Tag: proteins

VACCINE TECHNOLOGY

BY DAKSHITA NAITHANI

ABSTRACT

The immune system is a system that operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week to keep assaults at bay and diseases at bay. The whole system is made up of organs, tissues, and a variety of cell types that work together to defend the body. Immune cells must be able to tell the difference between native and non-native cells and proteins. Microbial cells have antigens that serve as identifiers. Antigens can induce an immune response in the human body. Each species has its own set of characteristics. Vaccines function by inducing an antibody memory response in the body without producing illness. As a result, you build immunity without becoming sick. It must include at least one antigen from the target species to trigger a response.

INTRODUCTION TO VACCINE TECHNOLOGY

A vaccination, often known as an immunisation, is a biological substance that protects people from disease-causing microorganisms. They make advantage of our immune system’s built-in ability to fight infection.

They’re produced from the same pathogens that cause the disease. They have, however, been destroyed or reduced to the point that they are no longer a source of it. Certain medicines just contain a part of the microorganism.

This is why they work so well as medications. They don’t treat or cure diseases like conventional medications; instead, they prevent them. They deceive the immune system that it has been invaded by a real intruder. When real germs enter our bodies, the same thing happens, but you don’t become ill. If you ever come into touch with a pathogen, your immune system will remember it and eradicate it before it can damage you.

TYPES

Vaccines are made using a number of techniques. Various vaccine types need different techniques to development. Antigens can be used in a variety of ways, including:

These can be delivered by a needle injected into the human skin, or ingested orally or through the nasal route.

LIVE (CHICKEN POX AND MMR)

Attenuated vaccines can be made in a variety of ways. All methods involving the transmission of a virus to a non-human host result in a virus that can be recognised by the immune system but cannot replicate in humans. When given to a human, the resulting will not be able to proliferate sufficiently to cause disease, but it will protect the individual from infection in the future. Its protection outlasts that of a dead or inactivated vaccination in most cases.

INACTIVATED (POLIO VIRUS)

A pathogen is inactivated using heat or chemicals to create this sort of vaccination. Because destroyed viruses are unable to replicate, they cannot revert to a more virulent form capable of causing disease. They are, however, less effective than live vaccines and are more likely to require renewals in order to acquire long-term protection.

RECOMBINANT (HPV)

They have been genetically modified in a lab. This method may be used to duplicate a certain gene. The HPV vaccine may be tailored to protect against strains that cause cervical cancer.

SUBUNIT (INFLUENZA AND ACELLULAR PERTUSSIS) AND CONJUGATE VACCINES (HAVING ONLY PIECES OF THE PATHOGEN)

Subunit vaccines use only a fraction of a target pathogen to elicit a response. This can be accomplished by isolating and administering a specific pathogen protein as a stand-alone antigen.

Conjugate vaccines, like recombinant vaccines, are made up of two different components. The “piece” of microbe being supplied would not typically elicit a substantial reaction on its own, but the carrier protein would. The bacterium is not the sole cause of the disease, but when combined with a carrier protein, it can render a person resistant to subsequent infections.

TOXOIDS (DIPHTHERIA AND TETANUS)

Some diseases are caused by a toxin produced by bacterium rather than by the bacterium themselves. Toxoids are inactivated toxoids that are used in vaccinations. Toxoids are classed as killed vaccines, although they are sometimes given their own category to emphasise the fact that they include an inactivated toxin.

DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION

Vaccine development is a lengthy process that involves both public and private parties and takes almost a decade. Millions of individuals receive them each year, and the most of them have been in use for decades. Before being included in a country’s vaccination programme, they must undergo extensive testing to ensure their safety. Each vaccine in development must first go through screenings and evaluations to determine which antigen should be utilised to elicit a reaction. This step is completed without the use of humans. Animals are used to assess the safety and disease-prevention potential of experimental vaccinations.

STAGE 1

It takes around 2-4 years to produce and necessitates some fundamental research. Antigens, whether natural or synthetic, are identified by scientists and may help in disease prevention or therapy. Antigens might be virus-like particles, attenuated viruses or bacteria, weakened bacterial toxins, or other pathogen-derived substances.

STAGE 2

Using tissue or cell-culture techniques and animal testing, studies assess the candidate vaccine’s safety or ability to elicit an immune response. Animal topics include fish, monkeys, and mice. These studies give an idea of what to expect in terms of cellular responses in people. This period often lasts 1-2 years.

PHASE I TRIALS

The vaccine is administered to a small number of volunteers to determine its safety, confirm that it induces a reaction, and determine the optimum dosage. This round of testing is carried out on young, healthy adult participants. The goals are to determine the type and number of reactions generated by the candidate vaccine, as well as to assess the candidate vaccine’s safety.

PHASE II TRIALS

The vaccine is then given to several hundred participants to assess its safety and ability to elicit a response. Participants in this phase share the same traits as the vaccine’s intended recipients. Several studies are often undertaken during this phase to test various age groups and vaccination formulations. In most studies, a non-vaccinated group is included as a comparison group to check if the changes in the vaccinated group were due to chance or medicine.

PHASE III TRIALS

The goal is to assess vaccine safety in a large group of patients. Certain rare side effects may not have showed themselves in the low numbers of people tested in the first phase. Thousands of volunteers are given the vaccination compared to a similar number of individuals who did not receive the injection but received a comparator product to assess the vaccine’s efficacy against the illness. It is meant to protect against and to examine its safety in a much bigger group of people. To guarantee that the performance findings are applicable to a wide variety of persons, the bulk of phase three trials are conducted across various countries and different sites within a country.

PHASE IV TRIALS

Firms may conduct optional studies following the launch of a vaccine. The producer may do additional testing to determine the vaccine’s safety, efficacy, and other potential applications.

REVERSE VACCINOLOGY

Reverse vaccinology is the use of genetic information combined with technology to make vaccines without the use of microorganisms. It assists in the study of an organism’s genome for the purpose of identifying novel antigens and epitopes that may be utilised as prospective candidates. This method has been around for at least a decade. By unravelling the entire genomic sequence, it is possible to determine what molecules make up the genomic sequence. Without needing to grow the pathogen for a longer amount of time, candidate antigens can be discovered.

Reverse vaccinology has been used to create vaccines for meningococcal and staphylococcal diseases all over the world. Infections are caused by Staphylococcus bacteria, which can be found on the skin or in the nose of even healthy persons. The bacteria Neisseria meningitidis causes a serious infection of the thin covering of the brain and spinal cord.

PRODUCTION QUALITY CONTROL AND COMMERCIALIZATION

Vaccines are biological compounds that are frequently hybridised and complex to understand. They are made through a succession of manufacturing and formulation steps, with the finished product often containing a large number of component items. As a result, unlike a tiny molecule medicine, the finished product is impossible to classify. This needs a highly controlled production system as well as a personnel capable of performing such processes on a continual basis. Control testing takes over two years and occupies more than half of the time in the subsequent manufacturing process.

 STEP 1- PRODUCTION

Following clinical trials, when a vaccine reaches the pre-approval stage, it is evaluated by the applicable regulatory authority for quality, safety requirements.

STEP -2 MAKING

Businesses will create development plans for a vaccine on their own. Once a vaccine is approved, production begins to pace up. The antigen has been rendered inactive. All of the components are mixed to make the final product. The entire process, from testing to manufacturing, can take a lengthy time to complete.

STEP- 3 PACKAGING

It is then bottled in glass vials and packed for safe cold storage and transportation once it is produced in bulk. It must be able to resist severe temperatures as well as the dangers associated with international shipping. As a result, glass is the most often used material for vials since it is robust and can keep its integrity under severe extrinsic factors.

 STEP- 4 STORAGE

When it is excessively hot or cold, it loses its effectiveness and may even become inert. Vaccinations can be destroyed or rendered dangerous to use if kept at the improper temperature. Most vaccinations must be kept chilled between 2 and 8 degrees Celsius, necessitating the use of specialist medical freezers.

STEP-5 SHIPPING

They are transported out using particular equipment so as to maintain its integrity. Lorries deliver them from the airport to the warehouse cool room after supplies arrive in the market. New innovations have resulted in the development of portable devices that can keep vaccines cold for several days without the need of power.

QUALITY CONTROL

Once they are given out, authorities continuously check for – and assess the severity of – any potential side effects and responses from the recipients. Safety is a top priority, with frequent reviews and post-approval clinical trials reporting on its effectiveness and safety.

CAREER SCOPE

There are several prospects in vaccine research and development, clinical trials, vaccine manufacturing, and public distribution. These jobs are available at universities, companies, government laboratories and agencies, hospitals, and on the front lines of vaccine distribution all around the world. When different components of a project are handled by different groups at the same time in industry, greater teamwork is usually required, whereas a scientist in an academic lab may be a lone worker overseeing all parts of a project.

The balance between creative science and all of the business administration that comes with securing money, maintaining a budget, and overseeing other scientists or assistants is the most challenging aspect.

 Research allows scientists to work on a project that has the potential to have a direct influence on public health, whether it’s on a lab bench, a production line, or to support a clinical trial.

Signs you’re not getting enough protein

Protein is an essential part of a healthy diet and not consuming enough can cause serious health problems. Here is what you need to know about the signs and symptoms of protein deficiency and how much protein you need each day

As children, we often saw our elders fetch tins and boxes of “proteins” or “protein-rich” biscuits to add to the milk we drank. Almost all “energy powders” that were spooned into the milk we drank added proteins to our diets. Now, as grown-ups, we see serious bodybuilders and sportspersons, fitness enthusiasts, marathoners – all talking about the protein supplements that they take. 

What is the importance of proteins –

Protein is a complex macronutrient which are found in certain foods, such as animal products and legumes. In its most basic form, a protein is a string of amino acids that create the building blocks for the physical parts of your body, including muscles, bones, skin, hair, nails, and organs. Protein deficiency, also called hypoproteinemia, is usually tied to overall low protein intake.

Signs and symptoms of protein deficiency –

Protein deficiency can cause a range of symptoms, which can vary based on the severity of the deficiency.

In mild cases of protein deficiency – Increased appetite, weakness and fatigue

In moderate cases of protein deficiency- Muscle atrophy, brittle nails, hair thinning

In severe cases of protein deficiency-  Stomach bloating, liver failure, stunted growth and porous bones.

Causes of protein deficiency –

Protein deficiency is most commonly associated with malnutrition and an inadequate protein intake. The amount of protein you need depends on your age, health, and activity level. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) is a minimum of 0.36 grams per pound of body weight, so 54 grams of protein a day for someone who weighs 150 pounds. 

Who all are at risk of protein deficiency –

1. Adults who are aged over 50

2. People who doesn’t consume animal proteins. However, they still can get enough proteins from plant sources such as soy, pea, pulses etc.

How to increase protein intake –

  • By consuming protein rich foods like Nuts and seeds such as almonds, pistachios, cashews, and flax seeds
  • Legumes, such as lentils and beans 
  • Eggs and seafood, like fish or shrimp
  • Animal meat
  • Dairy products

The average adult under age 65 is recommended to take 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day. Therefore, someone who weighs 68 kilograms (150 pounds) should have about 54 grams of protein per day. 

CHEESE- introduction and production

Cheese is a most commonly used dairy product which is a product derived from milk. Cheese is available in the market in various textures, forms and flavors. It is basically the product of coagulation of milk protein, casein. Cheese is said to be a concentrated form of two major products i.e. Milk protein (casein) and Milk fat. Combination of these two results in the production of cheese which is very much liked by everyone nowadays.
The other ingredients of cheese besides milk are a particular, selective strain of a bacterium, a milk clotting agent and some amount of sodium chloride (to give a salty flavor).
Various types of cheese are present in the market which is basically due to the variation in its basic constituents. No new ingredient is actually added in forming the new type of cheese. Just a basic variation in the already present ingredients can help. Sometimes there is a need to add new additional ingredients which give rise to completely different variety of cheese. It has also been observed and noted that the change in any environmental conditions surrounding the manufacture and subsequent ripening of cheese also affects its manufacturing and thus type.
BASIC CHEESE MANUFACTURING PROCESS –
The basic cheese manufacturing process consists of 3 main stages – Curdling, Curd processing and ripening. All different varieties of cheese can be manufactured at different levels of manufacturing means some cheese can be made in the first step while some needs all the 3 steps to completely occur.

  1. CURDLING –
    It is the first and the most important step in the production of cheese. In this step, there is a separation of milk into solid curds and liquid whey. Usually, this step is achieved by the addition of acidifying (souring) agent in milk and adding the enzyme RENNET. The acidification can also be achieved by directly adding some acidic agent such as vinegar. But most commonly for this acidification purpose, a starter bacteria is used which converts milk sugars into lactic acid and without even the addition of any acidic substance, the acidification is achieved. The common starter bacteria which are used are from Lactococcus, Lactobacillus, or Streptococcus families. Swiss cheese requires the addition of Propionibacter Sherman, which is used to produce Carbon dioxide bubbles during ageing resulting in the hole like structure of Swiss cheese.
    Some fresh cheeses are curdled only the acidification process, but most cheeses require the addition of enzyme, rennet which sets the cheese as strong and rubbery. It also allows the curdling step at low acidity.
  2. CURD PROCESSING
    Till this step, the cheese has now set into a very moist gel. Some soft types of cheeses are essentially complete in the first step. They are just drained, salted and packaged. But from other cheeses, which are not been prepared in the single step, the curd is cut into small cubes which allows the remaining water to drain off from the individual pieces of curd itself.
    Some harder cheeses are then heated at a normal temperature which deliberately forces out the whey from the cut curds. This step changes the taste and flavor of the cheese. Apart from providing a salty flavor to cheese, salting has some other benefits also like it prevents cheese from spoiling, it drains out moisture and also it is used in firming he cheese’s texture in an interaction with its proteins. Different cheeses have different processes of getting texture.
  3. RIPENING
    Most of the cheeses are already prepared in the last step, some of which are not prepared yet are of harder varieties and more rubbery in texture which is completely attained in this step. In this step, the cheeses are left to rest under controlled conditions. This step is also known as AGING. This step may take several years to complete. As a cheese ages, the microbes and the enzymes secreted by them transform its texture and also intensify the flavor. This transformation is more of a result of the breakdown of casein proteins and milk fat into a complex mixture of amino acids, amines and fatty acids.

The origin of life-RNA WORLD?????

The origin of life depends on the singe question – How did early cells could have arisen?
Modern cells consist at a minimum of plasma membrane enclosing water in which numerous chemicals are dissolved and sub cellular structures float. It was thus believed that the first self-replicating entity was much simpler than even the most primitive modern living cells. Before there was life, and yes, Earth was a different place: completely hot and anoxic, with an atmosphere which was completely rich in gases such as hydrogen, methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and ammonia. Earth’s surface was like a pre biotic soup in which chemicals reacted with one another, randomly “testing” the usefulness of the reaction and the stability of the resulting molecules. Some reactions released energy and would eventually become the basis of modern cellular metabolism. Other reactions which occurred created molecules that could function as catalysts, some aggregated with other molecules to form the predecessors of modern cell structures, and others were able to replicate and act as units of hereditary information.
Proteins have two major roles in modern cells – structural and objective.
Catalytic proteins are called enzymes, in cells. Thus enzymes act as the workhorses of the cell. DNA stores hereditary information and can be replicated to pass the information on to the next generation. RNA is involved in converting the information stored in DNA into proteins. Proteins can do cellular work, but their synthesis is dependent on their proteins and RNA, and information stored in DNA. DNA can’t do cellular work. It’s only work is to store genetic information and it is involved in its own replication process which is a process that requires proteins. RNA is synthesized using DNA as the template and proteins as the catalysts for the reaction.
Based on these considerations, it seemed to evolutionary biologists that at some time in the evolution of life there must have been a single molecule that could do both cellular work and replicate itself. A possible solution to the nature of this molecule was suggested in 1981 when Thomas Cech discovered an RNA molecule in the protest Tetrahymena that could cut out an internal section of itself and slice the remaining sections back together. Since then, other catalytic RNA molecules have been discovered, including an RNA found in ribosomes that is responsible for forming peptide bonds – the bonds that hold together amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Catalytic RNA molecules are now called ribozymes.
The discovery of ribozymes suggested the possibility that RNA at some time had the ability to catalyze its own replication, using itself as the template. In 1986, a term was coined – RNA WORLD to describe a precellular stage in the evolution of life in which RNA was capable of storing, copying, and expressing genetic information. Also it catalyzes other cellular chemical reactions. This important evolutionary step is easier to imagine than other events in the origin cellular life forms because it is well known that lipids, major structural components of the membranes of modern organisms, form liposomes which are bounded by a lipid layer.