladder of Development 

To understand stages of urbanization, Walter Rostow’s evolutionary ladder of development and Warren Thomas demographic transaction can be combined and presented as: 
a) Traditional Society (Pre-modern) 
b) Pre-take off (Industrialization / Transitional) 
c) Take off stage (Mature industrial / Industrial) 
d) Stage of Maturity (Post industrial) 
e) High Mass Consumption 
In the first and second stage, society is a traditional one. Larger proportion of population lives in rural areas. Third stage is ‘take off’ stage modern and new technologies are employed by industries to increase production. Manufacturing becomes important. This changes and growth however is concentrated in few regions only. Demographically, in this stage the death rate falls and birth rate still remains high. In terms of urbanization, a large proportion of population migrates to areas where manufacturing activities are concentrated for employment. 
The fourth stage ‘drive to maturity’ in this stage there is spread of technology into all parts of the economy. The demographic transition associated with the stage sees declined death rates, while birth rates drop at a faster than death rates. Urbanization at this point continues to progress since more and more people move to urban centers for jobs. 
The final stage is known as ‘high mass consumption’ and is characterized by the economy forcing on durable consumer goods like car instead of production of heavy industries like heavy machines with high personal incomes. Focus is no durable economic activities rate than basic need. The final stage of demography indicates negative or zero population growth. At this point, urbanization begins to level off because at this stage countries experience development that has reached 80% urban population mark. 

10. Writh’s Essay on Urbanism as a Way of Life 

Louis Writh’s in his essay “Urbanism as a way of life” emphasis as that urbanism is a matter of physical residence and urbanization is a social phenomenon. Moreover, Writh also questions the most common indicator adopted for the measurement of urbanization around the world i.e. population numbers.

Major Regional Problems and their Solutions in India

 

1) Corruption 

Political corruption is the most widely spread endemic in India, which must be handled quickly and wisely. There is hardly any office, in both private and public sector, that is untouched from this disease. There is no telling how much loss has the economy suffered because of this. Though most of us are concerned, when the time comes to act, we, the people of India, are found lacking. 

2) Basic Hygiene 

Sanitation is yet another problem, but one of the biggest, in India. There are about 700 million people who have no access to toilets at home. Slum areas do not have toilets. People are thus forced to defecate in open, which causes numerous diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dehydration etc. Many rural schools also have no toilets, because of which parents do not send their kids, especially girls, to school. A growing population is the biggest challenge causing these problems. For example, the sewage system in Delhi was designed to meet the needs of a population of three million people. But Delhi now has more than 14 million of population. This is not just the case of Delhi; every state and region in India is the same. 

3) Education System 

The education system of India is blamed every now and then for being too theoretical but not practical and skill-based. Students study to score marks, not to gain knowledge. This so called modern education system was introduced by the colonial masters to create servants who could serve but not lead and we still have the same education system. 

4) Health Care System 

It is true that world’s the most populous democratic country cannot provide proper health care facilities to its entire population. India is becoming a hub for medical tourism but all these facilities are not available to local residents, who are poor. Healthcare is a neglected issue in India, as major attention drawers are agriculture, infrastructure and IT. Lack of resources in rural India is a major concern of the day, leading to most of the problems. 50% of all villagers have no access to healthcare providers, 10% of babies die within a year of their birth due to lack of nutrition caused stunned growth in 50% of all the babies. 

5) Pollution 

Pollution and environmental issues are the other challenges that India is facing at present. Though India is working hard, there is a long way to go. Degradation of land, depleting natural resources and loss of biodiversity are the main issues of concern due to pollution. Untreated sewerage is the major cause of water pollution. The Yamuna river is today one of the most polluted rivers in India. Same is the condition of other rivers that pass through populated cities. 

6) Illiteracy 

The percentage of illiteracy in India is alarming. Every five persons among ten in India are illiterate. The condition in villages is worse than in cities. Though a number of primary schools have been set up in rural India, the problem persists. Also, providing education just to children won’t solve the problem of illiteracy, as many adults in India are also untouched by education. 

7) Woman Safety 

Both men and women enjoy equal opportunities, but as far as freedom and safety of women is concerned, India lags behind. Issues like domestic violence, rape cases, portrayal of women in media etc., must be tackled immediately. 

8) Infrastructure Facilities 

India needs to work swiftly on its infrastructure towards better roads and services like water, sanitation etc. 

9) Poverty 

A third of the world’s poor live in India, and 37% of the total population in India lives below the international poverty line. 42% of children under five years of age are underweight. Most of the poor in India live in villages. Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and West Bengal have the poorest areas. High level of illiteracy, lack of healthcare facilities and limited access to resources are some of the basic problems in poor areas. 

10) Water Scarcity 

India’s large population places a severe strain on its natural resources and most of its water sources are contaminated by sewage and agricultural run-off. . Much of the run-off water goes waste and the infiltration rate is also low. If this water can be harvested, not only the run-off water can be stored, but subsoil water reserves can also become rich. While progress has been made, gross disparities in access to safe water remain. The World Bank estimates that 21% of communicable diseases in India are related to unsafe water and diarrhea alone causes more than 1,600 deaths daily. 

11) Transparency 

The vast majority of Indians say transparency is their number one concern, according to polls before the recent election, with figures peaking at over 90% among young voters. People are right to be concerned. Transparency issues are not just a daily irritation, they are a drag on the whole economy, hampering competitiveness, growth and development. 

12) Religious Conflicts 

India is characterized by more ethnic and religious groups than most other countries of the world. Three ethnic or religious conflicts have stood out of late: two occurred in the states of “Assam and Punjab; another, the more widely known Hindu-Muslim conflict, continues to persist. The Assam problem is primarily ethnic, the Punjab problem is based on both religious and regional conflicts, while the Hindu-Muslim problem is predominantly religious. 

13) Lack of Employment and Opportunities 

India may be the fastest growing major economy in the world but that may mean little to the country’s 127 crore people, many of whom continue to struggle to find the right kind of jobs. India’s unemployment rate stood at 5% in 2015-2016 compared to 3.8% in 2012-2013, according to the fifth annual survey of employment-unemployment published by ministry of labour and employment. 

14) Urbanization 

More than one-third of Indians live in cities. It is estimated that, by 2050, as many as 900 million people will be living in urban centres. Meeting their needs while safeguarding the environment will require innovative models of urban development. 

15) Terrorism 

Terrorism in India, according to the Home Ministry, poses a significant threat to the people of India. Compared to other countries, India faces a wide range of terror groups.

Spatial Planning

 Spatial planning is rooted over space or territory. It is a kind of regional planning where planning is made on certain physical as well as socio cultural and economic region. It refers to the methods used by the public sector to influence the distribution of people and activities in spaces of various scales. Spatial planning includes land use, urban, regional, transport and environmental planning. Other related areas are also important, including economic and community planning. Spatial planning takes place on local, regional, national and international levels and often result in the creation of a spatial plan. Spatial economic development is a vital part of government’s national economic policy focus.

Good policy choices and well executed planning can ensure balanced economic development of a nation and can help to address marginalization and poverty, particularly in rural areas. Regional/spatial planning gives geographical expression to the economic, social, cultural and ecological policies of society. It is at the same time a scientific discipline, an administrative technique and a policy developed as an interdisciplinary and comprehensive approach directed towards a balanced regional development and the physical organization of space according to an overall strategy. The main characteristics include

  •          Spatial planning focuses only in the overall development of certain region
  •          It is an approach in regional planning
  •          Spatial planning put emphasis on socio-economic development of the region
  •          It varies from one region to other
  •          It is more holistic in nature
  •          It is more objective
  •          Spatial planning is much applicable in developing as well as under developed countries

Sectoral Planning

 Sectoral planning is strategic planning for defined sectors or industries of the economy. ‘Sector’ in terms of ‘sectorial planning’ means the spatial planning under consideration of only one planning criteria (e.g. traffic, environmental heritage etc.). Sector planning focuses on a manageable area and considers the land use, transportation, environmental, and infrastructure needs unique to that portion of the community. Sectors are groupings of economic, social, and administrative activities based on the type of goods or services produced. 

A Sector plan is a long range plan for a specific geographic area of at least 15,000 acres in one or more local governmental jurisdictions. Sectors for planning are 
  •  Health 
  •  Education 
  •  Electricity 
  •  Transport 
  •  Tourism 
  •  Agriculture 
These sectors can be grouped under the three broad sectoral headings as follows, with the corresponding national accounts categories shown in brackets. 

Economic Sectors 

  •  Agriculture (Agriculture, fisheries and forestry)
  •  Manufacturing (Food and beverages manufacturing and other manufacturing) 
  •  Tourism (Hotels and restaurants, wholesale and retail trade and transport) 
  •  Commerce (Wholesale and retail trade and personal and other services) 
  •  Finance (Financial and business services) 
  •  Public administration (Public administration) 

Social Sectors 

  •  Education (Component of public administration and including two sub sectors of primary and secondary and post-secondary) 
  •  Health (Component of public administration) 
  •  Welfare and Social Services (Component of public administration) 

Infrastructure Sectors 

  •  Construction (Construction) 
  •  Electricity (Electricity and water) 
  •  Water (Electricity and water) 
  •  Transport (Transport and communications) 
  •  Communications (Transport and communications) 
Sectoral planning is deeply based on various sectors of economic activities such as primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary economic sectors. It is concerned with linear planning and certain infrastructural facilities in various sectors in the economy in particular and in the society in general. It promotes economic development in major sectors of the economy. This will include the promotion of rural economic development (agricultural sector) and the development of industrial policy frameworks for sectors, in order to support various industrial policies. 
Sectoral planning is divided into supra-local and local sectoral planning. On the one hand, it deals with linear, cross-community infrastructures, generally at state levels (E.g., highways, railways, tramways, magnetic levitation railways, airports, mining, waterways, protection areas, tipping sites and waste incineration plants) and on the other, with the local level (E.g. roads), where local authorities are responsible for sectoral planning. Sectoral Planning promotes policies in a number of key sectors, chosen for their labour absorbing capacity, technological contribution to the economy or earning of foreign exchange. 
Sectoral planning is directed at addressing both weak economic performance and large scale job losses (distressed sectors) as well as regeneration of economic activity in particular regions and areas. The main characteristics include 
  •  Sectoral Planning focuses on the planning and development of particular sector of economy 
  •  It is rather systematic approach 
  •  Sectoral planning helps in developing certain sector of economy as a result overall development of a region is not possible in this planning 
  •  It is more subjective 
  •  It is much useful in developed nations

Must Do activities for College Student

As a college student and a teen you are at the most important entropy peak of your life, because it’s the turning point moment in your life where you can, build the best version of yourself and excel in life.

So for doing that there are lots of ways and methods to do that but the basic things which we can add up in our daily life routine and it will definitely proved to be an asset in your life.


1. Planning The Day.

At this young age we mostly focus on enjoying life and not taking thing’s seriously and we end up wasting lots of time. So have a fixed sleeping routine, plan your Daily work schedule and stick to it. Because this will not only make you productive but also saves lots of time to enjoy, because enjoying is also necessary for healthy and happy life.

2. Daily Exercise or Workout 

It is mandatory for everybody to exercise daily, whether its Gyming or doing Yoga thats your choice. Because for working productively you need to be healthy. So, try to sleep early at night and wake up early in the morning, so that you can complete your exercise at morning it will be better, otherwise its your choice but perform your exercises daily.


3. Gain Knowledge, Out of your syllabus.

It means that don’t only stick to the college course material, follow your passion and work on it by taking help of books, articles, journals, online courses, etc. Because it will not only make you happy but also provide you a special recognition in your group.

4. Real Life experiences 

Try to gain some real life experiences by others people experiences, they can be your family members or someone unknown to you. Watch various Podcasts, interviews etc. This will help you tremendously in your personal and Professional life both.

5. Be Socially active

Don’t be the book worm always. Divide some time to your activities, be socially active and available to people around you by various social media sites like LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram, etc. This will help you being connected with others and also let you updated with whats happening in the world amd also let you aware of different opportunities .

6. Be Spiritual 

Now with this, I mean that you should believe in the different kinds of energies around you, whatever the from may be that’s your choice and be thankful for what you have in life. Because it will help you in being happy from inside and makes you a humble person, who is free from problems like stress, anxiety in life.

That’s it!, these are the must do things which will help us develp ourselves and a happy environment for society.

Thank You 🙂

 ॐ नमः शिवाय

Article Written by: Ratan Kumar Ojha

Topographic Region/ Physiographic Region

 

India is home to various geographical features such as rivers, mountains, valleys, tablelands, seashores, deserts, and flat terrains. The country is a traveler’s paradise. The states in northern India lie in the Himalayan Mountain Range. India is the seventh largest country in the world and covers a total area of 3,287,263 sq km. The shoreline of the country extends for 7,517 km and the longest river of the country is the holy Ganga or Ganges which is 2,510 km long. You will notice four separate regions in the country – the plains, the mountains, the southern peninsula and the desert. 

The eastern and middle portion of India is made up of productive Indo-Gangetic plains. The Thar Desert in Rajasthan is located to the northwest. The terra firma in southern India is nearly wholly made up of the Deccan plateau. There are two important mountain ranges in South India that are closely located to the seashores and they are the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats mountain ranges. The Aravallis and the Vindhyachal are the other well-known mountain ranges of India. 
India is the seventh largest country with 2.4% of total area of the world. The Indian Mainland extends from 8°4′ north and 37°6′ North in length(latitudes). And between 68°7′ East and 97°25′ East in width (longitudes). This makes the North-south extension of 3214 km and East-west extension of 2933 km. At 23°30′ North, the Tropic of Cancer passes through the centre of India, dividing the country into two equal parts – Northern and Southern India. The Tropic of Cancer passes through eight states in India – Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram. Physiographic divisions in India include 

1) The Northern Mountains 

The northern boundary of India is created by the northern mountain ranges known as Himalayas that form the natural border between India and Tibet. The Himalayan range is divided into Pir Panjal Range, Zanskar Range, Ladakh Range, Dhaula Dhar Range and East Karakoram Range. Apart from the Himalayan, other ranges are Siwalik Range lying in the outer Himalayas, Karakom Range, Patkai Range lying at the eastern part of India at the Burma border, Vindhya Range covering parts of central India, Satpura Range covering parts of central India being parallel to Vindhya Range, Aravalli Range covering areas of Haryana and Rajasthan states, the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats. 

2) The Indo-Gangetic Plains 

The plains named after the rivers flowing through them – Indus and Ganges, cover northern and eastern parts of India, stretching to cover some parts of Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh also. These rivers form tributaries that network the entire region. These tributaries are Yamuna, Chambal, Gomti, Sutlej, Kosi, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, Ghaghara and Tista. These rivers make the soil fertile and apt for farming which is widely practiced all over. This has led to tremendous increase in population with time. The plains are divided into four belts namely, the Bhabar belt, the Terai belt, the Bangar belt and the Khadar belt. The crops produced in these belts are wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, and maize. 

3) The Thar Desert 

It is ranked as the seventh biggest desert in the world that covers most of the Rajasthan and neighboring states of Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat. It also crosses the borders to touch Pakistan where it is known as Cholistan desert. It’s some parts are attributed by sand dunes and some have rocks. The vegetation in the area includes small trees, herb and shrubs. The sandy nature of the soil makes it get eroded quite often, due to speedy winds that blow with full force in the region. This region gets very less rainfall which is less than 150 mm in a year. Understanding the need of plantation in the region to avoid erosion, the Indira Gandhi Canal scheme was started in 1965 to irrigate the land. The common source of income for the people here is animal husbandry and agroforestry. 

4) The Central Highlands 

The highlands of central India are divided into three plateaus, the Deccan Plateau located between the western and eastern ghats, the Malwa Plateau at the western parts of India including states like Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau covering eastern states of India like Bihar, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Odisha. The Chota Nagour Plateau is rich in coal and metal ores and is divided into Ranchi plateau, Hazaribagh plateau and Koderma plateau. The Ranchi plateau is characterized by numerous falls. The Hazaribagh plateau is a part of Hazaribagh region, the lower part of which is known as Koderma plateau. Read more on the Central Highlands 

5) The Eastern and Western Coastal Plains 

These plains lie at the eastern parts of India spreading from the state Tamil Nadu to West Bengal. With rivers like Mahanadi, Kaveri , Krishna and Godavari flowing through them, Chilika Lake runs alongside them. The plains are divided into six regions – Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu, Kanyakumari Coast at the southern-tip of India, Krishna-Godavari delta at southeast of Vijaywada, Mahanadi delta in Odisha, and the south Andhra Pradesh coastal plain that covers the major parts of Eastern Ghat and Bay of Bengal. These coastal regions normally stay humid with frequent rainfall. Tall coconut palms adorn the eastern coastline, apart from the crops grown here. Fishing is the major occupation of the locals here. 
As the name suggests, they lie at the areas of Western Ghats forming the coastal parts of that are flanked by the Arabian Sea. They cover Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Narmada, Zuari, Tapi and Mandovi are rivers that flux through them. The plains are divided into Konkan and Malabar Coasts. The Konkan coast runs through 700 km, covering parts of the Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra. The Malabar coast covers 845 km, stretching from Karnataka to the extreme south tip Kanyakumari through Kerala. All of the Malabar coast receives heavy rainfall that makes it suitably irrigated enough for farming. Read more on western and eastern coastal plains 

6) The Islands 

There are two main groups of islands – Andaman and Nicobar islands and Lakshadweep islands that are recognized as Union Territories (UT). Apart from them, Daman and Diu are also known as UT; they almost touch the mainland unlike Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep. Andaman islands are composed of 572 tiny islands that serve as a great tourist attraction. The Nicobar islands are not accessible for the tourists. Inhabited by native tribes, their beaches stay deserted yet beautiful owing to lovely colors added to the waters by a variety of corals. The Lakshadweep islands comprise of 35 tiny islands that stand in the Laccadive Sea, just 200 to 400 km from Kerala, the southwestern coast of India.