Citation

Ogbonnia, E. F., Chigoziri, N. E., C, I. K., U, A. K., Augustine, I., Esq, O. C., Onwe, D. C., & Chinelo, N. G. (2026). There are Cities and there are Cities: Marking the Sociological Distinction and Considerations. Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 12(2), 66–73. https://doi.org/10.26643/jsmap/11

Egwu Francis Ogbonnia

Department Of Criminology And Security Studies, Ae-Funai

Orcid: Https://Orcid.Org/0009-0009-8519-8303

Nlemchukwu Emmanuel Chigoziri, Ph.D

Department Of Criminology And Security Studies, Ae-Funai

Nlemchukwuemmanuel@Yahoo.Com 08030819692

Orcid: Https://Orcid.Org/0009-0002-6403-6507

Igwe Kenneth C

Department Of Political Science, Ae-Funai

Adinde Kenneth U., Ph.D

Department Of Criminology And Security Studies, Ae-Funai

Orcid: Https://Orcid.Org/0009-0002-7458-7847

Izuogu Augustine

Department Of Criminology And Security Studies

University Of Agriculture And Environmental Sciences, Umuagwo, Imo State

Onyeacho Chike, Esq

Department Of Criminology And Security Studies

University Of Agriculture And Environmental Sciences, Umuagwo, Imo State

Daniel Chidiebere Onwe                                                                                 Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.

Nwadiani Grace Chinelo

Department Of Criminology And Security Studies, Alex Ekwueme Federal

University Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT

This work centres on the various forms of cities and features that distant a city from the other. It is instructive to note that all known human society has various characteristics that tries to make it peculiar from other cities or communities. Thus, this study identified various cities and attempted to Sociologically demonstrate why some are seen as developed while others are still undergoing economic, political and social transition. The indicators that are primarily considered here are the level of human development, gross domestic product (GDP), direct foreign investment (DFI), Level of educational system/innovation amongst other factors.

Keywords: Cities, development, education, government, suburban, urban centres

INTRODUCTION

A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation utilities, Land usage, housing and transportation. The concentration of development greatly facilitates interaction between people and business, sometimes benefiting both parties in the process, but it also presents challenges to managing urban growth. Ekpenyong (2013) Opined that since 1870, the world has witnessed more far-reaching transformations in social life than occurred in the vast span of human history prior to that date. Urban centers have become the milieu in which almost everyone in the advanced world (capitalist society) live.

The development of cities is the result of a combination of circumstances. In western civilization (Europe, USA, Canada etc), the revolution in technology brought about a mechanization of agriculture that greatly improved per capital output, producing the food surpluses needed to sustain the cities.

At the same time human energy on the farm was increasingly replaced by mechanical energy, creating pressure on the rural population to leave the land.

Improved transportation system, road and railways, better housing systems and nutrition, health centers as well as communication technology all characterized city life, (Ekepenyong, 2011). Historically, there is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities. Some, theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanism that might have been important driving force. Conventional views thought that cities were first formed after the Neolithic revolution. This revolution gave impetus to agriculture, encouraged Hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production.

Paul Bairoch (NY, cited in Ekpenyong 2013) believes that agricultural activities appearnecessary before true cities can form.

Various indices have been scholarly advanced regarding the conditions necessary for an area to be given the status of a city. According to Verve Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and relatively large population. For example, Shanghai China was seen as the biggest city while Durbai is presently the fastest growing city.

The first true towns are sometimes considered as large settlements where the inhabitants were no longer simply farmers but began to take on specialized occupations and where trade, food storage and power were centralized. Gordon Childe (1950 cited in Ekpenyong 2013) defined a city with 10 general indices. These are:-

• Size and density of the population should be above normal.
• Differentiation of the population; not all residents grow their own
  food leading to specialists.
• Payment of taxes to a deity or king.
• Monumental public building.
• Those not producing their own food are supported by the King
  or ruler.
• System of recording and practical science.
• A system of writing
• Development of symbolic art,
• Trade and import of raw materials.
• Specialist craftsman from outside the Kin-group

These characteristics are best used to describe ancient cities. One major characteristics that can be used to distinguish a small city from a large town is organized government. A city has professional administrators, regulations, and some form of taxation.

THE AFRICAN CITY

It is arguable to state that tropical Africa is one of the least urbanized

regions of the world. This is because in most countries, less than a quarter of the total population lives in urban centers, (Ekpenyong, 2013).

In 1950 for example, only two cities in the African continent had more than one million residents. Rapid population increase is an important factor in measuring urban development.

Cities in Africa are characterized by rapid population growth though other indices that are used as measuring yardsticks for urban settlement such as improved technology, stable government, quality social amenities and other essential needs of man are lacking. They are poverty-stricken, socially divided and present problems such as those insufficient and inadequate housing and unemployment on a large scale which are not encountered by the developed countries. Failure in Africa has always been attributed to cultural differences.

However, what is often forgotten is that such measures do not totally translate into development obstacles nor do they touch the underlying factors responsible for generating conditions favorable for unhindered development.

Though generalizations are difficult because of the scarcity of data, but Ekpenyong (2013) believed that there is abundant evidence that African societies are heterogeneous in their socio-political organization, but the context shared by all of them is the location of their economics at the periphery of international capitalism. This was made possible by the uneven trade relations that were not negotiated rather, a violent imposition of business relations with African Nations were made to become the producers of raw materials for the colonial masters and consumers of manufactured products of industries in the West.

Industrialization, improved housing, availability of seasoned health care, social amenities, refined schools and quality referrals amongst others are some of the indications of urban settlement and their peculiar pattern. Unfortunately, most of these amenities are lacking in African countries especially in their so-called cities. Another important factor as admitted by Ekpenyong (2013) is the concept of political stability. Since the exodus of Colonialism from African soil, Africa as a continent has been beset with variegated political instability especially in pre-election and election times.

Nevertheless, despite these bedeviling challenges, Africa Still possess several cities that have been running abreast with western cities and their development strides. These cities in Africa include Lagos, Kano, Port Harcourt, Accra, Egyptian cities which is the center of civilization and other growing cities in Africa.

In summary, cities in Africa are shaped by the nature of the incorporation of the entire social formation, The African economy which has been tied to uneven western capitalism of exploitation has been a huge obstacle to the full development of African cities just like the western counterparts. This explains the preponderance of prirnate cities in Africa, the seeds were sown during period of colonialism. City life today though is part of a world economic system such that changes in one part of the world have a direct impact elsewhere. The presence of multinationals has improved the plight of cities through their direct injection of fluid into business, improved communication, administration and investment strategies. These welcome developments have their attendant consequences, which include a high rate of criminality and corruption. Several crime issues now dominate the city life ranging from burglary, kidnapping, armed robbery to rape, political assassination and other related criminalities (Aneke, 2019).

EGYPT CIVILIZATION AND CITIES,

The more complex human societies called the first civilizations emerged around 3000 BC in the river Valleys of Mesopotamia, India, China and Egypt. An increase in food production led to the significant growth in human population and the rise of cities, The -people of

Egypt and southwest Asia laid the monumental foundation of western civilization, developed cities and struggled with the problems of organized state as they moved from individual communities to large territorial units and eventually to empire. Among the early old-world cities, Mohenjo-Daro of Indus Valley Civilization in present day Pakistan, existing from about-2600 BC, was one of the Largest with a population of 50,000 or more. These points to the fact that population is an important factor to be considered in defining and delineating what constitutes a city centre.

These Greek city-states reached great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, expressed in architecture, drama, Science, mathematics and philosophy and nurtured in Athens under a democratic government. In the 4^th Century, Alexander the Great Commissioned Dinocrate of Rhodes to lay out his new city of Alexandra, the grandest example of idealized urban planning of the ancient Mediterranean world where the city’s regularity was facilitated by its level site near mouth of the Nile.

Urban planning is one distinguishing factor between cities of Africa and the rest of the world, African cities though with profound developmental strides lack seasoned planning and architecture that makes it looks attractive.

Some cities are sparsely populated political capitals; others were trade centers and still other cities had a primarily religions focus. A good example is Saudi Arabia where Muslim go far pilgrimages and Jerusalem where privileged Christians go for pilgrimage. The growth of the population. of ancient civilizations, the formation of ancient empire concentrating political power, and the growth in commerce and manufacturing led to ever greater capital cities and centers of commerce, tourism and industry. In ancient America, early urban traditions developed in the Andes and Mesoamerica. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in

the Norte Chico civilization. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the 30^th century BC and the 18^th century BC. Meso-America saw the rise of early Urbanism in several cultural regions. Later cultures such as the Aztec drew on these earlier urban traditions. 

The growth of modern industry from late 18^th century onward led to massive Urbanization and the rise of great new cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In the United States, from 1860 to 1910, the introduction of railroads reduced transportation costs and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, thus allowing migration from rural to city areas. Cities during this period were deadly places to live in due to health problems resulting from contaminated water, air and communicable diseases. In the great depression of the 1930s, cities were hard hit by unemployment, especially those with a base in heavy industry. In the USA, Urbanization rate increased from 40 to 80 percent during 1900-1990. Today, the world’s population is slightly over half urban and continues to urbanize with roughly a million people moving into cities every 24 hours worldwide.

Generally, Richard Sennett (1977) gives a rather sociologically inclined definition of a city. To him, a city is a human settlement where strangers are likely to meet.

Even amongst the western world, there is no single definitional construct on the concept of what constitutes a city. This is because the factors, or better still, peculiarities that distinguish a city vary from place to place and time to time. What constitutes a city in medieval civilization for instance may not be apt enough to determine the features of a city in modern times. Even in the next century, what we see now as cities may net be seen as full-blown cities.

Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates. This is due to the large clustering of heat absorbent surface that heat up in sunlight and that channel rainwater into underground ducts, Waste and sewage are two major problems for cities such as air

pollution from various forms of combustion, including fire burning, stoves, other heating systems, engine emission and internal combustion engines. Crime is another consequence of city life. Studies have shown that crime rate in cities is higher and the chance of punishment after getting caught is lower. In extreme cases such as burglary, the higher concentration of people in cities creates more items of higher value worth the risk of crime. Cities also generate positive external effects. The close physical proximity facilitates knowledge spillovers, helping people and firms exchange information and generate new ideas. Population density enables also sharing of common infrastructure and production facilities, however in very dense cities, increased crowding; thickening labor market due to uncontrolled migration may lead to some negative effects. These have been the challenges confronting cities in Africa and beyond even in the western civilized parts of the world.

GLOBAL CITIES

A global city, also known as a world city, is a prominent Centre of trade, banking, finance, innovation and markets. As it was coined by Sakia Sassen (1991). Global Cities have more in common with each other than with other cities.

Global cities are opposed to mega-city which refers to any city of economic power or influence. This includes London, Paris, Mew Yo^rk, Tokyo and the modern Dubai. Los Angeles, the home of Hollywood is a globalizing city though more significant in Cultural than economic terms unlike the enumerated cities. From the foregoing, global cities are characterized by intense economic activities, business growth and investment opportunities and not along cultural lines. A good example is Eggaton Street in London where some of the cheapest buildings cost about three million pounds.

There is a growing movement in North America called “New Urbanism” that calls for a return to traditional city planning methods where mixed-use zoning allows people to walk from ‘one type of land use to another. The idea is that housing, shopping, office space and Leisure facilities are all provided within walking distances of each

other, thus reducing the demand for road space and also improving the efficiency and effectiveness of mass transit, (Jeribe 2023)

SUB-URBAN/ SUBURBANITES

This is another dimension in the analysis of cities and urban development. By suburban, it means that it is not urban, rather below urban requirement or away from urban life. On the one hand, suburban sirnply means a smaller community adjacent to or within commuting distance of big city, an outlying part of a city or town, (Jeribe 2023). It could also mean a town or other areas where people live in houses near a larger city. On the other hand, suburbanites are the people who dwell in such areas as described above. Most developed cities or” the world due to over-population, busy traffic, high tenancy, crime rate and other vices have paved way ‘for the emergence and development of suburban cities. It is a drift away from city life. Most inhabitants of inner city have moved away to settle in suburban centers.

Even the rural dwellers whose economic situation has taken an upward turn have also found abode/reasons to migrate to suburban centers. Suburbanites could be government functionaries, business and oil magnets, executives in corporations and successful business tycoons. In Rivers State for instance, resident of government reserved area (GRA), Trans Amadi residents etc can decide to relocate to Aluu, Choba or Igwuruta towns. Gradually, development will move into such areas. This will also gradually give rise to another
suburban city with the passage of time and by social interaction and processes. Soaring housing and electricity bills, environmental challenges and the upsurge of massive retrenchment, unemployment and a lot more social problems could be reasons for the increase in the number of suburbanites.

Town planners and urban sociologists are presently concerned with the development of suburban and suburbanites. Land acquisition and tenancy rates are cheaper in suburban centers, giving room for higher influx of people into the area.

Suburbanites are likely to travel to the city for work. Suburbs have more single-family homes than apartment buildings and suburbanites are more likely to have a yard with trees and grasses. They may enjoy a little of the advantage of rural settings as well as some facilities common with the cities. The disadvantage is that if they work in the main city, they might have a Long Commute that adds to the time they are away from their family.

Suburbs   are   usually   middle-class   residences:   rents   are   usually cheaper   in   the   suburbs.   We   have   suburbs   of   New   York   and   Manchester etc. (Jeribe, 2023),

The typical life, attitude and way of life of people who live in the suburbs may be peculiar. Some people consider suburban life to be rather boring and conservative compared to the hustle and ‘bustle’ of city life, while others commend the serenity and peace of some Suburbs that have not yet been eroded by the encroachment of a developing city, (Jeribe, 2023).

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, what can be seen as cities exist in all parts of the world though with varying features. This is a reality because what constitutes a favored city in London or Tokyo rnay not be found in growing nations such as Nigeria and other African countries. Generally, cities are up of densely populated conglomeration of peon e from diverse ethnic origin, improved housing system with urban planning standard, quality health care facilities and referrals, technology and communication as well as the presence of multinationals, good road network, stable electricity / alternatives (Gas turbines etc) as well as free competitive market, financial institutions and unparallel investment. In other to bring African nations to this standard, the following recommendations are made:

1. Urban planners should be allowed to strategize on the best way to manage housing and housing related issues. The government has always hijacked this- role which has made urban settlement patterns a big failure.
2. Creation of employment by the government is germane to minimize the crime rate in our cities,
3. Direct investment both   small   and   medium   enterprises should be encouraged. Government should aid them by boosting their financial potential,

4.The creation of a stable, sane and crime-free society through

Improved security monitoring is essential. No city or nation progresses when it is beset with security challenges.

5. Finally, the creation of enabling physical environment such as controlled pollution of the environment with toxic waste and other harmful substances will necessitate/improve our match to a healthy living standard.

REFERENCES

Anele K. A (2019), Social Change and Social Problems in Nigeria. Department of Sociology, University of Port-Harcourt.

Ekpenyong S.   (2011), Elements of  Sociology 2^no edition, Heritage Research and Publication.

Ekpenyong S, (2013), The City in Africa, Davidstones Publishers Ltd,

Jeribe C. (2023), The Concepts of Suburbanite, A Seminal Presentation, University of Port-Harcourt.

Richard S. (1977), The Fall of Public Man, P, 39, ISBN 0-14-100757-5.

Siskia Sassen (1991), The Gioba! city, Mew York, London/ Tokyo, (Princeton): Princeton University Press, 1991), 1^st edition, ISBN

0-691-07063-6