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Space Standards for Facility Areas and Utilities

 The planning of amenities and utility services include the facilities like educational, medical, transport, housing, electricity, post and telegraph, telephone exchange, police station, fire station, community hall and library, cinema theatre, swimming pool, stadium, open air theatre, religious building, auditorium, parks, play grounds, water supply, drainage, sanitation, burial ground etc.

 Medical facilities


Planning standards for civic amenities and community facilities

Other facilities

Water supply consumption

Desirable land use pattern (Percentage)


Traffic and transportation


Transit Oriented Development (TOD)

 One of the original and most popular definitions of the transit oriented concept came from Peter Calthorpe, an architect and proclaimed urbanist. According to Calthorpe TODs are: Mixed use communities within an average 2,000 foot walking distance of a transit stop and a core commercial area. TODs mix residential, retail, office, open space and public uses in a walkable environment, making it convenient for residents and employees to travel by transit, bicycle, foot or car. 

TOD integrates land use and transport planning and aims to develop planned sustainable urban growth centers, having walkable and livable communes with high density mixed land use. Citizens have access to open green and public spaces and at the same time transit facilities are efficiently utilized. 

TOD increases the accessibility of the transit stations by creating pedestrian and NonMotorised Transport (NMT) friendly infrastructure that benefits large number of people, thereby increasing the ridership of the transit facility and improving the economic and financial viability of the system. Since the transit corridor has mixed land use, where the transit stations are either origin (housing) or destination (work), the corridor experiencing peak hour traffic in both directions would optimize the use of the transit system. 

Transit oriented development is generally considered to be mixed use development near and oriented to, public transport facilities. Common TOD traits include urban compactness, pedestrian and cycle friendly environments, public and civic spaces near stations, and stations as community hubs. Typically, a multimodal TOD neighbourhood is built around a public transport station or stop (e.g. train station, metro station, tram stop, BRT stop (Bus Rapid Transit), bus stop or even ferry stop), surrounded by relatively high density development with progressively lower density development spreading outward from the centre. TODs are generally located within a radius of 400 to 800m from the transit stop. This is considered to be an acceptable walking distance at the start or end of a journey by transit. In some parts of the world, the TOD approach reaches further than single locations towards a network or corridor approach, which aims at realigning entire urban regions around rail transport and away from the car. 

Transit oriented development

Different Types of Transit Oriented Development

1) Single node TOD

This type consists of a single neighbourhood based around heavy rail stations. Its location can be urban or suburban. The development takes place in a circular pattern cantered on a train station. The radius varies from 0.5 km in the US (to allow for pedestrian access) to 2-3 km in the Netherlands (where bicycle access is more common). 

Single node TOD

2) Multi node TOD

This type is similar to the single node TOD but it reaches further than a single location to create a regional network of nodes around heavy rail stations. The nodes can be circular or semicircular. The location of TOD nodes follows a typical “beads in a string” pattern. This type of TOD aims at realigning entire urban regions around rail transport and away from the car. 
Multi node TOD

3) Corridor TOD

This type is encountered in urban areas, and is based around light rail or Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) stops (which are more frequent than heavy rail stops). The development pattern is linear or ribbon like along the transit line because the nodes (e.g., around tram stops) are near each other. TOD corridors are applicable to existing urban areas or planned urban extensions. 
Corridor TOD
In addition, the transportation hub should be located in the heart of the neighbourhood, within a 400m or 10 minute walk from residents. This central location reflects the importance of transit in the community and in the region as a whole. TOD comprises a mix of commercial, residential and institutional developments built to support a transportation hub and to encourage non motor vehicle mobility options, such as biking and walking, within the community. A TOD area could encompass a radius of as little as 0.5 miles or as much as 1 mile from a transit station.

Provisions of Town Planning Act

 To manage the transformation of India’s cities and towns and effectively manage new growth requires effective urban planning protocols, processes and institutions underpinned by effective legislation. To effectively manage the new growth, it is essentially means that the irregular landholdings and plots will have to be given regular shapes they must be ordered each plot must be given access; infrastructure services such as water supply and drainage must be provided; land must be appropriated for providing roads, parks, social amenities, and low income housing, development controls must be prescribed to result in a good quality built form and levy development or betterment charges to offset the cost of developing the physical and social infrastructure. 

Town Planning Act 

India Due to the rapid industrial growth coupled with increasing level of urbanization during mid-century, the recognition of the need for viewing urban development as one whole integrated development in which each sector has a definite role to play and not in unrelated manner, was felt by the town planners. Town Planning Law is not new in India. The history of town planning legislation in India dates back to early part of the 20th century when the erstwhile Bombay Presidency took the lead in enacting the first town planning legislation in the country viz. The Bombay Town Planning Act, 1915 which came into force on 6th March, 1915. 
This Act was then followed by other provinces later on. The Bombay act of 1915 mainly provided for; 
  • The preparation of Town Planning Schemes (TPS) for areas in course of development within the jurisdiction of local authority 
  • The recovery by planning authority of betterment contribution from the owners of benefited lands. 
It was observed that T.P. schemes prepared under the 1915 act resulted in the piecemeal planning having no relation with the adjoining areas. Thus, to have a planned development of every square inch of the land within the municipal limits the need for another. 
Statutory process of master plan formulation in India was inspired by the erstwhile comprehensive planning system envisaged under the Town and Country Planning Act, 1947 of United Kingdom.

Model Regional and Town Planning and Development Law, 1985 

Town and Country Planning Organization (TCPO) formulated the Model Town and Country Planning Law in the year 1960. This model Act was revised by TCPO in year 1985 as “Model Regional and Town Planning and Development Law” to enact a comprehensive urban and regional planning legislation in all the States and UT’s (Union Territories). The main contents include;
  • Constitution of State Regional and Town Planning Board by the State Government for the purpose of advising on the delineation of the region for the planned development 
  • Directing the preparation of metropolitan, regional and area plans by the metropolitan, regional and area planning and development authorities 
  • Setting up of metropolitan, regional and area planning and development authorities for different urban and rural areas within the State to undertake preparation of development plans and to enforce and implement them 
  • Coordinating the planning and implementation of physical development programmes
Model Law provided 3 steps for the administration of this law. 
  1. Preparation of existing land use map 
  2. Preparation of an outline development plan and comprehensive development plan and their enforcement 
  3. Preparation of detailed schemes of development or redevelopment as envisaged in the plans and their implementation 
Based on the Model Regional and Town Planning and Development Law,1985 ,many states enacted their Town and Country Acts. However, states like Haryana, Rajasthan and UT of Chandigarh do not have comprehensive Town and Country Planning Acts. Out of 7933 Towns, about 2032 towns have Master Plans (1483 notified +549 under preparation). 

Principles and Objectives of Town Planning

 Principles of Town Planning

Town planning cannot be studied in isolation. It involves the study of various subjects such as engineering, architecture, surveying, transportation planning etc. The intention of the town planning is to satisfy the needs of our future generations and prevent the haphazard growth of the town. Some of the guiding principles of town planning are as follows.
1. Zoning
The town should be divided into suitable zones such as commercial zone, industrial zone, residential zone, etc. and suitable rules and regulations should be formed for the development of each zone.
2. Green Belt
Green belt is non-development zone on the periphery of the town. It prevents the haphazard sprawl of the town restricting its size. In essence, a green belt is an invisible line designating a border around a certain area, preventing development of the area and allowing wildlife to return and be established. Greenways and green wedges have a linear character and may run across the town and not around the town.
3. Housing
Housing has to be carefully studied and designed to suit the local population. Care should be taken to see that there is no development of slums since it would be responsible for degrading the life of the citizens. There are various types of housing styles. When a landuse plan is made, zones for independent housing, midrise buildings, high rise buildings are allocated. 
4. Public Buildings
Public buildings should be well grouped and distributed throughout the town. Unnecessary concentration of public buildings should be avoided. Factors such as parking facilities, road widths have to be taken into consideration while allocating the space for public buildings.
5. Recreation Centres
Recreation centres have to be given importance while designing a town. They are necessary for the recreational activities of the general public. They include parks for walking and cycling, amusement parks etc.
6. Road Systems
Road network hierarchy is very important. The efficiency of any town is measured by the layout of its roads. A nicely designed road system puts a great impression in the minds of people, especially the visitors to the town. The provision of a faulty road system in the initial stages of town formation proves to be too difficult and costly to repair or to re-arrange in future.
7. Transport Facilities
The town should be provided with suitable transport facilities so that there is minimum loss of time from place of work to the place of residence. Efficiency in transport facilities includes both public and private networks. Public transportation network includes access to buses, trains, trams and trolleybuses. Efficiency in using the public transport will determine the success of that town in terms of design.

Objectives of Town Planning
The main objectives of the town planning may be summarized in three words viz. Health, Convenience, Beauty and Environment.
1. Health 
To make right use of the land for the right purpose by proper division of land called zoning such as residential, commercial industrial, institutional and recreational etc. inorder to avoid the encroachment of one zone upon other for smooth and orderly development of the town or city without causing future conflicts. To create and promote healthy conditions and environments for all the people – rich and poor, to live, to work, to play or relax.
2. Convenience 
The object of convenience is meant in the form of various needs of the community such as social, economic, cultural and recreational amenities etc. Public amenities requiredfor the proper upkeep of the citizens include water supply, sanitation, electricity, post,telegraph, gas etc., proper sites for industrial, commercial, business enterprises toencourage them in trade with cheap power, transport services, drainage etc. Recreational amenities include open spaces, parks, gardens and playgrounds, for children and town halls stadiums, community centers, cinema houses, and theatres for adults.
3. Beauty 
To preserve the individuality of the town by developing it on its most suited natural conditions. To preserve the aesthetics in the design of all elements of town or city plan, which includes preservation of trees, natural greenery, improved types of domestic buildings and buildings of civic dignity and beauty, architectural control on public as well as semi-public buildings, ancient architectural buildings, temples, churches, mosques andbuildings of cultural and historical importance.
4. Environment
It is an important factor in town planning. The environment of the town should be in such a way that people can lead their normal activities with least difficulty. The complex problems of modern society such as tiresome travel to work, long hours of work, limited time spent within the family and community, etc. has led to serious problems in the lifestyle of the people living in the towns, therefore, town planning is mainly concerned with brining about a better relation between man and his environment. 

Problems faced by the town due to lack of proper planning

 1. Lack of essential amenities like electricity, watersupply and drainage.

2. Uncontrolled development of the town.
3. Unhealthy conditions.
4. Development of slums.
5. Defective road system resulting in the formation of narrow streets and lanes.
6. Heavy traffic congestions during the peak of hours of working period.
7. Haphazard location of some industrial units of small and medium scale.
8. Inadequate open spaces for parks and playgrounds.
9. Noisy atmosphere in some localities.
10. Waste disposal problems.
11. Housing problems.
12. Lack of public awareness for community benefits andexploiting means of amenities and
      utility service facilities provided by the concerned authorities.
13. Lack of engineering infrastructure.
14. Inadequate ware houses and industrial sites.
15. Defective locations of schools.
16. Inadequate space on the main roads for footpath and town squares, circles etc.

Aims/Benefits of Town Planning

 Town planning has gained a lot of importance today. New towns are being developed. It has become very important for the town planners to concentrate on old development as well as the new development. It is essential that old and new development are linked properly. Energy efficiency in planning should be the goal of any town planner, urban designer or an architect. The aims of town planning are as follows.

1. To correct the past errors as far as possible. 
2. To provide civic aesthetics of the town. 
3. To attempt an orderly appropriate and balanced
    arrangements of land use.
4. To develop healthy, attractive and efficient 
    environment in the city. 
5. To promote a high level of culture. 
6. To create and maintain an attractive central core 
    and make it the cultural, financial, commercial and
    entertainment centre. 
7. To provide an interrelated balanced transportation
    system adequate to meet the needs of everyone in
    the urban community. 
8. To encourage the attraction, retention and
    expansion of a sufficient number and variety of 
    industries and business activities to provide jobs 
    to the people and to get more income to
    municipality. 
9. To create a sense of dignity, identity, pride and
    responsibility in the social environment. 
10. To suggest the schemes which will control the
      future growth and development of the city. 
11. To insure against the possible future errors. 
12. To concentrate for development of full potentials
      of human resources through wide variety of 
      programmes, facilities and other incentives. 
13. To establish and maintain a consistent housing
      policy providing for decent housing open to 
      all persons in the community at reasonable  
      prices and rents. 
14. To encourage vigorous programmes of 
      inspection, maintenance of health environment in
      the city. 
15. Suggestions will be given to provide maximum
      housing facilities as per the income through   
      various concerned authorities. 
16. To encourage the development of neighbourhoods
      as social and recreational units and promote the 
      neighbourhood organizations and involvement in
      the improvement of local services, facilities, 
      transportation and living conditions. 
17. Suggestions will be made for efficient
      transportation facilities in the city including new 
      roads, widening the roads repairing maintenance
      depending upon the localities and functional 
      zones. 
18. To develop parks and recreation facilities to 
      optimum standards based on local needs 
      preserving as many sites of natural and
      historical significance as possible. 
19. To provide maximum educational and medical 
      facilities. 
20. To provide maximum utility service facilities 
      to reach all people of the city. 
21. To promote maximum co-operation between
      Government and public to get the benefits of  
      development schemes of urban development.
22. To implement effective measure of slum 
      clearance programmes in the city and controlling
      the further development of slum in the city. 
23. Suggestions will be made to demolish old 
      structures of public and private houses. 
24. To suggest relocation, redevelopment and 
      renewal of structure in the city. 
25. To create maximum green and open spaces in 
      the urban limit. 
26. Measures will be suggested to control the
      pollution of air, water, noise etc. 
27. Improvement and modernization of water supply,
      sewerage, electricity etc. 
28. Improvement of site development for residential 
      industrial, public and semi-public use.

Town Planning Process

 All stages of actions from defining the objectives till implementation and review of any planning project in the planning process. In plan preparation, the physical planning should associate with the socio-economical, geographical, political factors, for achieving the objective in desired direction. The various stages of planning process are as follows.

1.Identification and definition of problems  
Various problems with reference to the results obtained by studies and surveys and with reference to the objectives are identified.
2. Defining the objectives 
Here the objectives of the planning are identified. The general objectives of any planning of urban area is
  •     To regulate growth
  •     To nullify the bad effects of past growth
  •     To improve the transportation facilities
  •     To optimize the resources utilization
  •     To balance population and economic activities
  •     To promote social integration among different   categories
  •    To promote a convenient comfortable, beautiful and healthy environment

3. Studies and survey 
The following studies and surveys are taken up for plan preparation. 
  •  Identification of growth(physical, economical, social, cultural, institutional, administrative and political)
  •    Identification of trend and direction of growth
  •    Traffic survey
  •    Study on demography
  •    Climate

4. Analysis of data and preparation of study maps 
The data obtained is analyzed – observations and conclusions have to be derived out of the studies and surveys. The short-term objectives and long-term objectives are identified – various study maps, charts and graphs are prepared.
5. Fore-casting 
Period of demographic projection is prescribed. Forecasting of about migration, employment, industrialization and other rapid urbanization possibilities are to be made.
6. Design 
This is an important aspect in the planning process. Need to relate existing pattern, interactions and trends is to be examined. Preparation of development plans, formulation of zones, alteration to the existing zoning regulations, widening of roads etc. are made in detail here. Alternatives are also made for effective and quick implementation of plan. The plan should also be able to cope with sudden and unexpected events. Possibility of changing from one strategy to another should be designed at the same time keeping in view its practicability and the total expenditure involved.
7. Fixation of priorities 
Since all the proposals cannot be taken up at one time due to financial and administrative difficulties, priorities should be fixed for taking up the implementation depending upon the importance and urgency.
 8. Implementation
Implementation is the most important stage where all the earlier efforts to prepare plan is to be put into practice to achieve the objectives. The authority, which takes up the implementation, is to fulfill all the required legal obligations in time – zoning regulations, land acquisition for road widening and for other purposes is taken-up.
 9. Review, evaluation and feedback
The work of implementation has to be monitored by taking – up periodical inspections and obtaining review reports. Feedback is essential periodically. The plan should be flexible for modifications depending upon the necessities.
Types of Surveys
Surveys can broadly be divided into two categories depending on the area upon which they are to be conducted. They are:
1. Regional Surveys
They are those surveys, which are done over a region dealing with physical factors like topography, physically difficult land, geology, landscape etc. Physical economic factors like agricultural value of the land, mineral resources and water gathering lands, areas with public services, transportation linkages etc. Social economic factors like areas of influence of towns and villages, employment, population changes etc.
2. Town Surveys
They are done at much small scale and apart from the above data collected from the regional surveys it also includes
  •    Land use surveys
  •    Density surveys
  •    Surveys for the age and condition of the buildings
  •    Traffic surveys

Other social surveys for conducting proper survey, primarily relevant enquiries should be framed in the form of questionnaires for presentation, when required.
Techniques of Surveys
1. Self-surveys (i.e. mailing questionnaires to the persons to be surveyed )
2. Interviews (i.e. by asking questions to the people to be surveyed )
3. Direct inspection (i.e. when the surveyor himself inspects the situations concerned )
4. Observers participation(i.e. when the observer himself participate in acquiring the data 
    required)
Approaches to Planning
1. Comprehensive planning 
The traditional four-step planning process – the identification of problems and issues; the establishment of goals and objectives; data collection and analysis; and plan preparation and implementation.
2. Issue-oriented planning
Some communities do not get around to planning until a problem or a crisis has occurred. Issue-oriented planning focuses attention on the problems and issues of greatest concern to a community at a   particular point in time. This is an “old-fashioned   approach” to planning,  
3. Functional planning
Functionalplanning is a slower version of comprehensive planning.
4. Strategic planning 
Major emphasis should be placed on the selection and application of strategies to resolve identified issues and attain desired goals. The principal steps in strategic planning are 
  • Scan the environment and select key issues.
  • Formulate goals or missions for the key issues.
  • Analyze each issue, developing a list of community strengths and weaknesses.
  • Develop strategies that are realistic and take into account those strengths and weaknesses.
  • Implement strategies using public and private resources.
  • Monitor and update the plan to ensure implementation.

5. Vision-based planning
Imagines what a community should look like in the future and then develops a plan to achieve that vision. This visioning process is unique, but it is often included as an element of a variety of master plans. It is a positive approach to planning and can be very inspiring. 
6. Urban planning (urban, city, and town planning)
It is a technical and political process concerned with the control of the use of land and design of the urban environment, including transportation networks, to guide and ensure the orderly development of settlements and communities.
Elements of City/Town  Planning 
1.  Communication & Transportation
2.  Built up Area
3.  Open space (Parks, Playgrounds, Recreational unit)
4.  Public utility services  (Electricity, Gas, Telephone, Fire safety)
5.  Public amenities (Post office, Bank, Police, Solid waste disposal, Petrol pump, Court)

Town Planning

 The art and science of ordering the use of land and siting of buildings and communication routes so as to secure the maximum practicable degree of economy, convenience and beauty. It is an attempt to formulate the principles that should guide us in creating a civilized physical background for human life whose main impetus is thus foreseeing and guiding change. 

                                 
Town planning is an art of shaping and guiding the physical growth of the town creating buildings and environments to meet the various needs such as social, cultural, economic and recreational etc. and to provide healthy conditions for both rich and poor to live, to work and to play or relax, thus bringing about the social and economic well-being for the majority of mankind. Planning is the process of deciding in advance what is to be done, who is to do it, how it is to be done and when it is to be done. It is the process of determining a course of action, so as to achieve the desired results. It is a process of decision making. It involves the creation and maintenance of a plan, such as psychological aspects that require conceptual skills.  
Planning means pre-thinking and pre-arranging  things before an event takes place so as to achieve good results in health, convenience, comfort and happiness of all living beings. Planning is a process of helping a community, identify its problems and its central values, formulating goals and alternative approaches to achieving community objectives, and avoiding undesired consequences of change. This process of planning results in frameworks for coping with change. Some are physical elements such as streets, roads and sewer lines. Some are concepts that serve as guides to action, such as the goal of becoming a major distribution center or of encouraging investment in the core of the city. Some are regulatory, reflecting the desires of the community to encourage good development and discourage bad development.

“A city should be built to give its inhabitants security and happiness” – Aristotle
“A place where men had a common life for a noble end” – Plato 

EDUindex: Correlation Coefficient for Curriculum Relevancy and Employability

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The EDUindex is a quantitative measure designed to evaluate the relevancy of educational curricula to post-educational objectives, especially in the context of employability. It serves as a Correlation Coefficient that quantifies how well an academic curriculum aligns with the demands of the job market, skills required by employers, and overall preparedness for professional careers. The EDUindex is an insightful metric for educators, policymakers, and institutions to assess the effectiveness of their educational programs.

1. Understanding the EDUindex

  • Definition: The EDUindex is a value that ranges from -1 to +1, similar to traditional correlation coefficients. Here, a value close to +1 indicates a strong positive correlation between the curriculum and employability objectives, while a value close to -1 indicates a negative correlation. A value of 0 would indicate no correlation.
  • Purpose: It aims to bridge the gap between academic content and the skill sets required in the real world by providing a measurable framework for evaluating curriculum relevance. The primary focus is on ensuring that graduates possess the skills and knowledge necessary to meet the evolving demands of industries and employers.

2. Components of the EDUindex

The EDUindex is derived from various parameters that can be broadly categorized into the following components:

  • Curriculum Content Relevance: Measures how well the topics and subjects taught align with industry standards, technological advancements, and contemporary practices.
  • Skill-Based Learning: Assesses the extent to which the curriculum incorporates practical, hands-on experiences such as internships, projects, and case studies that enhance employability skills.
  • Soft Skills Integration: Evaluates the inclusion of communication, teamwork, problem-solving, and other essential soft skills in the curriculum.
  • Industry Collaboration: Looks at partnerships between educational institutions and industries, including guest lectures, workshops, and industry-based projects.
  • Graduate Employability Rates: Analyzes the percentage of graduates securing employment in their field of study within a certain period post-graduation.

3. EDUindex Gap Analysis

The EDUindex Gap Analysis is a diagnostic tool that identifies areas where the curriculum falls short in achieving alignment with post-educational goals, particularly employability. It helps institutions recognize missing elements or gaps that are crucial for enhancing the relevancy of their academic offerings.

How Gap Analysis Works
  • Step 1: Data Collection: Gather data on current curriculum structure, graduate employability outcomes, and industry feedback. This can include surveys from employers, feedback from alumni, and job market analysis.
  • Step 2: EDUindex Calculation: Using the collected data, calculate the current EDUindex score to understand the existing correlation between the curriculum and employability.
  • Step 3: Gap Identification: Identify gaps where the curriculum does not meet industry expectations. For instance:
    • Missing Skills: Lack of courses on emerging technologies like AI, Data Science, or Cybersecurity.
    • Outdated Content: Curriculum components that are no longer relevant in the current job market.
    • Insufficient Practical Exposure: Limited hands-on experience in labs, real-world projects, or internships.
  • Step 4: Recommendations: Based on the gap analysis, recommend curriculum changes such as the addition of industry-specific modules, skill development courses, or enhanced industry collaboration.

4. Benefits of Using the EDUindex

  • Improved Curriculum Design: Helps institutions refine their curriculum to better meet industry standards, thereby increasing the employability of graduates.
  • Data-Driven Decision Making: Provides a data-backed approach for curriculum reforms, ensuring that changes are aligned with market demands.
  • Institutional Benchmarking: Enables educational institutions to benchmark their programs against industry standards and other institutions.
  • Enhanced Student Outcomes: By aligning the curriculum with employability, students gain relevant skills that increase their job readiness.
  • Feedback Loop for Continuous Improvement: The EDUindex fosters a continuous feedback loop where institutions can regularly assess and update their curricula based on industry trends.

5. Case Study: Implementing EDUindex in Higher Education

Let’s consider an example of a university implementing the EDUindex for its Computer Science program:

  • Initial Assessment: The EDUindex score was calculated as 0.45, indicating a moderate alignment with employability goals. Key gaps included limited exposure to cloud computing and AI.
  • Gap Analysis Results:
    • Missing Courses: No dedicated courses on Cloud Technologies or AI.
    • Industry Collaboration: Lack of partnerships with tech companies for internships.
    • Outdated Curriculum: Focused more on theoretical knowledge rather than practical applications.
  • Action Plan:
    • Introduced new electives on AI, Machine Learning, and Cloud Computing.
    • Partnered with industry leaders like Google and AWS for certification programs.
    • Enhanced internship opportunities and real-world projects.
  • Outcome: After implementing these changes, the EDUindex score improved to 0.75, and the graduate employability rate increased by 20%.

6. Conclusion

The EDUindex serves as a vital metric for aligning educational curricula with post-educational objectives, particularly in enhancing employability. By leveraging the EDUindex and conducting regular gap analyses, educational institutions can ensure that their programs remain relevant, adaptive, and effective in preparing students for the dynamic job market.