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Concentric Zone Theory

 The Concentric zone (ring) model also known as the Burgess model is one of the earliest theoretical models to explain urban social structures. It was created by sociologist Ernest Burgess in 1925. He propounded the concentric zone theory in order to explain the structure and growth of city. The hypothesis of this theory is that cities grow and develop outwardly in concentric zones. In other words, the essence of the model is that as a city grows, it expands radically from its centre to different concentric circles or zones. 

Burgess offers a descriptive framework in which both aspects of human ecology – physical land use pattern and human relationships are implicit. Using Chicago as an example, Burgess viewed that as cities expand outwards, the interaction among people and their economic, social and political organizations also create radical expansion outward and form a series of concentric zones. The concentric model is based upon a process of invasion and succession. Invasion is a process which necessitates continual expansion of inner zones into outer zones, due to the natural ‘aggression’ of the migrant into the city. While succession occurs when an area becomes dominated by the activity invading that zone. 

There is competition in city among people for limited space. Only those can succeed who can afford best to pay and get the desirable location for their business and homes. Therefore, concentric zone theory reflects on going conflict between city dwellers and periphery villages. It also describes the process of concentration and segregation of social groups with the growth of city structure. According to this theoretical model there are five major concentric zones. These are as following: 

a) Commercial centre/Central Business District (CBD) 

b) Zone of transition 

c) Working class residence 

d) Middle1 higher class residence 

e) Commuter zone

                                                              Concentric Zone Model

a) Central Business District (CBD) 

The inner most ring zone or nucleus of the city is a commercial centre also called Central Business District (CBD). This zone is characterized by high intensity of commercial, social and civic amenities. It is the heart of the city which includes department stores, office buildings, shops, banks, clubs, hotels, theatres and many other civic buildings. Being the centre of commercial activities and location, it is accessible from all directions and attracts a large number of people. Therefore, it is a zone of the highest intensity land use and social interaction. High intensity of land use further indicates the high value of land and rents. 
As a result, the residential population in this zone is very small. People are always in search of cheaper, spacious and pollution free accommodation away from the core of the city. This is one of the reasons that the congested city area is deserted at weekends or on non-working days. 
Burgess further describes that the morphological structure of CBD is changing rapidly with our changing needs. Morphological structure of city includes buildings, roads and infrastructure. These rearrangements occur, in part, through demolition and new building construction. This is a continuous process of rebuilding since city began. Hence, it is obvious that older parts of the city are rebuilt and old land uses replaced.

 b) Zone of Transition 

Light Industries and slums mainly occupy this zone, may be seen in as many American cities. This zone was the home of numerous first generation immigrants. It has low income households, retrogressing neighbourhoods, one room houses and homeless men. It is a breeding place of crime, gambling, sexual vice and other social deviances. 
The physical deterioration and social disorganization leads to concentration of poor housing, poverty, juvenile delinquency, family disintegration, physical and mental diseases. Burgess studied Chicago city and he found the second concentric zone to be transitory in nature, comprising an area of residential deterioration due to congestion and encroachment. The zone surrounds the CBD area and fulfils their needs, like light industrial production and business extension houses. He also predicts that CBD will expand in this zone, as it will grow. 

c) Lower Working Class Residence 

Basically it is planned residential area, close to places of economic activity which often shift and moved to the outward rings. Being close to transition zone it is influenced by that zone, in terms of quality of life. It reflects the negative impact of industrial pollution and the cultural impact of slums. The working class residences subsequent outward rings are occupied by middle or higherclass residences. 

d) Middle Class Residence 

These may be separated in different rings in terms of class character and corresponding facilities. This is a residential area with all modern amenities of civic society. People who reside in these areas are native born Americans in single family houses or apartments. The houses are spacious in a pollution free zone. Sanitation, health facilities and all other requirements of a good quality life are found here. Proper transportation, communication and parking facilities are an added feature of this residential zone. The above features of this concentric zone clearly indicate a particular class character.

e) Commuter Zone 

It is located in the outermost concentric zone, beyond the area of higher class residence. This is a ring of encircling small cities, towns, and hamlets which taken together constitute the commuter zone. People from these areas commute on a daily basis towards the CBD or commercial centre for employment and business purposes but live in their small cities, towns and hamlets. Commuter zone is characterized by low density. It is relatively isolated and located in suburbs and satellite towns. Later on Burgess writes that there was no circle of towns or cities in the outer concentric zone of Chicago but a pattern of settlement existed along the railroads radiating out from CBD like spokes of a wheel. 

Limitations and Criticisms of Concentric zone model 

Concentric zone model is one of the simplest model available. This model accounts for the economic forces which drive development and the study of patterns present at the time of the study. But with the evolution and passage of time urban areas grew more complex and this model cannot define the development of existing cities. Some of the limitations and criticism include 
  • Although widely appreciated in the United States, Burgess model is not applicable outside the US. This is so, as the pattern of growth is different because of various circumstances. 
  • The relevance of this model decreased over time. With the advancement in the mode of transportation, mass transit vehicles, motor vehicles, cars changed the way people commute. Accordingly, their preference for living in a particular zone changed. 
  • It does not take into account the effect of political forces and the restrictions imposed by the government for the improvement of living conditions. 
  • In reality, no distinct zones and boundaries exist as overlapping of areas is possible in every town. The preference of people changes over time depending on the importance they associate for a particular benefit. 
  • This model is not applicable to polycentric cities as many CDB exists in such towns. Moreover, every city is different, and the factors influencing the growth of a city are diverse.

Theories of Urbanization

 Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban residency, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to this change. Urbanization is an irreversible process. Urban region or city had first been noted in the Indus valley civilization in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC 116 in India. Hence one can say that there are several urban theories and some of which go back to the time of initial civilization. Most urban theories are derived ones some of which are: 

1. Suburbanization 
2. The dependency theory 
3. Theory of spatial disparities 
4. Migration theories 
a) Buffer’s theory of migration 
b) Stouffer’s law of intervening opportunities 
c) Migration theory of neo-classical economists 
d) Push and pull theories of migration 
e) Urban bias theory 
5. Lewis two sector model 
6. Concentric zone theory 
7. Bid rent theory 
8. Modern theory of urbanization 
9. Theory of evolutionary ladder of development 
10. Writh’s essay on “Urbanization: A typology of Changes”

1. Suburbanization 

Suburbanization means “beyond the city” thus it refers to peripheral areas of large cities around the world. As cities grow, it expands towards outskirt areas and thus peripheral or suburban areas develop and grow. Cities expand towards peripheral area due to high density, increasing urban land price, pollution and well developed transport and communication facilities. It is the responsibility of urban government to provide basic amenities in these areas as these suburban areas may not necessarily have a separate political unit. 

2. Dependency Theory 

The dependency theory argues that urban regions could establish expand and develop only if agriculture is well developed. The developing countries are sources of input for developed countries. Hence developing countries receive larger foreign investment in agriculture as well as non-agricultural sectors. Developed agriculture pushed rural farmer and labourer while developing industries attract labourer due to large employment scope in urban areas.

3. Theory of Spatial Disparities 

Spatial disparities theory states that disparities are created due to variation in geographically advantaged and disadvantaged regions, political importance of a city, economically favorable policies etc. Spatial forms divided the society. The problem of spatial disparities further leads to migration which creates pressure on urban amenities. 

4. Migration Theories 

Migration can be both a problem and a solution for various urban regions. There are several migration theories, some of them are discussed below. 

a) Buffer Theory of Migration 

Buffer theory of migration stated that “the workers who are imported on temporary base due to creation of short fall of labourer will return” However, it is not appropriate to make such assumption that labourer will go back. Migration cannot applicable always as adjustment mechanism. Hence, the Buffer’s migration law is not practical. 

b) Stouffer’s Law of Intervening Opportunities 

It states that “The number of persons going a given distance is directly proportional to the number of opportunities at that distance and inversely proportional to the number of intervening opportunities”. Stouffer explained that between the final destination and departure place if there are good opportunities them the migrant will settle down in between rather than their planned final destination. Stouffer argues that the volume of migration had less to do with distance and population than with the availability of opportunities in each location. 

c) Migration Theory of Neo-Classical Economists 

Neo- Classical economist argues that the main reason for labour migration is wage difference between two geographic locations. These wage difference are usually due to labour demand and supply in specific geography. 

d) Push and Pull Factors Theory 

The push and pull theory is based on various push and pull factors. Push factors are those things/ factors which are unfavorable about the specific area that one lives in and hence push them to move away from that particular area. Pull factors are those things that attract one to another area due to various reasons. Push factors can be less of employment opportunities, natural disaster, war, pollution, poor, housing etc. and pull factors can be better employment opportunities, better living conditions, healthy environment etc. 

e) Urban Bias Theory 

It is emphasizing on political perspective of urban regions. This theory argues that government policies favour the urban regions. While the amenities are provided on a larger scale in urban areas but the larger proportion of the population is found in rural areas of a country. Hence, there is migration from rural to urban areas. 

5. Lewis Two Sector Model 

Industrialization with the support of specialization supports urbanization process. Lewis presents two sector model of development with high productivity of modern urban industrial sectors. Lewis assumes that abundant labourer in agriculture can be absorbed in labour scarce industrial units. However agricultural migrants cannot always support and help these industries to grow. Hence the major limitation of Lewis model is the assumption that rural and agricultural labourer are having skills and ability to get employment in urban industries. 

6. Concentric Zone Theory 

Ernest Burgess with Chicago sociologist Robert Park put forward concentric zone theory of urbanization 

7. The Bid Rent Theory 

The Bid Rent Theory (BRT) theory is theory of geographical economy. It is based on geographical location rather than productivity of land. It refers to price and demand for real estate. The BRT explained that different land users would compete with one another for land close to the city centre. This theory is based upon the reasoning that the more is the accessible area (i.e. the greater the concentration of customers). It is higher the chance of earning more profit. Hence, to have land in inner city or central business district land users are willing to pay high price. This price of land paid by various users is known as “Bid Rent”.
 Bid rent theory
The above graph clearly indicates that commercial sectors are ready to pay higher rent so that they can establish near central business district as it is more accessible to larger population. Industry prefers next outer ring where rent is comparably low and still easily connected with commercial sector and with market. Residents and residential areas can be away from central business district. They can be in the outer most ring or peripheral areas. Bid rent and concentric zone theory assumed that inner city is wealthy and peripheral area is poorer. However, many cities around the world indicate the trend which is otherwise.

8. Modern Theory of Urbanization 

Modern theory was developed in the mid 20th century. It presented an idea that economic development is possible only if industries develop and expand by the introduction and use of advanced methods of production and use of modern technologies. According to modern school, the view which is shared by the classical economist, there cannot be urbanization without industrialization. 

9. Theory of Evolutionary Ladder of Development 

To understand stages of urbanization, Walter Rostow’s evolutionary ladder of development and Warren Thomas demographic transaction can be combined and presented as: 
a) Traditional Society (Pre-modern) 
b) Pre-take off (Industrialization / Transitional) 
c) Take off stage (Mature industrial / Industrial) 
d) Stage of Maturity (Post industrial) 
e) High Mass Consumption 
In the first and second stage, society is a traditional one. Larger proportion of population lives in rural areas. Third stage is ‘take off’ stage modern and new technologies are employed by industries to increase production. Manufacturing becomes important. This changes and growth however is concentrated in few regions only. Demographically, in this stage the death rate falls and birth rate still remains high. In terms of urbanization, a large proportion of population migrates to areas where manufacturing activities are concentrated for employment. 
The fourth stage ‘drive to maturity’ in this stage there is spread of technology into all parts of the economy. The demographic transition associated with the stage sees declined death rates, while birth rates drop at a faster than death rates. Urbanization at this point continues to progress since more and more people move to urban centers for jobs. 
The final stage is known as ‘high mass consumption’ and is characterized by the economy forcing on durable consumer goods like car instead of production of heavy industries like heavy machines with high personal incomes. Focus is no durable economic activities rate than basic need. The final stage of demography indicates negative or zero population growth. At this point, urbanization begins to level off because at this stage countries experience development that has reached 80% urban population mark. 

10. Writh’s Essay on Urbanism as a Way of Life 

Louis Writh’s in his essay “Urbanism as a way of life” emphasis as that urbanism is a matter of physical residence and urbanization is a social phenomenon. Moreover, Writh also questions the most common indicator adopted for the measurement of urbanization around the world i.e. population numbers.

Major Regional Problems and their Solutions in India

 

1) Corruption 

Political corruption is the most widely spread endemic in India, which must be handled quickly and wisely. There is hardly any office, in both private and public sector, that is untouched from this disease. There is no telling how much loss has the economy suffered because of this. Though most of us are concerned, when the time comes to act, we, the people of India, are found lacking. 

2) Basic Hygiene 

Sanitation is yet another problem, but one of the biggest, in India. There are about 700 million people who have no access to toilets at home. Slum areas do not have toilets. People are thus forced to defecate in open, which causes numerous diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dehydration etc. Many rural schools also have no toilets, because of which parents do not send their kids, especially girls, to school. A growing population is the biggest challenge causing these problems. For example, the sewage system in Delhi was designed to meet the needs of a population of three million people. But Delhi now has more than 14 million of population. This is not just the case of Delhi; every state and region in India is the same. 

3) Education System 

The education system of India is blamed every now and then for being too theoretical but not practical and skill-based. Students study to score marks, not to gain knowledge. This so called modern education system was introduced by the colonial masters to create servants who could serve but not lead and we still have the same education system. 

4) Health Care System 

It is true that world’s the most populous democratic country cannot provide proper health care facilities to its entire population. India is becoming a hub for medical tourism but all these facilities are not available to local residents, who are poor. Healthcare is a neglected issue in India, as major attention drawers are agriculture, infrastructure and IT. Lack of resources in rural India is a major concern of the day, leading to most of the problems. 50% of all villagers have no access to healthcare providers, 10% of babies die within a year of their birth due to lack of nutrition caused stunned growth in 50% of all the babies. 

5) Pollution 

Pollution and environmental issues are the other challenges that India is facing at present. Though India is working hard, there is a long way to go. Degradation of land, depleting natural resources and loss of biodiversity are the main issues of concern due to pollution. Untreated sewerage is the major cause of water pollution. The Yamuna river is today one of the most polluted rivers in India. Same is the condition of other rivers that pass through populated cities. 

6) Illiteracy 

The percentage of illiteracy in India is alarming. Every five persons among ten in India are illiterate. The condition in villages is worse than in cities. Though a number of primary schools have been set up in rural India, the problem persists. Also, providing education just to children won’t solve the problem of illiteracy, as many adults in India are also untouched by education. 

7) Woman Safety 

Both men and women enjoy equal opportunities, but as far as freedom and safety of women is concerned, India lags behind. Issues like domestic violence, rape cases, portrayal of women in media etc., must be tackled immediately. 

8) Infrastructure Facilities 

India needs to work swiftly on its infrastructure towards better roads and services like water, sanitation etc. 

9) Poverty 

A third of the world’s poor live in India, and 37% of the total population in India lives below the international poverty line. 42% of children under five years of age are underweight. Most of the poor in India live in villages. Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and West Bengal have the poorest areas. High level of illiteracy, lack of healthcare facilities and limited access to resources are some of the basic problems in poor areas. 

10) Water Scarcity 

India’s large population places a severe strain on its natural resources and most of its water sources are contaminated by sewage and agricultural run-off. . Much of the run-off water goes waste and the infiltration rate is also low. If this water can be harvested, not only the run-off water can be stored, but subsoil water reserves can also become rich. While progress has been made, gross disparities in access to safe water remain. The World Bank estimates that 21% of communicable diseases in India are related to unsafe water and diarrhea alone causes more than 1,600 deaths daily. 

11) Transparency 

The vast majority of Indians say transparency is their number one concern, according to polls before the recent election, with figures peaking at over 90% among young voters. People are right to be concerned. Transparency issues are not just a daily irritation, they are a drag on the whole economy, hampering competitiveness, growth and development. 

12) Religious Conflicts 

India is characterized by more ethnic and religious groups than most other countries of the world. Three ethnic or religious conflicts have stood out of late: two occurred in the states of “Assam and Punjab; another, the more widely known Hindu-Muslim conflict, continues to persist. The Assam problem is primarily ethnic, the Punjab problem is based on both religious and regional conflicts, while the Hindu-Muslim problem is predominantly religious. 

13) Lack of Employment and Opportunities 

India may be the fastest growing major economy in the world but that may mean little to the country’s 127 crore people, many of whom continue to struggle to find the right kind of jobs. India’s unemployment rate stood at 5% in 2015-2016 compared to 3.8% in 2012-2013, according to the fifth annual survey of employment-unemployment published by ministry of labour and employment. 

14) Urbanization 

More than one-third of Indians live in cities. It is estimated that, by 2050, as many as 900 million people will be living in urban centres. Meeting their needs while safeguarding the environment will require innovative models of urban development. 

15) Terrorism 

Terrorism in India, according to the Home Ministry, poses a significant threat to the people of India. Compared to other countries, India faces a wide range of terror groups.