Tag: #astronomy

Red Planet Day: A Celebration of Mars and Its Mysteries

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Red Planet Day is an annual event celebrated on November 28 to honor the fascinating planet Mars, often referred to as the “Red Planet” due to its reddish appearance caused by iron oxide (rust) on its surface. The day is an opportunity to reflect on humanity’s interest in Mars, its exploration, and the ongoing research that helps us understand its potential to support life.

Why November 28?

Red Planet Day marks the anniversary of the launch of Mariner 4, NASA’s first successful mission to Mars. On November 28, 1964, Mariner 4 was launched, and it became the first spacecraft to send back close-up images of the Martian surface, providing humanity with its first glimpse of the planet beyond telescopic observations. These images revealed a barren, cratered landscape, shattering some of the earlier misconceptions about Mars, such as the idea that it harbored canals built by intelligent life.

Mars: The Red Planet

Mars has been a subject of fascination for astronomers and science fiction writers for centuries. It is the fourth planet from the Sun and, like Earth, it has seasons, polar ice caps, and weather patterns. However, Mars differs significantly from Earth in its environment and atmospheric conditions.

Mars has:

  • A thin atmosphere, mostly carbon dioxide, which offers little protection from the harsh solar radiation.
  • The largest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons, which stands nearly three times the height of Mount Everest.
  • The longest canyon, Valles Marineris, stretching over 4,000 km, which dwarfs the Grand Canyon.
  • Evidence of past water flows, with dried riverbeds and ancient lake basins suggesting that liquid water may have once existed on its surface.

Despite its inhospitable surface, Mars remains one of the most studied planets in our solar system because of its potential for past life and its suitability for future human exploration.

The History of Mars Exploration

Over the decades, various space missions have explored Mars, and each has revealed new secrets about the planet. Here are a few key milestones:

  1. Mariner 4 (1964) – As mentioned, it was the first spacecraft to send back images of Mars, proving that the planet was not as Earth-like as once believed.
  2. Viking Program (1976) – NASA’s Viking 1 and Viking 2 orbiters and landers provided crucial data about the Martian atmosphere, surface, and geology, as well as the first in-depth studies of its potential for supporting life.
  3. Mars Rovers – In the 21st century, rovers such as Spirit, Opportunity, Curiosity, and Perseverance have landed on Mars to explore its surface, conduct experiments, and search for signs of past life. Perseverance, which landed in February 2021, is tasked with collecting rock samples that could one day be returned to Earth.
  4. Mars Helicopter Ingenuity – As part of the Perseverance mission, the small helicopter Ingenuity made history in 2021 by becoming the first powered flight on another planet. It successfully flew on Mars, providing aerial reconnaissance for scientific studies.

Why Celebrate Red Planet Day?

Red Planet Day serves multiple purposes:

  • Education: It’s an opportunity to educate people of all ages about Mars, its exploration, and what we’ve learned from it. Schools, observatories, and museums often host special events or activities focused on Mars-related science and space exploration.
  • Inspiration: Mars continues to inspire the imagination of people around the world. Celebrating the day can ignite curiosity about space and foster a sense of wonder about our universe.
  • Scientific Advancement: As new missions to Mars are planned, including NASA’s Artemis Program aiming to return humans to the Moon and eventually send astronauts to Mars, Red Planet Day reminds us of the long-term goals of space exploration and the scientific advancements being made in the process.
  • Future Exploration: Red Planet Day is also an opportunity to look forward to the future of Mars exploration, especially as private companies like SpaceX and governmental agencies like NASA are working towards the goal of human missions to Mars, potentially establishing the first human colony on another planet.

How Is Red Planet Day Celebrated?

While it is not a widely recognized holiday in the same way as some other observances, space enthusiasts, astronomers, and scientists mark Red Planet Day in various ways:

  • Public Events: Some observatories and space museums host special exhibits, workshops, and presentations about Mars exploration.
  • Social Media Campaigns: On Red Planet Day, many space organizations, including NASA and SpaceX, share information, updates, and fun facts about Mars on their social media platforms.
  • Stargazing: Many amateur astronomers take the opportunity to observe Mars with telescopes, especially when the planet is in close proximity to Earth during opposition (when Earth is directly between Mars and the Sun).
  • Educational Outreach: Schools and universities might engage in special lessons or activities centered on Mars, its exploration, and space science.

The Future of Mars Exploration

The future of Mars exploration is incredibly exciting. Several planned missions aim to further unravel the mysteries of Mars and explore its potential for human settlement:

  • NASA’s Mars Sample Return Mission: In collaboration with the European Space Agency (ESA), NASA aims to bring Martian soil samples back to Earth by the late 2020s or early 2030s.
  • SpaceX’s Starship Missions: SpaceX is developing the Starship vehicle with the goal of sending humans to Mars. Elon Musk’s vision is to eventually establish a sustainable human presence on Mars, potentially as soon as the 2020s or 2030s.
  • Colonization: While still a long way off, there are ongoing discussions about establishing permanent human colonies on Mars. These would require advanced technologies for life support, food production, and protection from radiation.

Conclusion

Red Planet Day is not only a celebration of the Mariner 4 mission but also a reminder of our collective curiosity and ambition to explore Mars. As we continue to explore and learn about Mars, the planet holds promise as a stepping stone for humanity’s future in space. Whether through scientific discoveries, technological innovations, or inspiring the next generation of explorers, Red Planet Day is a chance to celebrate humanity’s ongoing journey to the stars.

Discovery of Uranus

The discovery of Uranus is an important milestone in the history of astronomy. Uranus is the seventh planet from the sun and is the third-largest planet in our solar system. It was discovered by Sir William Herschel on March 13, 1781. Herschel was a German-born British astronomer who had a keen interest in studying the stars and planets. He had built his own telescopes and was known for his expertise in optics.

Source – NASA

In 1781, while observing the night sky from his garden in Bath, England, Herschel noticed an object that he initially thought was a comet. However, as he continued to observe it over the course of several nights, he realized that it was something much larger and farther away than a comet. Herschel’s discovery of Uranus was significant for several reasons. First, it was the first planet to be discovered since ancient times. The other planets, including Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, had been known since ancient times, and Uranus was the first new planet to be added to the list. Second, it provided evidence that there were other planets in our solar system beyond the orbit of Saturn. Prior to Herschel’s discovery, it was believed that Saturn marked the edge of our solar system.

The discovery of Uranus was also significant because it challenged existing beliefs about the nature of the universe. At the time, it was believed that the planets orbited the sun in a predictable pattern based on their distances from the sun. However, Uranus did not follow this pattern, and its orbit was difficult to explain using the existing models of the solar system. This led astronomers to question their understanding of the laws of physics and the nature of the universe.

After Herschel’s discovery, astronomers around the world began studying Uranus in more detail. They found that it was a gas giant planet with a distinctive blue-green color. They also discovered that it had a system of moons and a ring system, similar to those of Saturn. Over the years, astronomers have continued to study Uranus using telescopes and space probes, providing new insights into the planet’s composition, atmosphere, and history.

To conclude, the discovery of Uranus by Sir William Herschel in 1781 was a significant event in the history of astronomy. It was the first new planet to be discovered since ancient times and challenged existing beliefs about the nature of the universe. Herschel’s discovery opened up new avenues for scientific inquiry and inspired generations of astronomers to study the planets and the stars. Today, Uranus remains an important object of study for astronomers, providing insights into the workings of our solar system and the universe beyond.

What are Dwarf Planets?

 Dwarf planets are a category of celestial objects that are similar to planets, but are smaller in size and lack certain characteristics that define a planet. The classification of a celestial object as a dwarf planet was introduced by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 2006.

The IAU defines a dwarf planet as a celestial body that orbits the Sun, is spherical in shape, and has not cleared its orbit of other debris. This means that while a dwarf planet is similar to a planet in terms of its shape and orbit, it has not become dominant in its orbit and there are other objects in its vicinity. Currently, there are five officially recognized dwarf planets in our Solar System: Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, and Ceres.


Source – Shutterstock Images

Pluto is the most well-known dwarf planet and was formerly considered the ninth planet in our Solar System. It was reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006 due to its size and orbit. Pluto is located in the Kuiper Belt, a region beyond Neptune that contains many icy objects. It has five known moons and a highly eccentric orbit that brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune for part of its orbit.

Eris is the largest known dwarf planet and is located in the scattered disc, a region beyond Neptune that contains many objects with highly elliptical orbits. It was discovered in 2005 and is named after the Greek goddess of discord. Eris has one known moon and a highly elliptical orbit that takes it far beyond Pluto.

Haumea is a dwarf planet located in the Kuiper Belt. It is named after the Hawaiian goddess of childbirth and fertility. Haumea has an elongated shape and rotates rapidly, completing a full rotation in just four hours. It has two known moons and a highly elliptical orbit.

Makemake is another dwarf planet located in the Kuiper Belt. It was discovered in 2005 and is named after the creation deity of the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island. Makemake is one of the largest known objects in the Kuiper Belt and has a highly reflective surface.

Ceres is the only dwarf planet located in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. It was the first object to be discovered in the asteroid belt and was considered a planet for a brief period in the 19th century before its size was determined. Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt and has a rocky surface.

In addition to these five recognized dwarf planets, there are many other objects in our Solar System that could potentially be classified as dwarf planets. These include objects in the Kuiper Belt, the scattered disc, and even some of the larger asteroids in the asteroid belt.

The study of dwarf planets is important because they provide valuable information about the formation and evolution of our Solar System. Many dwarf planets are thought to be remnants from the early Solar System, and their study can help us understand the conditions that existed during that time.

In conclusion, dwarf planets are a category of celestial objects that share similarities with planets but have not cleared their orbit of other debris. There are currently five recognized dwarf planets in our Solar System, including Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, and Ceres. The study of dwarf planets is important for understanding the history and evolution of our Solar System.

International Astronomy and Astrophysics Competition 2022

What is IAAC?

The International Astronomy and Astrophysics Competition is a global competition for science and astronomy enthusiasts.

Online Submission: The competition uses the possibilities of the modern world to allow all students to participate regardless of nation, region, school, or affiliation. Every student may participate independently – there is no affiliation of your school or teacher to IAAC required to participate in this competition.

Research Problems: The pre-final round includes two research problem types. They require participants to get in touch with real scientific research papers and learn about recent scientific results to solve the problems. They encourage students for more advanced science and give them insights into actual research material.

Teacher Support and Online Tools: We supply teachers and schools with additional materials and an online teacher interface that allows teachers to make better use of IAAC problems in class. We also generate performance reports for each individual student.

Information for Teachers and Schools

Teachers and schools are invited to share this opportunity with their students to make talented students in particular benefit from IAAC. There are also special school awards.

Process and Rounds

1. Qualification Round : 5 Problems: Knowledge, Calculation, Research, Free

2. Pre-Final Round : 3x Basic, 3x Advanced, 2x Research Problems, 4 Days, 8 EUR Registration Costs

3. Final Round :  Final Exam with 20 Multiple-Choice Questions, 60 Seconds/Question, Teacher Supervision 

 Note: The Qualification round is free. The 8EUR Registration cost covers both the Pre-final and Final round. DIgital participation certificates are awarded for all rounds.

Who can participate?

You have to be at least 10 years old and you have to be a student (this includes high school, college, and university). There are two age categories:

  Junior: under 18 years on 13. May 2022.

  Youth: over 18 years on 13. May 2022

Students from both categories will receive the same problems in all rounds, however, students that are youths (18 years or older) will have to reach more points to qualify for the next round (e.g. to qualify for the pre-final round, students that are under 18 years have to reach 15 points and students that are over 18 years have to reach 20 points). 

If you are a science enthusiast and love astronomy this competition is the way to go!

Contact me for further details at-yutsawant@amb.iaac.space

All about James Webb Space Telescope

History

The success of Hubble Space Telescope after its repair mission in 1993 motivated the organizations to make a larger infrared light telescope that could see the past better. Hubble telescope system’s temperature interfered with the infrared radiation it received from the outer space. A new innovative next generation telescope was needed which was faster , better and cheaper. In 2003, NASA’s initial contract for James Webb Space Telescope(JWST) was $824.8 million collaborating with European Space Agency (ESA) , Canadian Space Agency(CSA). in 2005 after major redesign and re-planning , the mission cost reached a hefty amount of $4.5 billion. The telescope has a history of major cost overruns and delays due to backlashes from people and lack of funds.

Nevertheless, JWST launched on December 25, 2021 in Ariane 5 rocket from NASA Goddard Space Flight Centre, French Guiana. this orbiting infrared observatory will complement and extend the discoveries of the Hubble space telescope.

The telescope will cover a wavelength of 0.6 – 28.5 microns for the light falling from red till mid infrared wave spectrum .

Location

JWST will not orbit earth but will be move in a orbit of second Lagrange point(L2 point) which is about 1.5 million km away from the earth. The L2 point is sufficiently near to the earth allowing proper signal communication and the sun shield will prevent any infrared radiation coming from the Sun.

Sun-shield protection

For it to make observation in the infrared spectrum , it must be kept under 50K (−223.2 °C) otherwise the infrared radiation from its system , the earth , moon and sun will interfere with the data. It uses a large 5 layered tennis court sized sun-shield to block that radiation and maintains its surface temperature. the single layer is as thin as a human hair and made with polyamide films . the membranes are coated with aluminium from both sides and a silicon doped layer facing the sun. the shield can be folded 12 times to fit in the Ariane rocket .

The Honeycomb mirrors

The primary optical mirror is beryllium reflector with area 25.4 m2 . gold is used to coat all the 18 mirror segments because it is a highly reflective material for infrared wavelength. The honeycomb pattern utilizes the best use of space available and are also deployable .

Mission goals

  1. Search for galaxies formed after the big bang . It can look 13.5 billion years into the past , about 400 million years after the big bang.
  2. How galaxies evolve.
  3. Observe the formation of stars.
  4. Measure physical and chemical properties of the planetary systems including the Solar System.

This mission will take the Space Science to the next level, thanks to our Scientists……

Feed your soul with some Astronomy….

Astronomy is a subject that produces a spark in everyone. Who doesn’t like gazing at the stars with awe or secretly trying to make a wish when looking at the falling stars or more precisely ‘meteors’ . As it is famously said-

You are not a human being looking at the Universe but the universe looking itself in human form .

Some say, time travel is impossible but often we don’t realise that when gazing at the night sky , you are literally looking millions of years into the past. This thought can make anyone’s heart dance and excite them to explore such a gigantic cosmos.

Astronomy takes your imagination to the next level. We are connected to this field since the arrival of human on this planet. From ancient times , farmers used sky to decide the sowing seasons of crops, astrologers for predicting fortune and astronomers for making calendars and navigation routes for ships. Our ancestors knew the significance of Sun and thus worshipped it. The ancient Mayan Civilisation and Egyptians constructed the pyramids in such a way that their location coincided with that of the positions of the Constellations above.

Certainly this suggests that Astronomy is in our blood . Renowned astronomer Carl Sagan quoted “ The Cosmos is within us. We are made up of star stuff. We are a way for the Universe to know itself.” By studying Astronomy , you understand there are no limitations to what we can achieve, you surrender yourself and your ego before this humongous Cosmos, you feel free and connected to the Nature. If one is interested in going to the depths of this field , one can follow these tips:

1) Be curious- Curiosity kills fear more than courage will ever do.

2) Be patient- Good things take time.

3) Seek knowledge and wisdom- Your soul is most happy when you are in a learning state.

4) Be truthful- A scientist must always be truthful to herself/himself and to the world. Truth is the ultimate thing that a being chases.

5) Be fearless- Know in your mind that you are as old as this Universe and there is nothing to be afraid of because we all are essentially same at the root level.

Always be hopeful because somewhere in this vast universe something incredible is waiting to be known.

Should more money be spent on space exploration?

Poverty still rising all over the world, COVID-19 pandemic made it even worse. About 1.89 billion people, or nearly 36% of the world’s population, lived in extreme poverty. Nearly half the population in developing countries lived on less than $1.25 a day. Why should we spend money on space exploration when we already have so many problems here on Earth? Is it really that important? It’s like What if our ancestors thought that it would be a waste of time to figure out agriculture while we can do hunting? Or why should we spend so much time on exploring new lands while we have so many problems in our land? Each year, space exploration contributes to a lot of innovations on earth. It gave answers to many fundamental questions about our existence, and a lot of questions there to be answered if only we could increase our investment on space exploration. NASA’s annual budget is 23 billion dollars but, its only 0.1% of the total revenue. even if we were to increase the international budget 20 times it would only be a small fraction of GDP. isn’t our future worth a quarter of a percent?

“That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind”.

Benefits of space exploration:

    Improves our day to day life

       Since 1969, Neil Armstrong became the first human to ever set foot on moon, our interest in science and technology has improved a lot. In 22nd February 1978, US space agency launched the first satellite for its program of global positioning system (GPS). Currently there are 31 global positioning system (GPS) satellites orbiting the earth.Space exploration helped us to create many inventions like television, camera phones, internet, laptops, LED’s, wireless gadgets, purifying system of water and many more that we are using in our day to day life. There are nearly 3,372 active satellites providing information on navigation, business & finance, weather, climate and environmental monitoring, communication and safety.

   Improving health care

       The international space station plays a vital role in health and medical advancements. The Astronauts who works on the ISS able to do experiments that aren’t possible on earth due to the difference in the gravity. The project of Exomedicine – the study of medicine and micro-gravity, gravity has an effect on a molecular level so working in an environment where it can be eliminated from the equation allows discoveries that would otherwise be impossible. Medical advancements due to space exploration include,

  • Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cardiovascular diseases
  • Treatment of chronic metabolic disorders
  • Better understanding of osteoporosis
  • Improvements in Breast cancer detection
  • Programmable pacemakers
  • Laser angioplasty
  • NASA’s device with Space technology for Asthma
  • ISS plays vital role in vaccine development
  • Early detection of immune changes prevents shingles
  • Development of MRI s and CT or CAT Scans
  • And invention of ear thermometers
Proxima Centauri b is an exoplanet orbiting the red dwarf star Proxima Centauri

Need for space colonization

       Overpopulation is one of the major crises in our planet. Currently we have 7.8 billion people alive on earth. Experts predict that there will be 9.7 billion people by 2050 and 11 billion by 2100, our earth can carry only 9 billion to 12 billion people with the limited food and freshwater resources. That means we have to find an exoplanet with suitable conditions soon. We already went to moon 6 times, we already sent a rover to Mars. Robotic missions are cost efficient, but if one is considering the future of human race we have to go there ourselves. Elon Musk announced that SpaceX is going to send people to Mars I 2022. NASA planned to make a colony on Mars by 2030. These missions are not something we need at this moment. But it may play an important role on our future. Proxima Centauri b is an exoplanet which is 4.24 light years away from us. With our current technology, it is impossible to reach it in our lifetime. But we should make it as an aim for interstellar travel over the next 200 to 500 years. Stephen hawking said that the human race has existed as a separate species for about 2 million years. Civilization began about 10,000 years ago, and the rate of development has been steadily increasing. If the human race is to continue for another million years, we will have to boldly go where no one has gone before.

The day we stop exploring is the day we commit ourselves to live in a stagnant world, devoid of curiosity, empty of dreams. –Neil deGrasse Tyson

BLACK HOLE

BY: VAIBHAVI MENON

A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing—no particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light—can escape from it. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of no escape is called the event horizon. Although it has an enormous effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it, according to general relativity it has no locally detectable features. In many ways, a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light. Moreover, quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, making it essentially impossible to observe directly.

Objects whose gravitational fields are too strong for light to escape were first considered in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre-Simon Laplace. The first modern solution of general relativity that would characterize a black hole was found by Karl Schwarzschild in 1916, and its interpretation as a region of space from which nothing can escape was first published by David Finkelstein in 1958. Black holes were long considered a mathematical curiosity; it was not until the 1960s that theoretical work showed they were a generic prediction of general relativity. The discovery of neutron stars by Jocelyn Bell Burnell in 1967 sparked interest in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality. The first black hole known as such was Cygnus X-1, identified by several researchers independently in 1971. Black holes of stellar mass form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed, it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form. There is consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies.

The presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with electromagnetic radiation such as visible light. Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an external accretion disk heated by friction, forming quasars, some of the brightest objects in the universe. Stars passing too close to a supermassive black hole can be shred into streamers that shine very brightly before being “swallowed.” If there are other stars orbiting a black hole, their orbits can be used to determine the black hole’s mass and location. Such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars. In this way, astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in binary systems, and established that the radio source known as Sagittarius A*, at the core of the Milky Way galaxy, contains a supermassive black hole of about 4.3 million solar masses.

Hobbies

Hobbies are very common. Everyone have their own priorities and likes regarding the hobbies. My hobby is listening to the music.

Listening to songs is such a nice thing. Every individual starts listening to the songs when he or she is addicted to them and really cannot come out of it. The music the songs will change the mood of the person. The songs in the musical interrelated with the human beings.

It is so important to prioritize the positive things in and around us in the life. One of the positive things is the music. Music makes Man convertible. Whatever the situation may be, it it helps the individual to come out of the situation and also to move one and into a new situation. The music you listen motivates life. The lyrics in this song will motivate the individual and help the individual at anytime.

It is very important for an individual to prioritize the music and the songs in the life. Because the songs or the music helps the individual to feel stress-free. It also helps the individual to relieve the tension and all the depression he or she had.

Music is described for every emotion. Every emotion is described in its own way in mmusic. Every emotion is clearly explained by the respected song.

Hobbies can often also be very expensive. Luckily, there are still lots of cheap and even free hobbies that are fun, educational and rewarding.


Here some of fun and low-cost hobbies


DIY :
Buy a book on DIY and start on anything that needs fixing around your house, make your own clothes or give your friends self-made presents.


WRITE A THEMED LIST, AND WORK THROUGH IT :
Make a list of things you want to do or see. It could be anything from films you want to watch to local places you want to visit. Try to work through your list in a month.

WATCH ONLINE DOCUMENTARIES :


You can find lots of free documentaries on the websites of Tv channels, or even on youtube covering hundreds of subjects, such a history or the ocean. You could also finally watch your favourite actor’s ,author’s or musician’s biography.

LEARN NEW THINGS :
Educating yourself doesn’t have to be boring. What are you passionate about? It could be science , the oceams or even horror films. Google your interests and become a knowledgeable as you can about your passions.

GO CAMPING :


Try going caming with your friends during the weekend. All you need is a tent, some snacks, and drinks. If you dont live near woods or a forest, you can even try camping in your back garden.

DISCOVER NEW MUSIC :


Look for new music on music websites or youtube or spotify by searching for your favouirte genre. You could find a band you love.

LEARN HOW TO COOK :


cooking is a useful life skill as well as a fun way to spebd your time. Invest in cheap ingredients and learn how to cook all of your favourite meals.

TRY DRAWING :


Drwaing is a really enjoyable way of expressing yourself. There are lots of different ways to draw, from painting to sketchibg to doodling, so choose one you are comfortable with and give it a go!


START INVESTING :


Investing is a great way to earn some extra money, just make sure you do your research properly when you first start.you don’t have to invest large sums, but small ones will be just as rewaeding if you have a plan.

WRITING :

Writing is one of the chepest ways to have fun. From blogging to trying your hand on a book, there are lots of different ways to enjoy writing. All you need is a pencil and paper to get started.PLAYING CARDS :
Invite some friends over , and get a pack of cards. There are hundreds of different games. You can play with cards and a pack is fairly cheap.

LEARN TO DANCE :


This hobby is great for your body and enjoyable pastime. Use youtube vidros and tutorials to teach yourself new dance moves.


READING :


Reading is a great way to exercise your mind.you can choose to lose yourself in a fictional world, learn more about your own world, or read the autobiography of someone you adimre. If you decide to pick reading up as a hobby, consider getting a library card for your local library.


Remember , the secret of life, happiness and fulfillment is simple: ” Find three hobbies you love: one to make you money, one to keep you in shape, abd one to be creative” .

Is Pluto a planet or not?

Pluto – which is smaller than Earth’s Moon – has a heart-shaped glacier that’s the size of Texas and Oklahoma. This fascinating world has blue skies, spinning moons, mountains as high as the Rockies, and it snows – but the snow is red.

Soon after Pluto was discovered in 1930, it was designated a planet, the ninth in our solar system. After Pluto was discovered, many astronomers presumed it to have been responsible for the perturbations they have observed in Neptune’s orbit. It was these perturbations that actually prompted the search for a planet beyond it. However, further observations determined that it was smaller than initially assumed. Also, after American astronomer James Christy discovered Pluto’s largest moon, Charon, in 1978, astronomers were able to determine Pluto’s mass and realized that it was a lightweight and didn’t exert a gravitational influence powerful enough to have induced the observed perturbations. Pluto was found to be smaller and less massive than all the other planets. Moreover, its orbit is highly inclined (17 degrees) relative to the ecliptic, the plane defined by Earth’s orbit around the Sun. The other planetary orbits have smaller inclinations.     

As telescopes got bigger and better, and were able to take clearer pictures of distant bodies like Pluto, astronomers began to suspect that Pluto was much, much smaller than the other planets. By the time the second Kuiper Belt object was discovered in 1992, astronomers knew that Pluto was even smaller than Earth’s moon, but it had been called a planet for so long that it retained its planetary status.

Astronomers had also known for decades that Pluto’s orbit actually crosses Neptune’s orbit. None of the other planets cross each other’s orbits, so why was Pluto’s orbit different?

Over the next few years, dozens and then hundreds more Kuiper Belt objects were discovered by astronomers, until finally, in 2005, astronomer Mike Brown discovered Eris, which is even bigger than Pluto.

  

In the early 21st century, astronomers were finding bodies of comparable size beyond Pluto, such as Sedna, Eris, Makemake, and others. These discoveries prompted the question: should the IAU confer planetary status on all these other worlds? In August 2006, the IAU convened its triennial meeting in Prague. Toward the end of this meeting, they voted on the adoption of Resolution 5A: “Definition of ‘planet.” By this newly adopted definition, a body has to fulfill three requirements to be designated a planet. First, a body has to have established a stable orbit around the Sun. Thousands of bodies meet this condition. Secondly, a body has to have developed a spheroidal shape. When a body is sufficiently large and massive, gravity will mold it into a spheroid. Pluto fulfills this condition. Third, and finally, the body has to have cleared its debris field. It has to be sufficiently massive so as to incorporate all proximate objects into it. Pluto fails on this condition, as its orbit passes close to or even within the Kuiper Belt, a region from which short periods comets originate. By adopting resolution 5A, the IAU demoted Pluto, firmly established the other eight planets as planets, and disqualified all the bodies beyond Pluto, all in one fell swoop.    
 
Although the recent observations by the New Horizons craft has shown us that Pluto is larger, more geologically dynamic, and contains a thicker atmosphere than once believed, it still doesn’t fulfill the third condition within Resolution 5A. The IAU will have to adopt a revised definition of planet in order to confer planetary status back onto Pluto.

Of course, some defiantly maintain that Pluto is still a planet and no resolution shall induce us to change our minds. 

Expansion of Space

When scientists talk about the expanding universe, they mean that it has been growing ever since its beginning with the Big Bang.

The galaxies outside of our own are moving away from us, and the ones that are farthest away are moving the fastest. This means that no matter what galaxy you happen to be in, all the other galaxies are moving away from you.

However, the galaxies are not moving through space, they are moving in space, because space is also moving. In other words, the universe has no center; everything is moving away from everything else. If you imagine a grid of space with a galaxy every million light years or so, after enough time passes this grid will stretch out so that the galaxies are spread to every two million light years, and so on, possibly into infinity.

The universe encompasses everything in existence, from the smallest atom to the largest galaxy; since forming some 13.7 billion years ago in the Big Bang, it has been expanding and may be infinite in its scope. The part of the universe of which we have knowledge is called the observable universe, the region around Earth from which light has had time to reach us.

One famous analogy to explain the expanding universe is imagining the universe like a loaf of raisin bread dough. As the bread rises and expands, the raisins move farther away from each other, but they are still stuck in the dough. In the case of the universe, there may be raisins out there that we can’t see any more because they have moved away so fast that their light has never reached Earth. Fortunately, gravity is in control of things at the local level and keeps our raisins together.

Who Figured This Out?

The American astronomer Edwin Hubble made the observations in 1925, proving that there is a direct relationship between the speeds of distant galaxies and their distances from Earth.   The observation that galaxies are moving away from the Earth at speeds proportional to their distance has traditionally been known as Hubble’s Law, although it should be noted that, in 2018, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) voted to recommend amending the name to the Hubble–Lemaître law,  in recognition of the contributions of both Hubble and the  Belgian astronomer Georges Lemaître to the development of modern cosmology.

The Hubble Space Telescope was named after Edwin Hubble, and the single number that describes the rate of the cosmic expansion, relating the apparent recession velocities of external galaxies to their distance, is called the Hubble Constant.

Is the Universe Infinite?

It might be easier to explain about the beginning of the universe and the Big Bang Theory, than to talk about how it will end. It is possible that the universe will last forever, or it may be crushed out of existence in a reverse of the Big Bang scenario, but that would be so far in the future that it might as well be infinite. Until recently, cosmologists (the scientists who study the universe) assumed that the rate of the universe’s expansion was slowing because of the effects of gravity. However, current research indicates that the universe may expand to eternity. But research continues and new studies of supernovae in remote galaxies and a force called dark energy may modify the possible fates of the universe.

Renewable resources .

Replacing traditional sources of energy completely with renewable energy is going to be a challenging task. However, by adding renewable energy to the grid and gradually increasing its contribution, we can realistically expect a future that is powered completely by green energy.

– Tulsi Tanti

A way to live a new life . Without any destruction , without worrying about the future . Live a life where we can grow together , develop a life with renewable resources.

Introduction

A renewable resource, also known as a flow resource, is a natural resource which will replenish to replace the portion depleted by usage and consumption, either through natural reproduction or other recurring processes in a finite amount of time in a human time scale.

When such recovery rate of resources is unlikely to ever exceed a human time scale, these are called perpetual resources. Renewable resources are a part of Earth’s natural environment and the largest components of its ecosphere. A positive life-cycle assessment is a key indicator of a resource’s sustainability.

Renewable resources are an energy source that cannot be depleted and are able to supply a continuous source of clean energy.

Renewable resources also produce clean energy, meaning less pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to climate change.

Examples of renewable resources.

  • Biomass .
  • Biogas.
  • Tidal Energy.
  • Wind Energy.
  • Geothermal Energy.
  • Radiant Energy.
  • Hydro Electricity.
  • Compressed Natural Gas.

Types of renewable resources.

1) Solar energy. Sunlight is one of our planet’s most abundant and freely available energy resources. 2) Wind energy. Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. 3) Hydro energy.
4) Tidal energy.
5) Geothermal energy. 6) Biomass Energy.

Impact of renewable resources.

Environmental impact

Renewable energy projects have also contributed in improving environmental impacts such as reduction of carbon dioxide gas, awakening community about the climate change. The study observed very small impacts on the people living in a particular area, tourism, cost of energy supply, and educational impacts. Significant impacts were observed in improvement of life standard, social bonds creation, and community development. They also observed that the renewable energy projects are complex to install and are local environmental and condition sensitive. Their forecasting, execution, and planning require more consideration and knowledge as compared to other projects.

Social impact

These resources also provide social benefits like improvement of health, according to choice of consumer, advancement in technologies, and opportunities for the work, but some basic considerations should be taken for the benefit of humans, for example, climate conditions, level of education and standard of living, and region whether urban or rural from agricultural point of view. Social aspects are the basic considerations for the development of any country. The following social benefits can be achieved by renewable energy systems: local employment, better health, job opportunities, and consumer choice.

Advantages of renewable resources.

  • Renewable energy won’t run out.
  • Maintenance requirements are lower.
  • Renewables save money.
  • Renewable energy has numerous health and environmental benefits.
  • Renewables lower reliance on foreign energy sources.
  • Higher upfront cost.
  • Intermittency.
  • Storage capabilities.

Conclusion

Renewable energy is becoming an important resource in all over the world . I do agree that people might exploit the resources for there own benefit . But the government is working on that aspect and trying to provide resources that can help our future households .

There are a lot of different ways of building a prosperous society, and some of them use much less energy than others. And it is possible and more practical to talk about rebuilding systems to use much less energy than it is to think about trying to meet greater demands of energy through clean energy alone.

– Alex Steffen

Link

Star Birth and Death

Star Birth

Star birth is, as the physicist Heinz R. Pagels (1939–1988) wrote in 1985, a “veiled and secret event.” Today, it’s well known that star formation takes place deep inside interstellar clouds of gas and dust in stellar crèches that were once impossible for us to detect. Only after the process is complete does the light from the newborn star manage to leak out and announce to the universe that a new star has been born. It’s a process that takes place in every galaxy across the cosmos, and one that has been going on since shortly after the universe was created some 13.8 billion years ago. With the advent of infrared-enabled instruments, astronomers have been able to peek into the clouds and learn more about this once-hidden process.

 It Starts in the Dark 

Star birth begins in a region of interstellar space filled with gas and dust called a molecular cloud. This process might ignite in a dark nebula, a cloud that is so dense that light can’t pass through it. Something happens to disturb the thick, slowly moving globules of gas and dust. Perhaps a nearby supernova sends shock waves through the cloud, or another star passes nearby. The action spins the cloud and compresses it. Molecules of gas and the dust particles are crushed together, and that action causes friction heating. More and more gas and dust is pushed into this hot core, which grows more massive very quickly. As it does, its gravitational pull tugs more material in, compressing what’s already in the interior. When temperatures and pressures get high enough, conditions are right for the process of nuclear fusion to begin in the core of this protostellar object. Molecules of hydrogen begin smacking together to form helium. That process releases energy in the form of heat and light, and that’s what powers stars. The birth of the star is marked by the moment when nuclear fusion begins. After that, the newborn star continues to heat up; in the early phase of its life, it has gas jets streaming away from its polar regions. These help dissipate the tremendous heat built up as the star forms. If the stellar newborn has enough material remaining around it, it’s possible that planets can form there.

Star Death

By the standards of a human lifetime, stars seem to last forever. Even the shortest-lived ones—the massive, hot OB stars—live for a million or so years. On the other hand, dense stellar objects called white dwarfs spend tens of billions of years dwindling down to become cold cinders called black dwarfs. As they go through their lives, stars fuse elements in their cores in a process called nuclear fusion. That’s what the Sun is doing right now. It’s on the main sequence, a phase where stars spend their time fusing hydrogen in their cores. When they stop fusing hydrogen, they leave the main sequence, and that’s when things get interesting.

Stars Like the Sun

When the core runs out of hydrogen fuel, it will contract under the weight of gravity. However, some hydrogen fusion will occur in the upper layers. As the core contracts, it heats up. This heats the upper layers, causing them to expand. As the outer layers expand, the radius of the star will increase and it will become a red giant. The radius of the red giant sun will be just beyond Earth’s orbit. At some point after this, the core will become hot enough to cause the helium to fuse into carbon. When the helium fuel runs out, the core will expand and cool. The upper layers will expand and eject material that will collect around the dying star to form a planetary nebula. Finally, the core will cool into a white dwarf and then eventually into a black dwarf. This entire process will take a few billion years.

Stars More Massive Than the Sun

When the core runs out of hydrogen, these stars fuse helium into carbon just like the sun. However, after the helium is gone, their mass is enough to fuse carbon into heavier elements such as oxygen, neon, silicon, magnesium, sulfur and iron. Once the core has turned to iron, it can burn no longer. The star collapses by its own gravity and the iron core heats up. The core becomes so tightly packed that protons and electrons merge to form neutrons. In less than a second, the iron core, which is about the size of Earth, shrinks to a neutron core with a radius of about 6 miles (10 kilometers). The outer layers of the star fall inward on the neutron core, thereby crushing it further. The core heats to billions of degrees and explodes (supernova), thereby releasing large amounts of energy and material into space. The shock wave from the supernova can initiate star formation in other interstellar clouds. The remains of the core can form a neutron star or a black hole depending upon the mass of the original star.

https://www.esa.int/kids/en/learn/Our_Universe/Stars_and_galaxies/Star_death https://science.howstuffworks.com/star6.htm#:~:text=%20The%20Death%20of%20a%20Star%20%201,helium%20into%20carbon%20just%20like%20the…%20More%20

Active Galaxies

An active galactic nucleus (AGN) is a compact region at the center of a galaxy that has a much-higher-than-normal luminosity over at least some portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with characteristics indicating that the luminosity is not produced by stars. Such excess non-stellar emission has been observed in the radio, microwave, infrared, optical, ultra-violet, X-ray and gamma ray wavebands. A galaxy hosting an AGN is called an “active galaxy“. The non-stellar radiation from an AGN is theorized to result from the accretion of matter by a supermassive black hole at the center of its host galaxy.

Speciality

Active galactic nuclei are the most luminous persistent sources of electromagnetic radiation in the universe, and as such can be used as a means of discovering distant objects; their evolution as a function of cosmic time also puts constraints on models of the cosmos. Many AGN lie at very large distances from us, at high redshift. In particular, the existence of very distant Seyfert galaxies giving off gamma-ray glows indicate such objects exist everywhere in the universe. 

Quasars!

 Quasars (short for “quasi-stellar radio sources”) are the most energetic and distant active galactic nuclei known. Astronomer Carl Seyfert (1911–1960) first wrote about these so-called “active galaxies” in 1943. Their strong emissions indicated something very energetic was going on the central cores. Eventually they became known as Seyfert galaxies.

Types of Active Galaxies

Active galaxies are characterized by the emissions they give off and whether or not they emit jets from their cores. Here are a few of the most common types.

Radio-quiet: very dim, quiet galaxy cores with radio quiet (for now) black holes; they may be bright and active in other wavelengths of light

Seyfert galaxies: medium-mass black holes accreting material and giving off x-rays and gamma rays 

Quasars: high-mass black holes accreting material; some emit radio emissions while others emit only optical light Blazars: high-mass black holes with a jet pointing toward Earth 

Radio galaxies: high-mass black holes with large areas that give off strong radio emissions and have massive jets streaming superheated material into space.These powerful jets appear to be moving faster than the speed of light—a property called “superluminal motion.”

Uses of Active Galaxies

X-ray emission from active galactic nuclei have given astronomers many clues about what is going on in these galaxies. Early X-ray observations of AGN showed fairly simple sources that could change brightness over fairly short timescales. Such variability pointed to emission coming from a fairly small area. The rapid changes, high energy output, and small volume all pointed to a black hole accretion powering these galaxies – it is one of the only things that can put out the amount of energy we see from AGN in such a small volume.

Since X-rays originate from very close to the central black hole, X-ray studies give us a unique view of the processes at work in the very center of the action. In some cases, higher energy X-rays have the ability to punch through gas and dust, so this is one part of the electromagnetic spectrum that lets us see into highly obscured AGN.

Like any other massive object, black holes can pull in matter that ventures too close. If there is enough infalling matter, it can form an accretion disk. This disk of matter surrounds the black hole and heats up, emitting X-rays. As matter makes its final plunge into the black hole, it is accelerated to high velocity, causing X-ray emission. Some of the infalling matter can also be funneled away from the black hole in powerful jets along the rotation axis of the disk. These jets are observed across the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus
https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/active_galaxies2.html

Astronomical Breakthroughs

The first scientifically minded celestial observers included people such as Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei, who began looking at the sky through telescopes they built. Galileo’s view of Jupiter in 1610 transformed our view of the planets. They weren’t just dots of light in the sky. They were worlds. Over the years, more and better telescopes have revealed double stars and nebulae in the sky, and their discoverers set out to figure out what these things were. The science of “natural philosophy” uses mathematics, chemistry, and physics to explain objects and events in the universe. Nicolaus Copernicus came up with the heliocentric solar system, with the planets orbiting the Sun. The laws of planetary motion developed by Johannes Kepler and the laws of physics devised by Sir Isaac Newton helped explain the motions of bodies in space.

Contributions of Famous Scientists and Breakthroughs:

Nicolaus Copernicus – He wrote De revolutionibus orbium coelestium(on the revolution of the heavenly sphere)(1543) in which he proposed the heliocentric theory.

Galileo Galilei– He was the first one to look at the sky with a telescope. In 1610, with a telescope, he watched Jupiter and discovered 4 moons(Galilean moons). He also observed phases of Venus and sunspots. He wrote On motion , Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems and  Discourses and mathematical demonstrations relating to two new sciences .

Hans Lippershey and Zacharlas Janssen (dutch-german opticians)- They invented the telescope(first to patent)

Johannes Kepler – He wrote Mysterium cosmographicum (latin for the cosmographic mystery)(1596) in which he defended copernican heliocentric ideas. In 1609, he published the first 2 laws of planetary motion. 

Kepler’s laws: 1. The path of the planets about the sun is elliptical in shape, with the center of the sun being located at one focus.

2. An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of the planet will sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time.

3. The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their semi-major axis.

Kepler’s Publications- Johannes Kepler published treatises about many topics. Here is a list of some of his other astronomy-related works.

1. Astronomia Pars Optica (Optics in Astronomy)

2. Astronomia Nova (The New Astronomy) 

3. Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo (Conversation with the Starry Messenger, an endorsement of Galileo Galilei’s observations)

4. Harmonice Mundi (The Harmony of the Worlds, in which Kepler describes harmony and congruence in geometry and presents his third law of planetary motion)

William Herschel– He deduced that the solar system is  moving, and saw martian ice caps. He created a deep sky catalog and double star catalog and catalogue of 500 nebulae, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae,etc. He discovered uranus (1781). He also discovered infrared light.

Caroline Herschel- she was the first woman paid to do astronomy and she discovered 8 comets.

John Federick William Herschel- He published the general catalog of 10,300 multiple and double stars, and The New General Catalog of Nebulae and Clusters(NGC).

Isaac Newton– He gave the famous three laws of motion. 1.The first law states that an object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion unless acted on by a net external force.

2]The second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body over time is directly proportional to the force applied, and occurs in the same direction as the applied force.

3]The third law states that all forces between two objects exist in equal magnitude and opposite direction.

He also gave the universal law of gravitation. He invented Newtonian reflectors- telescopes with reflecting mirrors.

Henrietta Swan Leavitt– She discovered cepheid variables(period of pulsation of star is related to intrinsic brightness of star), many other variable stars and novas.

Edwin Hubble– He showed that the universe was larger and beyond the Milky Way by showing that Andromeda was outside the milky way. He discovered the universe is expanding. He gave the hubble sequence of galaxy morphologies – spiral, elliptical, lenticular or irregular.

Einstein– He discovered the photoelectric effect, and  wave-particle duality. He published the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relativity.

Jocelyn Bell burnell– The first pulsar that Bell found is called PSR 1919+21, and its signal repeats precisely every 1.33 seconds.It was called LGM-1. 

Vera Rubin– She proved the existence of dark matter.

Clyde Tombaugh – In 1930, He discovered pluto.

Mike brown– He demoted Pluto to dwarf planet and wrote How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton’s_laws_of_motion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy