biotechnologist
Introduction If you were building a building, what kinds of connections might you want to put between the rooms? In some cases, you’d want people to be able to walk from one room to another, in which case you’d put in a door. In other cases, you’d want to hold […]
IntroductionConsider your cells to be nothing more than simple construction blocks, as mindless and immobile as bricks in a wall. If that’s the case, reconsider! Cells are able to monitor what is going on around them and respond in real time to stimuli from their surroundings and neighbours. Your cells […]
Interferons (/ntrfrn/) are a family of signalling proteins produced and released by host cells in response to the presence of a variety of viruses. A virus-infected cell will typically release interferons, causing neighbouring cells to boost their antiviral defences. IFNs are part of the cytokine family of proteins, which are […]
The RSAD2 gene encodes the virus inhibitory protein, endoplasmic reticulum-associated, interferon-inducible (Viperin), also known as RSAD2 (radical SAM domain-containing 2). Viperin is an interferon-stimulated gene that functions as a multifunctional protein in viral activities. Viperin can be produced by either IFN-dependent or IFN-independent routes, and certain viruses may employ viperin […]
Nucleosides are glycosylamines that are similar to nucleotides but do not contain a phosphate group. A nucleoside is made up of just a nucleobase (also known as a nitrogenous base) and a five-carbon sugar (ribose or 2′-deoxyribose), whereas a nucleotide has a nucleobase, a five-carbon sugar, and one or more […]
A nucleoside and a phosphate make up nucleotides, which are organic compounds. They are monomeric units of the nucleic acid polymers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), which are both fundamental macromolecules in all living things on Earth. Nucleotides are received from the diet and are also produced by […]
The Human Genome Initiative (HGP) was an international scientific research project that aimed to determine the base pairs that make up human DNA, as well as to identify and map all of the human genome’s genes, both physically and functionally. It is still the greatest collaborative biological effort in the […]
The phenotype (from Greek o- (faino-)’showing’ and (tpos) ‘type’) is a set of observable features or qualities of an organism in genetics. The phrase refers to an organism’s morphology, or physical shape and structure, as well as its developmental processes, biochemical and physiological features, behaviour, and behavioural outcomes. The expression […]
Epigenetics is the study of heritable phenotypic modifications that do not entail DNA sequence changes in biology. [1Epigenetics is defined by features that are “on top of” or “in addition to” the usual genetic foundation for heredity. The Greek prefix epi- (- “over, outside of, surrounding”) denotes traits that are […]
Aneuploidy is the presence of an aberrant number of chromosomes in a cell, such as 45 or 47 instead of the usual 46 in a human cell. A difference of one or more entire sets of chromosomes is not included. A euploid cell is one that has any number of […]
Genome instability (also known as genetic instability or genomic instability) is characterised by a high frequency of mutations in a biological lineage’s genome. Changes in nucleic acid sequences, chromosomal rearrangements, and aneuploidy are all examples of mutations. In bacteria, genome instability does occur. Genome instability is a key element in […]
Multiple myeloma (MM), also known as plasma cell myeloma and simply myeloma, is a cancer of plasma cells, a type of white blood cell that normally produces antibodies. Often, no symptoms are noticed initially. As it progresses, bone pain, anemia, kidney dysfunction, and infections may occur. Complications may include amyloidosis. The cause of multiple myeloma is unknown. Risk factors include obesity, radiation exposure, family history, and certain chemicals. Multiple myeloma […]
Plasma cells, also known as plasma B cells, are white blood cells that are produced by B lymphocytes in the lymphoid organs and express huge amounts of proteins called antibodies in response to certain substances called antigens. These antibodies are delivered from plasma cells to the target antigen (foreign substance) […]
B cells, also known as B lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell of the lymphocyte subtype. They function in the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system. B cells produce antibody molecules; however, these antibodies are not secreted. Rather, they are inserted into the plasma membrane where they serve as a part of B-cell receptors. When a naïve or […]
Antigen presentation is the process of a cell displaying antigen bound by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins on its surface; this is known as antigen presentation. These complexes may be recognised by T cells via their T cell receptors (TCRs). Antigens are processed by APCs and presented to T-cells. Antigens […]
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