Stand Up For Geert Wilders!

Geert Wilders, an outspoken critic of Islam, is facing criminal charges by the Dutch government for expressing his opinion. We must come to the aid of this great patriot. We owe it to Geert, to Holland, and to ourselves.

Holland was once the home to liberty’s founders and defenders. In the 17th century Hugo Grotius advocated religious tolerance and natural law. Holland gave haven to Spinoza’s family, after Holland gained its freedom from Spain and established a tolerant regime. In 1683, John Locke, fled to Holland where he found freedom and fellowship only to return to England in 1689 during the Glorious Revolution. Locke’s defense of England’s new liberal order would inspire the Americans in 1776.

Holland had played a key role in the world’s struggle for liberty. Sadly she is leading Europe’s decay into darkness. It started with the death of Pym Fortuyn and Theo van Gogh. It continued with its betrayal of Ayaan Hirsi Ali. The pace of Holland’s suicide has accelerated with the outrageous attempt to silence one of Europe’s brave patriots.

It must not be allowed to succeed. Speak out! Donate! Boycott Holland until it secures Geert Wilder’s freedom and safety.

I join with other freedom-loving writers on the ‘net: Jihad Watch, AOW, Caroline Glick, Pamela Geller, New English Review, Grant Jones, Gates of Vienna, Mark Alexander, Bosch Fawstin, Gandalf, John Ray, Robert Spencer, Robert Spencer, and Pamela Geller … more to come.

Update: The UK refuses Wilders’ entry because of his views are deemed unacceptable. Reports: Charles N. Steele, Robert Spencer, IFPS, Mary Jackson, Jerry Gordon, Gates of Vienna, Lawrence Auster, Pastorius, Mark Alexander, Opinionator, John Derbyshire, Glenn Reynolds, Andrew McCarthy, Stephen Brown, Bat Ye’or, Theodore Dalrymple, Mary Jackson, Andrew Ian Dodge, Mike McNally, and the MSM: UK Telegraph, Associate Press via the New York Times, BBC, National Post, Brussels Journal, the Spectator.

Update2: Esmerelda Weatherwax reports from London: Fitna is shown while filmaker is banned.

Update3: This is the speech that was banned in Britain.

Update4: WSJ – Britain’s Surrender to Islamists: “What makes this surrender of free speech and fairness — the most noble of British traditions — particularly depressing is its totality. All main British parties support the Labour government’s ban against Mr. Wilders — the so-called Liberal Democrats just as eagerly as the Tories.”

Liberalism flowed from Holland to England to America. It appears that liberalism’s end will follow that same path if we do not act.

Update5: Mr. Wilders goes to Washington: Pam Geller, Robert Tracinski, Robert Spencer.

What Makes America American

Von Steuben has some thoughts on the matter.

“Americans may belong more to the West than to Asia, but they are not Europeans, they are different. Nobody expressed this better than the great Prussian officer sent by the French to instill some discipline in Washington’s ragtag troops at Valley Forge in 1775. He was Baron von Steuben: ‘The genius of this nation is not in the least to be compared with that of the Prussians, Austrians, or French. You say to your [European] soldier, “Do this,” and he doeth it, but I am obliged to say, “This is the reason why you ought to do that,” and he does it.’”

I found this passage in Seymour Morris, Jr’s book “American History: Revised.” It is not blind duty but right reason that motivates the American, according to Morris. Here is another author’s take on the same passage:

‘Washington appointed him [Steuben] inspector general of the Continental Army in the hope that Steuben would shape his ragtag mass into a fighting force, and so he did, but not at all in the way that Washington had expected. In the manual Steuben wrote for this American army, the most remarkable theme was love: love of the soldier for his fellow soldier, love of the officer for his men, love of country and love of his nation’s ideals. Steuben obviously intuited that a people’s army, a force of citizen-soldiers fighting for freedom from oppression, would be motivated most powerfully not by fear but, as he put it, by “love and confidence”—love of their cause, confidence in their officers and in themselves. “The genius of this nation,” Steuben explained in a letter to a Prussian officer, “is not in the least to be compared with that of the Prussians, Austrians, or French. You say to your soldier, ‘Do this,’ and he does it; but I am obliged to say, ‘This is the reason why you ought to do that,’ and then he does it.”‘

This is from James R. Gaines’ “Washington and Lafayette” in the Smithonian Magazine. Here it is not duty imposed by the threats of an autocratic ruler but the shared passionate values that motivate the American to join his fellow citizens in their common cause: individual liberty.

While Steuben was being inspired by the American ethos, back home in Prussia, Immanuel Kant was arguing for the duty-bound ethics that Steuben found so typically European. Practical reason (ethics) was not to be instrumental; it was a categorial imperative, a duty.

Comments?

War Before Civilization

Rousseau famous thesis, that “peaceful primitive man” is corrupted by civilization, continues to permeate our culture and undermine our moral confidence. Anthropologist Lawrence H. Keeley demolishes this thesis in his book War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage. He shows that “prehistoric warfare was in fact more deadly, more frequent, and more ruthless than modern war.”

To come to this conclusion he had to fight his own prejudice—one shared by his profession. “Like most archaeologists trained in the postwar period, I emerged from the first stage of my education so inculcated with the assumption that warfare and prehistory did not mix that I was willing to dismiss unambiguous physical evidence to the contrary.” [p ix] “Weapons and armor” were dismissed as “status symbols and had only a symbolic function rather than a practical military one.” [p19] Social anthropologists, who encountered savage societies, declared that contact with civilization induced the transformation from a peaceful disposition to a warrior-like ethos. However, the overwhelming evidence was too great to allow this prevailing dogma to go unchallenged.

Keeley thoroughly reviews the statistics. Depending on region and means of classification he finds that 5%-13% of primitive tribes or bands are peaceful (meaning not engaging in raids or wars more than once a year). “Most peaceful groups [are] living in areas with extremely low population densities, isolated by distance and hard country from other groups…” [p 28] But “many small-band societies that are regarded by ethnologists as not engaging in warfare instead evidence very high homicide rates.” [p29]

“Truly peaceful agriculturalists appear to be somewhat less common than pacifistic hunter-gatherers… Low-density, nomadic hunter-gatherers, with their few (and portable) possessions, large territories, and few fixed resources or constructed facilities, had the option of fleeing … Farmers and sedentary hunter-gatherers had little alternative but to meet force with force or, after injury, to discourage further depredations by taking revenge.” [p31]

War is common to civilized states and primitive non-state societies but given the evidence of Keeley’s book “the only reasonable conclusion is that wars are actually more frequent in nonstate societies than they are in state societies—especially modern nations.” [p33] “From North America at least, archaeological evidence reveals precisely the same pattern recorded ethnographically for tribal peoples the world over of frequent deadly raids and occasional horrific massacres. This was an indigenous and ‘native’ pattern long before contact with Europeans complicated the situation.’ [p69]

What happens when primitive and civilized people clash? He has some startling conclusions. When numbers are equal, either side is likely to win. Civilized fighting, geared to wining battles against other nation-states, is a liability when fighting savages. “In most cases, civilized soldiers have defeated primitive warriors only when they adopted the latter’s tactics. In the history of European expansion, soldiers repeatedly had to abandon their civilized techniques and weapons to win against even the most primitive opponents. The unorthodox techniques adopted were smaller, more mobile units; abandonment of artillery and use of lighter small arms; open formations and skirmishing tactics; increased reliance on ambushes, raids, and surprise attacks on settlements; destruction of the enemy’s economic infrastructure (habitations, foodstores, livestock, and means of transport); a strategy of attrition against the enemy’s manpower; relentless pursuit to take advantage of civilization’s superior logistics; and extensive use of natives as scouts or auxiliaries. In other words, not only were civilized military techniques incapable of defeating their primitive counter parts, but in many cases the collaboration of primitive warriors was necessary because civilized soldiers alone were inadequate for the task.” [p74]

“Primitive (and guerilla) warfare consists of war stripped to its essentials: the murder of enemies; the theft or destruction of their sustenance, wealth, and essential resources; and the inducement in them of insecurity and terror. It conducts the basic business of war without recourse to ponderous formations or equipment, complicated maneuvers, strict chains of command, calculated strategies, time tables, or other civilized embellishments. When civilized soldiers meet adversaries so unencumbered, they too must shed a considerable weight of intellectual baggage and physical armor just to even the odds.” [p75]

Often civilized nation-states were helped by other factors. “These silent partners included viruses, bacteria, seed plants, and mammals that disseminated death and triggered ecological transformations that decimated native manpower and disrupted traditional economies. These insidious conquistadors spread far more rapidly and were many times more deadly than the human conquerors …” [p78] He concludes: “In the face of these facts, the claim that the superior tactics and military discipline of Europeans gained them dominion over primitives in the Americas, Oceania, and Siberia is so inflated that it would be comic were not the facts that contradict it so tragic.” [p79]

Keeley, also notes facts contrary to his thesis. “… it was common the world over for the warrior who had just killed an enemy to be regarded by his own people as spiritually polluted or contaminated… Often he had to live for a time in seclusion, eat special food or fast …” [p144] War is repulsive even to primitive man. “Yet if this worldwide revulsion had any real impact on social behavior, wars should be rare and peace common; instead the opposite is true.” [p147]. His explanation of this paradox isn’t convincing. Neither is his explanation for the rise of the neo-Rousseauian “noble savage” dogmatism that dominated anthropology for so long.

Lawrence Keeley is a man who has respects for the facts. To the extent that he is not an exception in his profession—he says he’s not—there is a silent revolution taking place within the academy. Even if one isn’t convinced of every generality, one has to appreciate the seismic shift in worldview that is taking place.

Cultural Genocide

As expected the European establishment is using the attack by Breivik to further suppress debate and criticism of the growing Islamic problem within Europe. They already deploy legal punishments for criticizing Islam (witness the trial of Geert Wilders) as well as other forms of intimidation. It is times like these that we should remember Kipling’s words:

If you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken 
Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools …

Many of my online friends and colleagues have seen their words used as excuses for a vile act they would never have imagined let alone condoned. There was no ambiguity in their words that lent them to such usage. The problems in Norway are real. The solution devised by Breivik was diabolical. It has no grounds in the works of the authors he cites. Indeed, many of the authors, in their comments section, have continually told the “let’s nuke ‘em” crowd to get lost. They were never welcomed in the halls of reasonable debate.

There are some ideas in Breivik’s 1500 page compendium that are unique to his thought. They shed some light on his desperation and delusions. This can be seen in his charges against the Norwegian establishment (section 3.2 and 3.5):

Aiding and abetting to cultural genocide against the indigenous peoples of Europe. Cultural genocide is a term used to describe the deliberate destruction of the cultural heritage of a people or nation for political, military, religious, ideological, ethnical, or racial reasons[1]. According to the ”United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples”[2] the cultural Marxist/multiculturalist elites of Europe (all category A, B and C traitors) are committing cultural genocide against the Indigenous Peoples of Europe.

The most basic human right is to defend oneself against deliberate cultural attacks or even an institutionalized cultural genocide of unprecedented historical proportions. It’s not just a right but a duty for all Europeans to defend oneself against such atrocities through armed struggle.

The term cultural genocide is key. This insidious concept is fully operative in Breivik’s mind in the way it was intended by the left–as morally equivalent to physical genocide. Let’s examine their usage before we see why Breivik makes it a driving factor.

David Nersessian writes in the journal of the Carnegie Council:

Collective identity is not self-evident but derives from the numerous, inter-dependent aspects of a group’s existence. Lemkin’s original conception of genocide expressly recognized that a group could be destroyed by attacking any of these unique aspects. By limiting genocide to its physical and biological manifestations, a group can be kept physically and biologically intact even as its collective identity suffers in a fundamental and irremediable manner. Put another way, the present understanding of genocide preserves the body of the group but allows its very soul to be destroyed.

It is very popular in Arab literature with regard to Palestinian Arab culture. Hanan writes:

In many ways, cultural genocide (which is also referred to as “ethnocide”, “sociocide” and “deculturation”) sets out to achieve the same goals as a physical genocide. As Professor Stuart Stein from the University of the West of England has pointed out, “the same objective, the eradication of a group of people differentiated by some distinct traits, such as ethnicity, race, religion, language, nationality, or culture, can be achieved just as effectively in the mid-to-long-term, by gradual processes, as it might be by their immediate physical liquidation.”

Also see this article for another example.

Cultural genocide is a double anti-concept. It is meant to pre-empt valid terminology and distort the debate. The concept of genocide is an insidious replacement for mass slaughter. The notion implies that the slaughter of large number of individuals is worse if the group is demographically homogeneous. By implication the slaughter of a heterogenous group is less severe. Americans, for example, can’t be victims of genocide. When have we seen the jihadi attacks of 9/11 refered to as genocide? The notion of genocide makes the collective ontologically primary. Individuals matter less.

Cultural genocide compounds the error. The mere passing away of a culture, by choice or by time, is raised to the significance of mass slaughter! Thus, when Breivik sees his country changing, it is genocide pure and simple. This kind of talk is poisonous. It’s no longer a nostalgic loss of old folksy customs that many feel when their children adopt new ways. It’s not the threat to fundamental philosophical values, which in a liberal order requires debate and refutation. It’s genocide: extinguishing a collective being. Breivik is striking out against a collective enemy regardless of individual complicity in this imagined crime. Reading between his lines you can hear: we must kill them before they kill all of us!

Closely aliened with cultural genocide is his notion of indigenous cultures. In section 2.78 he writes:

Rhetoric related to “indigenous rights” is an untapped goldmine which has currently been deluded and sidetracked due to “rhetorical contamination” from the US. If you use “white nationalist” rhetoric you are instantly placed in the same category as Hitler. This is not the case with rhetoric related to indigenous rights as this rhetoric is usually related to the Aboriginal or Native American struggles. Some of the reason why many nationalists reject the “indigenous” argument is because it is generally used by a group who has been defeated.

He sees his struggle as an indigenous rights movement for the collective survival of his group. He admits this tribal model is distinctly European and won’t apply to America. In the “Euro-US divide” he says:

However tempting to discuss US nationalism/conservatism, I’m not going to. The reason is that the fundamental factors vary too much. The European Americans aren’t the indigenous peoples of the US, the Native Americans are. In addition; there are more than 60 million Muslims in Western (25-30) + Eastern Europe (35) while only 9 million in the US.

His politics is what the left commonly calls “Identity Politics”. It has little grounding in the [classical] liberal thought which is common in the anti-jihadi writers that he cites. They are first and foremost alarmed by the illiberal nature of Islam. Breivik agrees with the problem but has adapted a collectivist solution that is obviously his own. He has stepped off into an imagined war of all against all. He is alone in this war as he deserves to be.

Let us not for a moment accept the guilt by association that is directed against the thoughtful critics of one of today’s greatest problem: the threat of Islam. This problem has to be discussed. If this becomes an excuse to suppress the debate even further, illiberalism will have won once again.

Update: Caroline Glick defines and defends the essentials of a liberal order. She ends with:

If the Left is ever successful in its bid to criminalize ideological opponents and justify acts of terrorism against their opponents, their victory will destroy the liberal democratic foundations of Western civilization.

I’d add that this would play right into Breivik’s hands. So would Daniel Pipes, as he explains here in his last six paragraphs.

Update: Wikipedia notes Breivik’s use of the concept of cultural genocide: “In the pre-trial hearing, February 2012, Breivik read a prepared statement demanding to be released and treated as a hero for his ‘pre-emptive attack against traitors’ accused of planning cultural genocide. He said, ‘They are committing, or planning to commit, cultural destruction, of which deconstruction of the Norwegian ethnic group and deconstruction of Norwegian culture. This is the same as ethnic cleansing.'”

An Amoral Nation

“Who are you voting for and why?” asked one TV reporter seeking the pulse of prospective voters in a pivotal state. Not a single person responded by citing political or ethical principles. The Romney voters didn’t point to the prospects of protecting individual rights, free markets, or the virtues of self-reliance. The Obama supporters were silent on redistribution, socialism, and the evils of capitalism. The average voter shows a complete lack of cognizance of principles–any principles. They expressed one overriding concern: who will give me “more stuff?”

It wasn’t always overt. Many talked about “sincerity” while others fretted that the candidates are “hard to believe.” A whole host of other character traits were bandied about in assessing which candidate can be trusted. But trusted to do what? In each case our fellow citizens weren’t concerned about the health of the republic–which only principles can insure. They merely wanted to know who will give them “more stuff” now.

There was a completely amoral tone that the permeated the conversations. And it reflects the campaign of both candidates. Obama is clear: he lists all the “free stuff” he’ll give you while making it clear you won’t have to pay for it. He’d fund it from the top 1-2 percent of high earners. You don’t have to work and earn it–as virtue would require. You’ll get someone else’s hard earned wealth–as expediency allows. Mere expediency is the antithesis of principle. If we can get away with expropriating others wealth for now, let’s do it. If they “go Galt” tomorrow … well, tomorrow will be another day.

What does Mr. Romney offer in return? In the second debate he assures us that the “top 5 percent will continue to pay 60 percent, as they do today. I’m not looking to cut taxes for wealthy people. I am looking to cut taxes for middle-income people.” You’ll still get the government goods and services but you won’t have to pay for it. We’ll still get the rich to foot the bill. No principle is cited and none can be detected. Why, then, would we expect to see the voter apply principles to make an informed choice? When it comes to the expedient of getting “free stuff” paid by the rich, who is more believable?

The choice of principle versus mere expediency is exemplified by the President’s addition of $5 trillion to the debt. If our nation was founded on the virtues of industry and frugality (as Ben Franklin would express it), then what could be more profligate than uncontrolled spending funded by overwhelming debt? Mere expediency allows one to weigh the pleasures of today–which are concrete–while downplaying the costs of tomorrow–which are not in sight. To quote our President, “We don’t have to worry about it short term.”

Prudence is another virtue prized by our founding fathers. Living beyond one’s means is recklessness. Excessive borrowing allows one the expedient of funding government services in the short run while deferring payments to the future. The President admits it: “Right now interest rates are low because people still consider the United States the safest and greatest country on earth, rightfully so, but it is a problem long term and even medium-term.” Actually, it’s the Fed that is artificially lowering rates but regardless of the cause we have what is known as a “teaser rate” that will someday reset higher similar to the reckless subprime lending that allowed borrowers to get low monthly payments with “teaser rates.” Let’s remember what profligate borrowing did to the private sector as we ponder what’s in store for the federal government. But “we don’t have to worry about it short term.”

Romney gets credit for making this a moral issue in the first debate. “I’m glad you raised that, and it’s a — it’s a critical issue. I think it’s not just an economic issue, I think it’s a moral issue. I think it’s, frankly, not moral for my generation to keep spending massively more than we take in, knowing those burdens are going to be passed on to the next generation and they’re going to be paying the interest and the principal all their lives. And the amount of debt we’re adding, at a trillion a year, is simply not moral.”

Bravo! Principles are long-term in nature. And Romney returned to enduring principles towards the end of his first debate when he said: “The Constitution and the Declaration of Independence. The role of government is to promote and protect the principles of those documents.” He discussed “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” but these principles weren’t deployed through out his first debate as arbiters of policy; and they were totally absent from the second debate. It was Obama, in the second debate, who said “I believe that the free enterprise system is the greatest engine of prosperity the world’s ever known. I believe in self-reliance and individual initiative and risk takers being rewarded.” Yet every policy he advocates takes us down the road to socialism. Principles are not slogans. They aren’t boilerplate rhetoric inserted to pay homage to our past. They must be deployed in the present. Each policy must be brought forth and judged in light of the principles. They must be the arbiter of one’s policy decision as one asks is this consistent with our fundamental principles or does this contradict our principles? Neither candidate employed principles in their analysis during the second debate.

If we are talking about the principle of self-reliance we must continually ask “who earn this?” and “who does this rightfully belong?” Instead the candidates only discuss “who gets more?” at the expense of the rich or future taxpayers. A virtuous person cares how they get their wealth. An honorable person aspires to earn it. Even those temporarily down on their luck can and usually maintain their aspirations to be productive members of society.

A candidate can prove they respect the principle of “self-reliance” if they defend the property rights of every individual who rightfully produced and earned his wealth. Obama contradicts this principle and Romney shies way from it. A candidate can prove they respect the inalienable right to life, liberty, and property, when they insure that every individual can freely act to further his life, run his business, spend his earnings, and live according to his deepest spiritual values. Obama believes in paternalistic government as he has increased “regulations” to the point of strangling the economy. It’s not clear what Romney believes anymore in this regard.

The questioners in the Hofstra debate, as those asked by the man in the street, show that people want “more stuff” whether they’ve earned it or not. If Obama was smiling during the second debate, it was because he knows he was in his element. Unless Romney explicitly names and challenges the crass amoral expediency implicit in “give me more free stuff now,” he doesn’t deserve to win. It is only the dying embers of the torch of liberty in the hearts of our fellow citizens that can save us next month. If we win that reprieve, we must revitalize our culture and re-establish the moral foundation on which our nation was built. No matter who wins, the fight doesn’t end on November 6th. It just begins.

Remembering as others forget

After reading articles on a dozen conservative websites, it appears that only one had something to say about the movement and religion that was the root cause of the attacks on 9/11. Here is the article by Brigitte Gabriel. Back in 2004 I doubted that conservatives could face the nature of a religious enemy. With a few exceptions that has become true.

The left suspended its usual criticism of religion because of the foreign nature of Islam and the multicultural imperative to praise foreign cultures while denigrating our own. For awhile there were exceptions. Four months after the attack, Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, in their book, The Age of Sacred Terror, argued that 9/11 terrorist attacks were purely religious:

But neither President’s necessary and useful political speech should obscure the realities of September 11: the motivation for the attack was neither political calculation, strategic advantage, nor wanton bloodlust. It was to humiliate and slaughter those who defied the hegemony of God; it was to please Him by reasserting His primacy. It was an act of cosmic war. … Only by understanding the religious nature of the attacks of September 11 can we make any sense of their unprecedented scale and their intended effects.

They clearly repudiated the central thesis of their book when they criticized Sebastian Gorka for the exact same idea saying that “religious doctrine is not their sole or even primary driver.” They were hoping to remain influential in academia and Washington.

The Islamic revivalist movement reached a climax in the creation of the Islamic State. This vivid example of pure Islam in practice was an embarrassment to Islamic apologists everywhere. Even the New York Times couldn’t help but report that ISIS was a salafi creation built on Saudi inspired Wahhabi Islam. Reporters are often the first writers of history. Sadly that history is now lost. History forgotten will be history relived.

Regional Planning

Region means a tract of land; any area; a portion of earth’s surface. Regional planning deals with the efficient placement of land use activities, infrastructure and settlement growth across a larger area of land than an individual city or town. Regional planning is a sub-field of urban planning as it relates land use practices on a broader scale. Regional planning deals with the planning of areas which constitutes both urban and rural areas. Urban planning, city planning or town planning concerns a city or a delimited urban area which covers a city or town, however a regional plan can have number of urban areas.

A ‘region’ in planning terms can be administrative or at least partially functional and is likely to include a network of settlements and character area. A region scheme usually covers more than one local government area. The content of the scheme may vary for each region, but they generally set out broad land use zones or policy areas and identify land required for regional purposes. Regions require various land uses; protection of farm land, cities, industrial space, transportation hubs and infrastructure, military bases and wilderness.

Integrating a much wider areas for overall growth of region is the purpose served by regional planning, planning for integration of rural area and the overall balanced development of the region. Fulfilling the needs of a backward region and providing higher order services for relatively developed areas. Strategies are formulated carefully to keep the goods and resources available to all the places as per their requirements.

Regional planning encompasses even larger area when compared to city planning, number of cities might be covered when considering a region but rural area remains at the core for which planning is to be done. Along with rural areas many lower level towns in addition to the villages witnessing transformation to towns also adds up to area for which regional plans is made. Regional plans can cut across the boundaries of different states.

Regional planning also helps in reducing the conflicts and competition for resources between cities in a region. Developing small towns or satellite towns helps in relieving the stress from higher order town thus increasing efficiency. Regional plans takes into account the economic, spatial and environmental goals and tries to address national level issues. Integrated development and critical analysis of functional linkages is one of the key to achieve the desired growth.

Unlike city planning where land use plans are prepared regional planning lays emphasis on policy for the region. Policies are them elaborated and objectives are formed which differ from area to area within the region. Regional plans are a must when cities start to influence development even in far places which might end up in under-utilization and wastage of resources without proper planning.

Polices have a larger and longer impact on the overall growth of region and might conflict with the land use plan or plan prepared for a specific city. Allocation of funds for different activities and different areas can also be taken up by the regional planning board/authority. Government intervention such as implementing a new scheme or policy for a region can also boost the growth perspectives and aide the policy prepared by regional board.

Reduced disparities help directly and indirectly by reducing forced migration, reducing trip lengths, providing better and more job opportunities in nearby areas, having the required services instead of letting them emerging randomly. A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) are also established to support the growth of a region and attract investments.

Regional plans take into account the existing condition of an area and all the surrounding areas. The urban area or the core area might have its own development plan in place for its growth and in such cases the existing plan is also taken into account. The existing plan helps in understanding the vision and growth of the existing urban areas and helps in formulating better policies for the surrounding area. Regional plan might help the existing urban area by decongesting it by catering to the need of satellite cities or developing nearby regions for industrial units.

City Planning & Regional Planning

City planning focuses on the land use plans, spatial growth and policies which are at local level (affecting that particular city or town), whereas in case of regional planning the emphasis on the policies is more. Those policies becomes the guidelines for the urban areas and their existing plans are modified accordingly. This helps in meeting the larger requirement of the whole region.

Additionally, regional plans cover more of national level policies and issues and strengthens integrated development. City planning looks as a limited area when compared to a regional plan. Regional plan covers rural areas and undeveloped areas too which are usually not covered in town plans. The categories, chapters, topics and aspects covered in both plans also differs because of the different needs and the existing developments. Village area, forests, undeveloped land and waste land might be completely missing from a city plans whereas it forms an important part of regional plan.

Importance & Need of Regional Plan

A city or any area might grow in size and hamper the development on its surrounding area. Over the decades it starts competing with the surrounding areas and this results in imbalance. It creates economic as well as functional misbalance in areas. Increases migration, decreases efficiency, results in undue waste of resources and might also find it difficult to meet its needs. To prevent such imbalance regional plans are very much required.

It helps in reducing disparities, promoting growth, promoting sustainable development, economic growth of collective region based on its potential. Also, issue of migration is also solved to an great extent because the required facilities are more evenly distributed rather than being concentrated in a specific urban area. These plans ensures a much better connectivity within the region and takes care of future growth.

Implementation of Regional Plans

Since regional plans covers various types of settlements they require multiple agencies working together for its implementation. This can be done in various manner, either forming a new development authority/regional board or giving this responsibility to an existing development authority. This newly formed body or the new department in existing development authority then works actively with various other departments. This is required because regional planners need to have a broad overview of the whole region. The plan formed needs to meet the requirement of whole region and at same time should also cater to the existing requirements.

Allocation of funds is another important aspect of regional planning as the funds are collected and received from various sources. There are various sources since the area covered under a regional plan is a part of various states and different administrative areas. Thus funding might be collectively from state government, central government, special allocation of funds and partially by its own means.

Objectives of Regional Planning

Economic growth
Attaining economic equality and social justice
Achieving full employment
Attaining economic self-reliance
Modernization of various sectors
Redressing imbalances in the economy

Principles of Regional Planning

Resist development in flood plains or along earthquake faults. These areas may be utilized as parks or unimproved farmland.
Designate transportation corridors using hubs and spokes and considering major new infrastructure.
Some thought into the various settlements in the region may play, for example some may be administrative with others based upon manufacturing or transport.
Consider designating essential nuisance land uses locations, including waste disposal.
Designate green belt land or similar to resist settlement amalgamation and protect the environment.
Set regional level policy and zoning which encourages a mix of housing values and communities.
Consider building codes, zoning laws and policies that encourage the best use of the land.

City Region

City regions are the products of relationship among various orders of cities and their surrounding areas. A city has its ‘dependents’ which are linked with it by virtue of their dwellers’ requirements fulfilled by the city’s various service-institutions. Dependent centres of a city are generally smaller in size and they do not possess those specialized services which are only available at the neighbouring city of higher order than the dependent centres.

Structure of City Region

The city region is an area around the city over which the city exercises a dominant influence in relation to other neighbouring cities of equal importance. This simplified definition of the city region raises a number of conceptual problems which need further elaboration. Thus, the structure of a city region consists of a series of areas of influence and areas of dominance, apart from sets of smaller city regions which nest within it. It is pertinent at this stage to examine three basic notions in relation to the structure of the city region: (i) the concept of area of city influence, (ii) the concept of area of city dominance, and (iii) the concept of the city region.

i) Area of City Influence

No city is independent. An independent city cannot exist. A city may be administrative, industrial, agricultural, and cultural or of any type; it must have its connections with the outside world. Similarly, areas outside a city are also not independent. They too somehow have to give and take and are not independent. The fact is that there exists mutual relationship between a settlement and area surrounding it. Sometimes, the relationship is concomitantly not restricted locally or regionally but it has its far and wide spheres of influence.

The areas of city influence are contiguous areas around a city from where people commute to the city to obtain certain goods or services. A cinema hall in a city may attract patrons from several villages around the city. The continuous area encompassing all these villages is the area of influence of the city with respect to entertainment through the cinema. Likewise, various institutions in the city such hospitals, colleges, schools and so on have their corresponding areas of influence. The areas of influence for different services and goods may cover smaller or larger areas around the city and their shapes may also differ. Thus it is possible to visualize a large number of service areas around a city.

ii) Area of City Dominance

In any landscape one would expect to find a number of cities of the same or similar importance, and the areas in between these cities are often served by more than one city. In other words, the areas of influence of neighbouring cities tend to overlap; thus generating a zone of competition in between .In the middle of the zone of competition one can define a boundary which separates the areas of dominance of the competing cities. Within this boundary, the city exercises a dominant influence – its influence there is greater than the influence of any other city. The area of dominance of a city is an exclusive area and is, therefore, of great significance in terms of territorial or regional divisions. Further, the dominant area in reality is dominant not only with respect to one or two services, but with respect to all services of equal importance. Thus, the area of dominance is a multifunctional area, while the area of influence is essentially a uni-functional area.

A city tends to exert a dominant influence over a small area in its immediate neighbourhood by virtue of the provision of specialized services. It must be borne in mind that there are several areas of dominance because a city possesses more than one service to provide around it. In case of India, majority of cities have no clear specialization in any one economic activity, but in reality they have diversification of several economic functions and services. This has resulted into several areas of dominance around a city. Each of the areas of dominance has its own hierarchical level. The largest of these areas of dominance forms the limit of influence of the city known as ‘city region’; while the smaller ones are known as areas of dominance

Each city generally forms the core of a larger area, and dominates the area by virtue of several service areas within it. The dominant area is actually the city’s spheres of influence. The area of dominance of ‘spheres of influence’ consists a number of single feature nodal regions within it. City’s area of dominance tends to wane gradually with the distance outwards from the city core. Finally, the dominance disappears at a point where the influence of some competing urban centre reaches.

Area of city influence and competition

iii) City Region

The areas of city influence and dominance are further complicated by the existence of a hierarchy of cities and urban places which give rise to sets of areas of influence and dominance, one within the other. The city region may be defined as the area of dominance of a city corresponding to its hierarchical level. However, the same city also performs functions of a lower hierarchical order. As a result, each city may have more than one area of dominance.

In fact, several areas of dominance fall within the city region in a concentric form. Similarly, for each hierarchical level we have a set of areas of influence representing each service or function. City-regions are becoming increasingly central to modern life and all the more so because globalization has reactivated their significance as bases of all forms of productive activity, no matter whether in manufacturing or services, in high-technology or low technology sectors.

City Regions in India

Major city regions

Maharashtra – Gujarat sector
Delhi nucleus
Kolkata – Howrah node
Chennai – Bangalore sector

Minor level city regions

Hyderabad – Vishakhapatnam
Kanpur – Lucknow
Jaipur
Nagpur
Patna
Kochi – Madurai sector
Coimbatore
Vijayawada
Ambala – Amritsar – Jullunder
Chandigarh
Agra

Rural-urban Fringe (RUF)

The rural–urban fringe, also known as the outskirts, rurban, peri-urban or the urban hinterland, can be described as the “landscape interface between town and country” This is found at the edge of a town or city and is where town meets country.

Rural-Urban fringe is an important concept in settlement geography. The rural-urban fringe is the boundary zone outside the urban area proper where rural and urban land uses intermix. It is the area where the city meets the countryside. It is an area of transition from agricultural and other rural land uses to urban use. Located well within the urban sphere of influence, the fringe is characterized by a wide variety of land use including dormitory settlements housing middle-income commuters who work in the central urban area. Over time the characteristics of the fringe change from largely rural to largely urban. Suburbanisation takes place at the municipal boundary of rural-urban fringe.

Increasing demand for land in the rural-urban fringe area because:

Land is cheaper – as the accessibility of the rural–urban fringe is lower than that of the inner city areas and most of the people have to travel to the inner city for work, fewer people are willing to live in the RUF. Thus the land prices are lower.
There is less traffic congestion and pollution – as the area is a new development in the outskirts, and the population living in the area is lesser than the inner city, the traffic congestion and pollution levels are lesser.
There is easier access and a better road infrastructure – as it is a newer development with a lot of space available.
There is a more pleasant environment with more open space – the amount of open space decreases with time as the extent of development increases, and so does the friendly environment.

Beneficial development in the rural-urban fringe area:

The rural-urban fringe is characterized by a mixture of land uses, most of which require large areas of land.

Housing developments as urban sprawl continue
Science and business parks
Hypermarkets and superstores
Retail parks and out of town shopping centers
Office developments
Hotels and conference centers
Airport expansion

Problems caused by developing the rural-urban fringe:

Large areas of the countryside may be lost
Buildings may be out of character with existing rural buildings. Thus the loss of aesthetic sense
Villages may become suburbanized
Traffic is likely to increase (both cars and lorries)
There may be an increase in pollution (noise and air)

Uses of Rural urban Fringe and its Impacts

Uses	Positive Aspects	Negative Aspects
Agriculture	Many well-managed farms and small holdings	Farms often suffer litter, trespass, and vandalism; some land is derelict in the hope of planning permission
Development	Some well-cited, carefully landscaped developments such as business and science parks	Some developments, such as out of town shopping areas cause heavy traffic flow and pollution. Unregulated businesses such as scrap metal and caravan storage. Airport expansion
Urban Services	Some areas such as reservoirs or cemeteries, may be attractive.	Mineral workings, sewage works, landfill sites, etc. can be unattractive and polluting
Transport	New cycle ways and footpaths can improve access to countryside	Motorways destroy countryside and promote new development, particularly near junctions.
Recreation and sport	Country parks, sports fields and golf courses can lead to conservation.	Some activities such as stock car racing and scrambling to erode ecosystems and create localized litter and pollution
Landscape and nature conservation	Many SSSI (Sites of Special Scientific Interest) and AONB (Areas of Natural Beauty)	Much degraded land, Eg. land ruined by fly-tipping; many SSSIs under threat

Think India Quarterly

Think India Quarterly is the journal of ideas published by Vichar Nyas Foundation. From the outset it has received enthusiastic support and encouragement from leading intellectual, artistes, scientists and eminent personalities in public life. Commemorative and special issues of this journal have become collector’s item. It has completed 12 stimulating years of regular publication and has carved a niche for itself among discerning readers at home and abroad.

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Think India Journal for Education

1 in 11 children go to work when they should be in school. When it is hard to afford necessities like food, shelter, and clothing; education becomes a luxury that the poor give up. Illiteracy then leads to further poverty. Donate for child education in India, support them with fees, school supplies, footwear, transport and opportunities to showcase their talents.

Girl Child

Close to 53% of girls in the age group of 5 to 9 years are illiterate. More than 50% of girls fail to enroll in school; those that do are likely to drop out by the age of 12. Sponsor the education of girl children. Support them with necessities like tuition fees, school supplies, footwear, and transport. Educated girls become empowered women who empower societies.

Primary Education

20 Million children in India do not go to school. Millions of children are still denied their right to education because of poverty. Donate for the education of poor children and support them with necessities like tuition fees, school supplies, footwear, transport, etc. Help them build a future that will make them escape poverty passed from generation to generation.

Mid-day Meals

38% of children in India are stunted. Inadequate nutrition is the leading cause of stunted growth. For India’s poor children, the mid-day meal at school is their only proper meal in a day! Feed our children and their hopes by donating mid-day meals to our starving children, so they don’t have to learn on a hungry stomach.

Extreme Need

Those in extreme need are usually socially excluded and face a lack of basic necessitates for reasons like living in underserved areas or social stigma of being affected with an incurable illness. Donate to those in extreme need and help them with resources like food, medical care, livelihood resources, sanitation, education, etc. to enable them to lead a normal life.

Under Funded

Donate to underfunded programs that are doing great work to provide the poor with necessities like food, shelter, education, senior care, and healthcare. These nonprofits are struggling to continue to help people as they are not receiving the necessary support. Help them with their efforts with your donations.

What is Importance of Participation

The planning system is meant to reflect the general wishes of the local community and there is a need on the local authority to consult widely during the formulation of a local plan and in the operation of the development. The fact that the council is made up of elected members ensures a certain level of representation, but wider public consultation is required. When a planning application is submitted the local authority publishes details in the local newspaper and, in some circumstances, a notice is displayed adjacent to the site. In cases of special sensitivity, individual households in an affected area might be asked for their opinions or there may be a small public exhibition.

However, in most cases, if members of the public wish to find out what is proposed they have to visit the planning department, request the material that has been submitted and examine it on the premises. They can then write to the planning committee if they have any objections. No matter what the scale of proposal, development control can be thought of as a process of negotiation: at its simplest, between the applicant and the local authority, with only rudimentary involvement by the public.

Characteristics of Participation

Although any given participation process does not automatically ensure success, it can be claimed that the process will minimize failure. It is a source of wisdom and information about local conditions, needs and attitudes, and therefore improves the effectiveness of decision making. It is a means of defending the interests of groups of people and of individuals, and a tool for studying their needs, which are often ignored and dominated by large organizations, institutions and their bureaucracies. With the goal of achieving agreement about what the future should bring.

Determination of Goals and Objectives

The planning that accompanies the design of any participation program should first include a determination of participation goals and objectives. Participation goals will differ from time to time and from issue to issue. Participation is likely to be perceived differently depending on the type of issue, people involved and political setting in which it takes place. If differences in expectations and perception are not identified at the outset, and realistic goals are not made clear, the expectations of those involved in the participation program will likely not be met, and people will become disenchanted. To address participation effectively, the task should conceptualize what the objective is for involving citizens. For example, is the participation intended to;

Generate ideas
Identify attitudes
Disseminate information
Resolve some identified conflict
Measure opinions
Review a proposal
Provide a forum to express general feelings

Planning for Participation

Once planners have identified the overall goals and objectives for the participation process, Planning for participation requires the following steps;

Identify the individuals or groups that should be involved in the participation actively being planned
Decide where in the process the participants should be involved, from development to implementation to evaluation
Articulate the participation objectives in relation to all participants who will be involved
Identify and match alternative participation methods to objectives in terms of the resources available
Select an appropriate method to be used to achieve specific objectives
Implement chosen participation activities
Evaluate the implemented methods to see to what extent they achieved the desired goals and objectives

All Individuals and interest groups should come together in an open forum. In this setting, people can openly express their opinions, make necessary compromises, and arrive at decisions acceptable to all concerned. By involving as many interests as possible, the product is strengthened by the wealth of the input. In turn, learning more about itself strengthens the citizens group. The Process is continuous and ever changing. The product is not the end of the process. It must be managed, re-evaluated, and adapted to changing needs. Those most directly involved with the product; the users, are best to assume those tasks. The professionals role is to facilitate the citizen groups ability to reach decisions through an easily understood process. Most often this will take the form of making people aware of the alternatives. This role also includes helping people develop their resources in ways that will benefit themselves and others.

A wide range of techniques are available to designers and planners. Some of these techniques have become standard for use in participatory processes, such as interactive group decision making techniques that take place in workshops. At the same time, designers and planners have effectively used field techniques, such as questionnaires, interviewing, focus groups, and group mapping, to acquire information. In general, many of the techniques facilitate citizens awareness of environmental situations and help activate creative thinking. The techniques can be classified as awareness methods, group interaction methods and indirect methods.

Spatial Standards for Planning

Planning Standards are formulated by the Town and Country Planning Department normally in the form of codes or regulations pertaining to space requirement, site specification, height, land use and other criteria required by the local authority for development of land or property These standards are applied during the planning/design stage of a project/preparation of layout. These standards are applied during the planning Normally in the form of codes/design stage of a project/preparation of layout.

With the idea of having a uniform standard for reference and adoption by town planners, architects and engineers in India, the Institute of Town Planners, the School of Planning and Architecture and the Town and Country Planning Organization, New Delhi, tried to evolve certain planning standards. Planning organizations, like the Delhi Development Authority, the Bangalore Metropolitan Planning Board and the Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organization have also adopted some standards in the preparation of master plans for the respective metropolitan cities.

When these standards are compared, it is observed that there is disparity between them and also between the standards adopted in India and those in other countries. Hence, an attempt is made here to evolve workable standards for reference and adoption by persons concerned with urban and regional planning in India. The list is not exhaustive and there is large scope for improving the standards, taking into consideration the latest techniques and theories. The role of architects and engineers in this task is also very important, as they have rich experience in evolving such standards in their respective fields of study. It is hoped that the start made by the Institute of town planners and other organizations would be continued and town planners in India would adopt uniform standards in their profession.

The proposed standards will be useful for ready reference by practicing town planners, architects, engineers, students and planning organizations including local bodies in their planning work. They will be of great help to those responsible for making policy programmes and recommendations on urban and regional planning and in developing town planning techniques on the ‘systems engineering’ method. In the absence of uniform standards, the authenticity of the standards adopted by any town planner in the country will be open to question. Hence, such standards, apart from being useful in the technical work, save the town planner from adverse comments and unhealthy criticisms.

Space planning is a complex process with many factors to consider. The principles of space planning involve satisfying a defined criteria on a priority basis – as a result, space planning is frequently about compromise. That being said, there is often more than one solution to planning out the space requirements of a building.

Basic principles

Residential – Good ventilation, health safety and comfort
Parking lot – Adequate allocation appropriate lot size
Public facilities – Catchment area, ensure facilities are provided for the public, equal distribution
Roads – Hierarchy are followed according to the type of road, ensure efficient transportation system development control, planning standard
Infrastructure – Adequate provision for sewerage treatment, electricity and water supply, provision depends on forecast of population
Recreational area – Adequate provision of recreational areas, accessible to all level of society, equal distribution of recreational area

Urbanization & Urban Development

City or Town is a place of urban living. Urban means an environment in which natural surroundings have been dominated by manmade or artificial surroundings, which man made for himself, or his working, living and recreation. As per the census of India, a place becomes urban if it has more than 5000 population, more than 75% of which are engaged in non –agricultural occupation and the density is more than1000 persons per sq.km.

Urbanization is the physical growth of rural or natural land into urban areas as a result of population immigration to an existing urban area. Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to this change.

The Causes of Urban Growth

Push Factors

· Lack of educational facilities

· Lack of job opportunities

· Lack of health facilities

· Lack of electricity and sewerage system

· Land lord system

· Inequality

· Low living standards

· Old traditions

Pull Factors

· Better and higher educational facilities

· Better and more of job opportunities

· Better health facilities

· Availability of electricity and sewerage system

· Better living standards

Global Trends in Urbanization

In 1960, the global urban population was 34% of the total; however, by 2014 the urban population accounted for 54% of the total and continues to grow. By 2050 the proportion living in urban areas is expected to reach 66%. Fig. 1.5 shows the change in the rural and urban populations of the world from 1950 through to projected figures up to the year 2050.

Urbanism started in the caves themselves, where people gathered for protection against the elements or for the defence against rival tribes. These places of communal living gave way to the village. The village was a by-product of development of agriculture in areas of adequate water supply and fertile soil. The village was also a sanctuary for the altar of their deity, a meeting place for assembly and a centre for trade. This environment became increasingly populated and resulted in urbanisation. With the development of diversified economy not totally dependent of food production attracted people into labour pool, providing employment in a variety of forms. This in turn brought about the enlargement of village or hamlets into towns and cities.

Urban and rural population of the world, 1950–2050

Population residing in urban areas in India, according to 1901 census, was 11.4%. This count increased to 28.53% according to 2001 census, and crossing 30% as per 2011 census, standing at 31.16%. In 2017, the numbers increased to 34%, according to The World Bank. The data shows that Goa is the most urbanised state with 62.17% of the population living in urban areas. But if one goes by geographical area and total population, Tamil Nadu is the most urbanised state. In Kerala, 47.72% of people live in urban areas and in Maharashtra 45.23%.

Factors that influence in the development and growth of urban areas

· Population density

· Density of physical development

· Possession of formal plan

· Proportion of inhabitants engaging in non agricultural occupation

· Functional characters

· Services

· Political or legal, administrative

· Life style

Causes of urbanization

· Economic development

· Industrialization

· Job opportunities

· Availability of easy transportation

· Agglomeration economics

· Political, cultural and social influences

Problems of Urbanization

· Pressure on resources and social services Eg. Water, transport, health and education

· More unemployment

· Increased crime rate, especially since the typical migrant may be young, unskilled or inexperienced

· Development of slums (ghettos) due to inadequate housing. This will add to the problem of pollution

· Traffic congestion

· Competition on limited resources

· Noise pollution

· Epidemics

· High levels of stress

· Poverty

· Air quality worsens

Solution to problems of urbanization

· Limit the size of cities by setting boundaries and controlling population size

· Put a stop to using agricultural lands for non-agricultural purposes such as housing

· Develop the rural areas by providing recreation, education, health care and other social services

· Develop basic infrastructure in the rural areas eg. roads, water and electricity

· Encourage rural population to participate in community activities and use community facilities

· Create jobs in rural areas by building more factories to employ more people

JNNURM (Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission) is the first massive urban development programme in India and has established the foundation for large-scale central assistance to the urban sector. It was launched as a reform-driven and fast-track programme to catalyze planned development of identified cities. The programme has been operating in mission mode by facilitating large scale investments in the urban sector and policy and institutional reforms, leading to sustainable socio-economic growth in cities. The mission has sought to achieve this by integrating the development of infrastructure services and accelerating the flow of investment into urban infrastructure; through planned development, redevelopment and renewal of cities, inner-city areas, peri-urban areas, outgrowths, urban corridors and through universal service delivery for the urban poor. A number of urban projects were sanctioned under JNNURM during 2005–2014, and central assistance of approximately 48,000 crore INR was committed during this period through the mission. During 2014–15, the central government launched four new schemes to expedite urban infrastructure and service provision and replace JNNURM. These schemes are the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), focusing on water supply and sewerage improvement; Smart Cities Mission (SCM), aimed at developing smart solutions for selected urban areas; Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), focused on waste management and sanitation; and Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY), for addressing the development of heritage cities.

Modern Town Planning in India

In India, the various states have passed town planning act to enforce town planning activity. The main source of all these town planning acts are the English Town Planning Act of 1909, the main provision in this act is that local authorities are given power to prepare and to enforce town planning schemes on open lands in the city and on its fringe.

For the purpose of looking after the planning and execution of new parts within metro-centres, various organizations such as DDA (Delhi Development Authority), CIDCO (City and Industrial Development Corporation), CMPO (Calcutta Metropolitan Planning Organization), HUDCO (Housing and Urban Development Corporation), etc., are set up by the government.In addition to local authorities, the State Government is empowered to declare urban development areas and to set up urban development authorities for such areas. Such authorities are given the following powers.

To prepare development plans for the urban areas.
To prepare town planning schemes.
To carry out surveys in the urban development area.
To guide, direct and assist the local authority in urban development.
To control development activities according to the plan.
To execute work in connection with supply of water, disposal of sewage.
To enter into contracts and agreements with local authority and organizations.

Socio – Economic Aspects of Town Planning

The town planning is desirable if its adoption leads to better utilization of the resources of the community. Hence, for any given size, the best planned town is one where the aggregate land values are at a maximum. Thus, economically, the best town plan will lead to the highest aggregate land values. While adopting the land values condition, the following factors are to be considered for assessing the economic worth of town planning.

Change in quantity of resource
Demand for goods and services
Production techniques
Redistribution of land values

The economic advantages offered by urban way of life are enormous. But at the same time, urban growth is not smooth and there are many difficulties that prevent the town from making maximum contribution to national economy. Some of the economic disadvantage can be mentioned as difficulties in securing housing accommodation, congestion of facilities, etc. In a similar way, the drawbacks from various disciplines can be enumerated as follows.

The local government is concerned with the expansion of urban area, and its administration, etc.
The medical officer is concerned with the effects of dirt, smoke, etc. on the health of urban dwellers.
The psychologist is concerned with the effects of noise and strain leading to greater insanity and psychological pressure.
The sociologist is concerned with the formation of slums, inadequate recreational facilities, increase in theft and crime, etc.

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Girl Child

Primary Education

Mid-day Meals

Extreme Need

Under Funded

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Characteristics of Participation

Determination of Goals and Objectives

Planning for Participation

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Basic principles

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Global Trends in Urbanization

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