By SN Sharma

Photo by Dextar Studio u2122 on Pexels.com

Introduction

Transportation is one of the most influential forces shaping the contemporary city. It determines how people access employment, education, healthcare, public spaces, markets, and social opportunities, while also influencing land values, urban expansion, energy consumption, air quality, and the spatial distribution of development. As cities continue to grow, transportation planning can no longer be treated as a technical exercise concerned only with moving vehicles. It must increasingly be understood as a central component of sustainable urban development.

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has emerged as an important planning approach for connecting land use and transportation. At its core, TOD seeks to organise urban development around public transportation and create environments in which walking, cycling, and transit become convenient components of everyday mobility. However, successful TOD involves considerably more than constructing high-density buildings near a transit station. It requires an integrated relationship between land use, accessibility, pedestrian networks, public spaces, housing, economic activity, environmental quality, and transportation services.

The increasing importance of this integrated approach is reflected in contemporary research. Sharma et al. (2024) discuss the precursors of transit-oriented development, while Sharma and Dehalwar (2025a) examine the role of TOD in economic development through a systematic literature review. Yadav et al. (2025a) examine the factors affecting first- and last-mile accessibility in TOD, while Yadav et al. (2025b) investigate user satisfaction with last-mile connectivity in Tier-2 Indian cities. Yadav et al. (2025c) extend this field through a user-centric machine-learning framework for predicting multimodal accessibility. Sharma and Dehalwar (2025b) examine the inclusivity of India’s National Urban Transport Policy for senior citizens, while Lodhi et al. (2024) investigate bus-user satisfaction using discrete-choice models in Bhopal.

These studies can be connected with research on public-space accessibility, urban growth, green buildings, recycled construction materials, artificial intelligence, and digital twins. Lalramsangi et al. (2025), for example, demonstrate the importance of route choices for accessing public open spaces in hill cities. Kumar et al. (2025) show how CA–ANN modelling can contribute to understanding urban growth. Sharma et al. (2025) connect green buildings with sustainable neighbourhoods, while Sharma (2026) explores generative AI and digital twins for sustainable last-mile logistics. Dehalwar and Sharma (2024) provide a methodological foundation for combining quantitative and qualitative approaches in complex urban research.

This article examines TOD from a broader perspective: as an integrated framework for creating accessible, inclusive, environmentally responsible and economically connected urban environments. Particular attention is given to the relationship between transit stations, first- and last-mile connectivity, public spaces, land-use development, senior citizens, Tier-2 cities, green infrastructure, artificial intelligence, and sustainable logistics.

1. From Transportation Planning to Accessibility Planning

Traditional transportation planning has frequently concentrated on movement. Roads are evaluated according to capacity, traffic speeds, congestion, and vehicle volumes. Public transportation is often evaluated through ridership, fleet size, frequency, and operating performance.

These indicators remain important, but they do not fully explain whether a transportation system enables people to participate in urban life.

A more comprehensive approach focuses on accessibility.

Accessibility asks not simply:

How fast can vehicles move?

but:

How easily can people reach the destinations and opportunities they need?

This distinction is fundamental.

A fast transportation system may provide limited accessibility if stations are difficult to reach. Similarly, a high-capacity bus system may be less useful to people if buses are infrequent, unreliable, overcrowded, or disconnected from pedestrian routes.

Research on TOD increasingly recognises this distinction. Yadav et al. (2025a) identify first- and last-mile accessibility as an important dimension of TOD. The transit journey does not begin when a passenger enters a bus or train. It begins when the person leaves home and starts moving towards the transit system.

The complete mobility chain can therefore be represented as:

Origin → first-mile connection → transit station → main transit journey → destination station → last-mile connection → final destination

A weakness at any stage can reduce the effectiveness of the entire system.

Therefore, TOD should be evaluated through accessibility rather than station proximity alone.

2. Understanding the Principles of Transit-Oriented Development

TOD generally combines several planning principles.

These include:

compact development;
mixed land use;
pedestrian accessibility;
public transportation;
cycling;
reduced dependence on private vehicles;
high-quality public spaces;
appropriate development intensity;
integrated land-use and transportation planning; and
accessible services.

The exact configuration can differ according to city size, transport technology, land-market conditions, topography, and institutional capacity.

Sharma et al. (2024), in discussing the precursors of TOD, highlight the importance of the relationship between transportation and urban development. The basic idea is that transportation infrastructure can influence urban form, while urban form influences travel behaviour.

This creates a feedback relationship:

Transportation investment → land-use change → travel behaviour → transportation demand → further transportation investment

If this relationship is not managed carefully, new transportation infrastructure can stimulate development patterns that eventually increase travel demand.

Conversely, if land-use and transportation planning are coordinated, transit investment can support more compact and accessible urban development.

3. TOD as a Land-Use Strategy

TOD is sometimes interpreted simply as high-density development around transit stations. Density, however, is only one component.

A successful TOD area should also provide:

diverse land uses;
pedestrian connectivity;
local employment;
public services;
accessible housing;
public spaces;
safe streets;
convenient transit;
cycling facilities; and
appropriate infrastructure.

A high-rise residential development next to a metro station may technically satisfy a narrow definition of transit proximity while still functioning poorly as a TOD environment if pedestrians must cross wide roads, public spaces are inaccessible, and local services are absent.

Therefore, TOD should be understood as a place-making strategy rather than simply a density strategy.

Sharma and Dehalwar (2025a) discuss the relationship between TOD and economic development, reinforcing the idea that transit-oriented development can have implications beyond transportation.

Transit stations can influence:

commercial activity;
employment;
property development;
local business;
public investment;
urban regeneration; and
land values.

However, these effects are context-dependent and require appropriate planning and governance.

4. First- and Last-Mile Connectivity

The first and last mile represents one of the most important challenges in TOD.

A person may live only one or two kilometres from a transit station, but this distance can become a significant barrier if:

sidewalks are discontinuous;
crossings are unsafe;
streets are poorly lit;
routes are indirect;
footpaths are obstructed;
gradients are steep;
public transport feeder services are unavailable; or
cycling infrastructure is inadequate.

Yadav et al. (2025a) specifically examine factors affecting first- and last-mile accessibility in TOD, highlighting the importance of this often-neglected component.

The station should therefore be viewed as the centre of a mobility catchment, rather than an isolated transportation facility.

The catchment should be evaluated through multiple modes:

Walking

Pedestrian routes should be direct, safe, shaded where appropriate, and accessible to diverse users.

Cycling

Cycling networks should connect residential and employment areas with transit stations.

Feeder buses

Feeder services can extend the effective catchment of stations.

Shared mobility

Auto-rickshaws, shared mobility, and other services may provide flexible connections, particularly in Indian cities.

Universal accessibility

Routes should consider the needs of older adults and people with disabilities.

5. User Satisfaction and Public Transportation

The technical performance of public transportation does not always correspond directly to user satisfaction.

Lodhi et al. (2024) examine bus-user satisfaction using discrete-choice models in Bhopal. Their research demonstrates the value of understanding transportation from the user’s perspective.

Passenger experience may depend on:

waiting time;
travel time;
reliability;
comfort;
cleanliness;
safety;
crowding;
fare;
information;
vehicle condition; and
station or stop accessibility.

This has an important implication for TOD.

A transit-oriented neighbourhood cannot be created simply through land-use regulations. If public transportation is inconvenient or unreliable, residents may continue to rely heavily on private vehicles.

TOD therefore requires coordination between:

land-use intensity + transit quality + pedestrian accessibility + user experience.

The user’s journey should be treated as the central unit of analysis.

6. Senior Citizens and Inclusive TOD

Inclusive transportation requires attention to users who may experience greater mobility barriers.

Older adults can face challenges related to:

walking distance;
crossing times;
stairs;
uneven surfaces;
crowding;
inadequate seating;
lack of information;
poor lighting;
difficult boarding conditions; and
inaccessible stations.

Sharma and Dehalwar (2025b) examine the inclusivity of India’s National Urban Transport Policy for senior citizens. Their work is important because it highlights the need to consider age-sensitive mobility within transportation planning.

An inclusive TOD environment can incorporate:

step-free routes;
ramps and lifts;
seating at appropriate intervals;
safe crossings;
adequate lighting;
clear signage;
accessible toilets;
priority seating;
appropriate pedestrian crossing times; and
easy-to-understand travel information.

Such measures should not be considered specialised facilities benefiting only a small group. Many improve urban mobility for everyone.

A step-free station, for example, can assist older adults, wheelchair users, people carrying luggage, parents with children, and passengers with temporary injuries.

Universal design can therefore improve the general usability of TOD.

7. TOD in Tier-2 Indian Cities

Much of the global discussion on TOD has focused on major metropolitan areas with extensive rail networks. However, Tier-2 Indian cities represent an important context.

These cities often have:

rapidly increasing populations;
emerging public-transport systems;
expanding peripheral development;
mixed formal and informal land uses;
comparatively lower densities than major metropolitan regions;
significant two-wheeler dependence; and
limited transportation resources.

Yadav et al. (2025b) investigate user satisfaction in last-mile connectivity under TOD in Tier-2 Indian cities from a climate-sensitive perspective. This research highlights that transportation solutions developed for large metropolitan areas cannot simply be transferred without adaptation.

In many Tier-2 cities, buses may play a more important role than metro systems. Intermediate public transport, walking, cycling, shared mobility, and auto-rickshaws may also form significant parts of the mobility system.

Consequently, TOD in Tier-2 cities may need to be multimodal rather than rail-centric.

The station or transit hub can become an interchange point between:

city buses;
walking;
cycling;
intermediate public transport;
shared mobility;
private vehicles; and
emerging electric mobility.

8. Climate-Sensitive TOD

Climate is increasingly relevant to urban mobility.

In hot climates, walking may become uncomfortable during the middle of the day. During monsoon periods, poorly drained pedestrian routes may become inaccessible. In areas with steep terrain, rainfall can create additional challenges.

Yadav et al. (2025b) incorporate a climate-sensitive perspective into their examination of last-mile connectivity in Tier-2 Indian cities.

Climate-sensitive TOD can include:

shaded pedestrian routes;
street trees;
covered walkways;
permeable surfaces;
effective drainage;
rain shelters;
water-sensitive landscapes;
cool public spaces;
appropriate pavement materials; and
climate-responsive station design.

This demonstrates that TOD is not simply a transportation concept. It intersects with landscape architecture, environmental planning, public-space design, and building performance.

9. Public Open Spaces and Transit Accessibility

Transit stations and public spaces can reinforce one another.

A station surrounded by parks, plazas, markets, civic facilities, and active streets can become a node of urban life. Conversely, a station isolated within a large parking area may have weak pedestrian integration.

Lalramsangi et al. (2025) examine route choices for accessing public open spaces in hill cities. Their findings underline the importance of spatial configuration and pedestrian movement.

This insight can be applied to TOD station areas.

A public-space network around a transit station should provide:

direct routes;
visual connections;
comfortable walking conditions;
safe crossings;
resting spaces;
shade;
universal accessibility; and
connections to surrounding neighbourhoods.

Public spaces can also act as transition areas between transportation infrastructure and surrounding land uses.

For example:

Transit station → public plaza → commercial street → neighbourhood

can provide a more integrated urban experience than:

Transit station → parking area → road barrier → neighbourhood.

10. The Role of Street Connectivity

Street connectivity is one of the most important characteristics of walkable TOD.

A highly connected street network offers multiple route choices. A disconnected network can force pedestrians to take indirect routes.

This issue becomes particularly important when evaluating first- and last-mile accessibility.

Yadav et al. (2025a) identify accessibility factors affecting first- and last-mile connectivity, while Lalramsangi et al. (2025) demonstrate how route choice can be influenced by spatial configuration.

Together, these perspectives suggest that TOD planning should consider:

intersection density;
block size;
route directness;
pedestrian crossings;
network continuity;
permeability;
topography; and
perceived safety.

A dense road network does not automatically mean a good pedestrian environment. Street design must also consider vehicle speeds, footpath quality, crossing conditions, and shade.

11. Machine Learning for Multimodal Accessibility

As urban mobility systems become more complex, conventional accessibility calculations may not capture all relevant relationships.

Yadav et al. (2025c) propose a user-centric machine-learning framework for predicting multimodal accessibility in TOD zones for sustainable urban construction in Tier-2 Indian cities.

This represents an important transition from descriptive accessibility analysis towards predictive accessibility modelling.

Machine learning can potentially integrate multiple variables, including:

population;
land use;
transit frequency;
road connectivity;
walking distance;
cycling infrastructure;
travel time;
socioeconomic characteristics;
station characteristics; and
environmental conditions.

The advantage of such approaches is that they can potentially identify nonlinear relationships that conventional models may not capture easily.

However, machine-learning systems require careful validation.

A model that predicts accessibility accurately in one city may not perform equally well in another because urban form, transportation behaviour, climate, and institutional conditions differ.

Therefore, machine learning should be applied in a context-sensitive manner.

12. CA–ANN and the Future Spatial Structure of TOD

Kumar et al. (2025) demonstrate how CA–ANN can be used to predict urban growth in Indore.

This type of spatial modelling can complement TOD planning.

One challenge in transportation planning is that transit infrastructure is often designed according to current development patterns, while urbanisation continues to expand.

If planners can anticipate where development is likely to occur, they can potentially coordinate:

transit routes;
stations;
roads;
pedestrian infrastructure;
public facilities;
housing; and
employment areas.

This creates the possibility of anticipatory TOD.

Instead of waiting for urban development to occur and then attempting to provide transit, planners can coordinate development and transportation in advance.

The challenge is ensuring that predicted growth patterns are used carefully. Models represent scenarios based on assumptions and available data. They should therefore be combined with planning policy, market information, environmental assessment, and stakeholder consultation.

13. TOD and Economic Development

Transportation infrastructure can influence economic activity by reducing travel barriers and increasing access to markets and employment.

Sharma and Dehalwar (2025a) review the role of TOD in economic development. The relationship between transportation and economic activity can operate through several mechanisms.

Improved transit accessibility can potentially:

connect workers with employment;
expand customer catchment areas;
support commercial development;
increase access to educational institutions;
improve the attractiveness of development areas; and
stimulate investment around transit corridors.

However, the economic impacts of TOD depend on context.

A station alone does not automatically produce economic development. Supporting factors may include land availability, infrastructure, local economic activity, planning regulations, market conditions, and public investment.

The economic dimension of TOD should therefore be considered alongside environmental and social outcomes.

14. Land Values and the Risk of Unequal Development

Transportation improvements can influence land values and development pressures.

While increased accessibility can create economic opportunities, rising land values may also create challenges for households and small businesses if development is not accompanied by appropriate housing and inclusion policies.

This makes affordability an important component of TOD.

A genuinely inclusive transit-oriented neighbourhood should consider:

affordable housing;
rental housing;
access to employment;
public services;
local businesses;
displacement risks;
accessibility for low-income households; and
equitable distribution of infrastructure investment.

The purpose is not simply to maximise development around transit stations but to ensure that improved accessibility benefits diverse populations.

This is particularly relevant to rapidly transforming Indian cities, where land markets and informal development interact in complex ways.

15. Green Buildings Around Transit Stations

TOD and green-building strategies can reinforce each other.

Sharma et al. (2025) discuss the role of green buildings in creating sustainable neighbourhoods. In a TOD environment, green buildings can be integrated with:

transit accessibility;
passive design;
renewable energy;
water conservation;
green roofs;
shaded streets;
public spaces; and
mixed-use development.

This creates a relationship between building-level and neighbourhood-level sustainability.

For example, a mixed-use building located next to a transit station can reduce travel distances for some activities. If it also incorporates passive design, energy efficiency, water conservation, and green infrastructure, its environmental performance can be strengthened.

However, TOD should not be reduced to high-density construction.

Density should be accompanied by:

environmental quality;
public-space provision;
infrastructure capacity;
pedestrian accessibility;
social services; and
appropriate building design.

16. Circular Construction in TOD Areas

Large-scale TOD projects often involve substantial construction.

Stations, roads, pedestrian areas, buildings, parking structures, utility systems, and public spaces consume significant quantities of materials.

Sharma et al. (2024) demonstrate the relevance of Life Cycle Assessment to recycled and secondary materials in road construction.

This approach can be extended to TOD projects.

Project authorities can evaluate:

recycled aggregates;
reclaimed asphalt;
reused construction materials;
low-impact paving;
modular components;
material durability;
maintenance requirements; and
end-of-life recovery.

Life-cycle thinking is particularly important because TOD projects are often large and long-lived.

A project that reduces operational emissions but requires high environmental impacts during construction should be assessed across its entire life cycle.

Thus, sustainable TOD should consider both:

operational sustainability and construction sustainability.

17. Last-Mile Logistics and Transit-Oriented Areas

Urban logistics is increasingly intertwined with transit-oriented development.

Commercial areas around transit stations generate deliveries. Residential TOD areas receive parcels and online orders. Retail and office buildings require regular logistics activity.

Sharma (2026) examines generative AI and digital twins for sustainable last-mile logistics, including electric vehicles and alternative delivery systems.

TOD areas can potentially support more sustainable logistics through:

urban consolidation centres;
parcel lockers;
cargo-bike delivery;
electric delivery vehicles;
shared loading facilities;
designated delivery windows;
digital route optimisation; and
integrated logistics planning.

Digital twins could potentially model interactions between passenger movement and freight movement.

For example, a pedestrian-intensive station plaza may require delivery restrictions during peak periods. A digital model could help planners explore alternative delivery schedules.

This demonstrates how passenger transportation, public space, and freight management need to be coordinated.

18. Digital Twins for TOD Management

A digital twin of a TOD district could integrate:

land-use information;
building data;
transit schedules;
pedestrian networks;
cycling infrastructure;
traffic conditions;
parking;
public-space use;
logistics activity;
environmental conditions; and
energy consumption.

Such a system could support scenario testing.

For example:

What happens if transit frequency increases?

What happens if parking supply is reduced?

What happens if a pedestrian route is closed?

What happens if a new housing development is constructed?

What happens if electric buses replace conventional buses?

How does extreme rainfall affect station access?

The value of a digital twin lies in its ability to connect these variables.

However, Sharma (2026) also highlights challenges such as cost, data privacy, and equity in digital logistics. These considerations are relevant to TOD digital twins as well.

19. Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in TOD Research

TOD is a complex phenomenon that cannot be adequately studied through one research method.

Dehalwar and Sharma (2024) discuss the distinctions between quantitative and qualitative research approaches. Their methodological perspective is particularly relevant to TOD because accessibility and mobility involve both measurable and experiential dimensions.

Quantitative methods can examine:

travel time;
transit frequency;
accessibility;
population density;
land-use mix;
route connectivity;
ridership;
pedestrian counts;
emissions;
land-use change.

Qualitative methods can investigate:

user perceptions;
safety;
comfort;
barriers to walking;
reasons for mode choice;
satisfaction;
social experiences;
institutional challenges.

Lodhi et al. (2024), for example, use discrete-choice models to examine bus-user satisfaction, demonstrating how user preferences can be incorporated quantitatively.

Combining these approaches can provide a richer understanding of TOD.

20. Measuring TOD Performance

A major challenge is determining how to evaluate whether a TOD area is functioning effectively.

A comprehensive assessment framework can include several dimensions.

20.1 Accessibility

walking time to transit;
cycling access;
feeder connectivity;
public-transport travel time;
access to essential services.

20.2 Land use

density;
land-use diversity;
employment opportunities;
residential mix;
service availability.

20.3 Mobility

transit ridership;
walking share;
cycling share;
private-vehicle dependence;
transfer efficiency.

20.4 Public space

public-space availability;
pedestrian connectivity;
comfort;
accessibility;
activity levels.

20.5 Inclusion

senior-citizen accessibility;
universal design;
affordability;
accessibility for people with disabilities;
distribution of benefits.

20.6 Environment

energy use;
emissions;
green coverage;
water efficiency;
material impacts.

20.7 Digital performance

data availability;
real-time information;
digital accessibility;
system interoperability.

Such a multidimensional framework is preferable to evaluating TOD using a single indicator such as density or transit proximity.

21. TOD and Public Health

Transportation planning also has implications for public health.

Walkable neighbourhoods can create opportunities for physical activity. Reduced dependence on private vehicles can potentially reduce emissions and improve environmental quality. Public spaces can support social interaction.

A TOD environment that encourages walking from home to a transit station can integrate physical activity into daily routines.

However, the health benefits of TOD depend on environmental conditions.

Walking is less attractive when streets are:

heavily polluted;
excessively hot;
unsafe;
poorly maintained;
noisy; or
lacking shade.

Therefore, pedestrian planning should be connected with environmental and landscape planning.

Green buildings and sustainable neighbourhood strategies discussed by Sharma et al. (2025) can contribute to this broader environmental quality.

22. TOD in Hill Cities

Hill cities require special consideration because topography influences both urban development and transportation.

Lalramsangi et al. (2025) demonstrate the importance of route choices and accessibility in hill-city public-space networks.

TOD in such environments cannot simply reproduce flat-city models.

Important considerations include:

slope;
stairs;
pedestrian gradients;
landslide risk;
drainage;
road geometry;
transit accessibility;
weather;
route redundancy.

Transit stations may need to be connected through carefully designed pedestrian systems incorporating stairs, ramps, lifts, and intermediate resting spaces.

Water-sensitive planning is also relevant because rainfall can affect both pedestrian accessibility and slope stability.

This demonstrates why TOD should always be adapted to local physical geography.

23. TOD and Urban Growth Management

TOD can potentially influence the spatial pattern of future urban expansion.

Kumar et al. (2025) demonstrate the application of CA–ANN for urban-growth prediction. Such models can help planners understand where development pressure may emerge.

If future development occurs around public transportation corridors, infrastructure investment can potentially be coordinated more efficiently.

However, TOD-based growth management requires careful attention to:

infrastructure capacity;
environmental constraints;
housing affordability;
public-space requirements;
employment;
schools;
healthcare; and
water and sanitation.

Transit infrastructure should not be used as the sole justification for increasing development intensity.

Instead, development intensity should be considered in relation to the overall capacity and sustainability of the neighbourhood.

24. Creating TOD Around Existing Cities

New TOD districts can be planned from the beginning, but many Indian cities must retrofit existing urban areas.

Retrofitting can involve:

improving sidewalks;
creating pedestrian crossings;
reorganising parking;
introducing feeder services;
improving bus stops;
creating cycle routes;
upgrading public spaces;
improving station entrances;
integrating street vendors;
introducing universal accessibility.

The advantage of incremental improvement is that cities do not need to wait for large redevelopment projects.

Small interventions can gradually improve the station-area environment.

For example, improving a 500-metre walking route between a residential neighbourhood and a transit stop may have immediate benefits even if surrounding land uses remain unchanged.

25. Governance and Institutional Coordination

TOD requires coordination between multiple institutions.

Relevant agencies may include:

urban development authorities;
municipal corporations;
transport authorities;
road agencies;
housing agencies;
environmental departments;
utility providers;
private developers;
community organisations.

Without coordination, transportation investment and land-use planning can move in different directions.

For example, a transit agency may develop a station while the planning authority permits disconnected development around it. Alternatively, a municipality may improve pedestrian infrastructure while parking policy continues to encourage private-vehicle use.

Integrated TOD governance therefore requires common objectives, shared data, coordinated investment, and institutional mechanisms for implementation.

26. The Role of Data in Future TOD

Data will increasingly influence transportation planning.

Potential data sources include:

GIS;
remote sensing;
GPS;
mobile-phone data;
smart-card transactions;
traffic sensors;
pedestrian counters;
public surveys;
social-media information;
vehicle tracking;
environmental sensors.

However, data should not be collected simply because it is available.

Each dataset should be evaluated according to:

relevance;
accuracy;
spatial coverage;
temporal coverage;
privacy;
representativeness;
accessibility; and
institutional usefulness.

Dehalwar and Sharma (2024) remind researchers of the importance of methodological appropriateness. The same principle applies to data-driven TOD.

27. A Framework for Integrated TOD Planning

The research discussed above can be combined into a ten-step TOD planning framework.

Step 1: Understand existing urban form

Map land uses, population, employment, public facilities, streets, and development patterns.

Step 2: Assess current mobility

Measure public transport, walking, cycling, private vehicles, and intermediate modes.

Step 3: Analyse first- and last-mile conditions

Identify barriers to station access using network and user-based analysis (Yadav et al., 2025a).

Step 4: Understand user experience

Assess satisfaction, safety, comfort, reliability, and preferences (Lodhi et al., 2024).

Step 5: Evaluate inclusion

Assess accessibility for older adults and other users with mobility constraints (Sharma & Dehalwar, 2025b).

Step 6: Model future growth

Use spatial prediction approaches such as CA–ANN to explore potential development patterns (Kumar et al., 2025).

Step 7: Improve public spaces

Create accessible pedestrian and public-space networks (Lalramsangi et al., 2025).

Step 8: Integrate green and circular infrastructure

Apply green-building principles and life-cycle assessment (Sharma et al., 2024; Sharma et al., 2025).

Step 9: Apply digital technologies

Use machine learning and digital twins for scenario analysis and operational management (Yadav et al., 2025c; Sharma, 2026).

Step 10: Monitor and adapt

Continuously evaluate outcomes and modify interventions according to evidence.

28. Future Research Agenda

The future of TOD research can develop in several directions.

28.1 Multimodal accessibility

Future research should combine walking, cycling, buses, rail, shared mobility, and intermediate public transport rather than evaluating each mode independently.

28.2 Climate-sensitive TOD

Accessibility models should consider heat, rainfall, flooding, air quality, and other environmental conditions.

28.3 AI-enabled planning

Machine learning can potentially improve prediction of multimodal accessibility and urban development patterns, building on the framework of Yadav et al. (2025c).

28.4 Inclusive TOD

Research should examine accessibility for older adults, people with disabilities, children, low-income households, and other groups.

28.5 Green TOD

Future studies should integrate green buildings, public spaces, vegetation, water-sensitive infrastructure, and transportation.

28.6 Circular TOD

Life-cycle assessment should be extended to complete TOD districts rather than individual infrastructure components.

28.7 Digital twins

Digital twins can potentially integrate land use, transportation, logistics, buildings, public spaces, and environmental conditions.

28.8 Tier-2 cities

More research is needed on TOD models appropriate for cities where buses, walking, cycling, intermediate public transport, and two-wheelers coexist with emerging mass transit.

Conclusion

Transit-Oriented Development represents much more than a strategy for placing high-density development near public transportation. Properly understood, it provides a framework for coordinating land use, transportation, public space, economic development, environmental performance, inclusion, and digital technologies.

The research cited in this article demonstrates the breadth of knowledge required for this transformation. Sharma et al. (2024) provide insight into the conceptual foundations of TOD. Sharma and Dehalwar (2025a) connect TOD with economic development, while Yadav et al. (2025a) highlight the importance of first- and last-mile accessibility. Yadav et al. (2025b) bring a climate-sensitive perspective to user satisfaction and last-mile connectivity in Tier-2 Indian cities. Yadav et al. (2025c) demonstrate the potential of machine learning for multimodal accessibility prediction. Sharma and Dehalwar (2025b) highlight the importance of considering senior citizens in urban transportation policy. Lodhi et al. (2024) demonstrate the value of understanding bus-user satisfaction through discrete-choice modelling.

These transportation studies can be strengthened further when connected with research from other urban domains. Lalramsangi et al. (2025) demonstrate the importance of route choice and spatial configuration in accessing public open spaces. Kumar et al. (2025) show how CA–ANN modelling can support understanding of urban growth. Sharma et al. (2025) connect green buildings with sustainable neighbourhoods. Sharma et al. (2024) demonstrate the relevance of life-cycle thinking and recycled materials in road construction. Sharma (2026) explores how generative AI and digital twins can support sustainable last-mile logistics. Dehalwar and Sharma (2024) provide a methodological foundation for combining quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Taken together, these studies suggest that the future of TOD should be multimodal, inclusive, climate-sensitive, spatially integrated, environmentally responsible, and increasingly data-enabled.

A transit station should not be viewed as an isolated piece of transportation infrastructure. It should be understood as an urban node connecting people, places, economic activities, public spaces, buildings, and environmental systems.

The first and last mile should receive as much attention as the main transit journey. A station that cannot be reached comfortably on foot or by other convenient modes cannot fully realise the potential of TOD. Public spaces around stations should be accessible and connected. Buildings should respond to environmental conditions. Infrastructure should incorporate circular material strategies. Development should be coordinated with predicted urban growth. Digital technologies should be used where they can provide meaningful decision support.

Most importantly, TOD should be evaluated from the perspective of people’s ability to access opportunities.

The ultimate objective is not simply to increase density around transit stations or increase transit ridership. The broader objective is to create urban environments in which people can reach employment, education, healthcare, recreation, public services, and social opportunities conveniently and equitably.

For Indian cities, this requires context-sensitive approaches. The TOD model for a major metropolitan rail corridor cannot simply be transferred to a Tier-2 city. A bus-based system, intermediate public transport, walking, cycling, and emerging electric mobility may need to be combined differently according to local conditions. Hill cities require attention to slopes and route configuration, while rapidly expanding cities require stronger integration between urban-growth modelling and transportation planning.

The future TOD district can therefore be conceived as a connected urban ecosystem:

compact land use + accessible transit + walkable streets + public spaces + inclusive design + green buildings + circular infrastructure + intelligent logistics + digital decision support.

Such integration can help shift transportation planning away from a narrow focus on vehicle movement towards a broader focus on accessibility, place-making, environmental quality, and human well-being.

The most significant transformation is consequently not technological but conceptual. TOD should no longer be understood merely as development around transit. It should be understood as a way of organising urban development around accessibility, connectivity, sustainability, and everyday human needs.

References

Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Exploring the distinctions between quantitative and qualitative research methods. Think India Journal, 27(1), 7–15.

Kumar, G., Vyas, S., Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Urban growth prediction using CA-ANN model and spatial analysis for planning policy in Indore city, India. GeoJournal, 90(3), 139.

Lalramsangi, V., Garg, Y. K., & Sharma, S. N. (2025). Route choices to access public open spaces in hill cities. Environment and Urbanization ASIA, 16(2), 283–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/09754253251388721

Lodhi, A. S., Jaiswal, A., & Sharma, S. N. (2024). Assessing bus users’ satisfaction using discrete choice models: A case of Bhopal. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 9(11), 437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-024-01652-w

Sharma, S. N., Kumar, A., & Dehalwar, K. (2024). The precursors of transit-oriented development. Economic and Political Weekly, 59(14), 16–20. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10939448

Sharma, S. N., Dehalwar, K., Lodhi, A. S., & Jaiswal, A. (2024). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of recycled & secondary materials in the construction of roads. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1326(1), 012102.

Sharma, S. N., Singh, S., Kumar, G., Pandey, A. K., & Dehalwar, K. (2025). Role of green buildings in creating sustainable neighbourhoods. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1519(1), 012018.

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025a). A systematic literature review of transit-oriented development to assess its role in economic development of city. Transportation in Developing Economies, 11(2), 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40890-025-00245-1

Sharma, S. N., & Dehalwar, K. (2025b). Examining the inclusivity of India’s National Urban Transport Policy for senior citizens. In D. S.-K. Ting & J. A. Stagner (Eds.), Transforming healthcare infrastructure (pp. 115–134). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003513834-5

Sharma, S. N. (2026). Generative AI and digital twins for sustainable last-mile logistics: Enabling green operations and electric vehicle integration. In A. Awad & D. Al Ahmari (Eds.), Accelerating logistics through generative AI, digital twins, and autonomous operations. IGI Global.

Yadav, K., Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2025a). Assessing the factors affecting first and last mile accessibility in transit-oriented development: A literature review. GeoJournal, 90, 298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-025-11546-8

Yadav, K., Dehalwar, K., Sharma, S. N., & Yadav, S. (2025b). Understanding user satisfaction in last-mile connectivity under transit-oriented development in Tier 2 Indian cities: A climate-sensitive perspective. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1579, 012006. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1579/1/012006

Yadav, K., Dehalwar, K., & Sharma, S. N. (2025c). A user-centric machine learning framework for predicting multi-modal accessibility in transit-oriented development zones for sustainable urban construction in Tier-2 Indian cities. Asian Journal of Civil Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-025-01625-z

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