Climate change refers to the change in the environmental conditions of the earth. This happens due to many internal and external factors. The climatic change has become a global concern over the last few decades. Besides, these climatic changes affect life on the earth in various ways. These climatic changes are having various impacts on the ecosystem and ecology. Due to these changes, a number of species of plants and animals have gone extinct.

When Did it Start?

The climate started changing a long time ago due to human activities but we came to know about it in the last century. During the last century, we started noticing the climatic change and its effect on human life. We started researching on climate change and came to know that the earth temperature is rising due to a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. The warming up of earth surface causes many ozone depletion, affect our agriculture, water supply, transportation, and several other problems.

Reason Of Climate Change

Although there are hundreds of reason for the climatic change we are only going to discuss the natural and manmade (human) reasons.

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Natural Reasons

These include volcanic eruption, solar radiation, tectonic plate movement, orbital variations. Due to these activities, the geographical condition of an area become quite harmful for life to survive. Also, these activities raise the temperature of the earth to a great extent causing an imbalance in nature.

Human Reasons

Man due to his need and greed has done many activities that not only harm the environment but himself too. Many plant and animal species go extinct due to human activity. Human activities that harm the climate include deforestation, using fossil fuel, industrial waste, a different type of pollution and many more. All these things damage the climate and ecosystem very badly. And many species of animals and birds got extinct or on a verge of extinction due to hunting.

Article 3 in The Constitution Of India 19493. Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States: Parliament may by law(a) form a new State by separation of territory from any State or by uniting two or more States or parts of States or by uniting any territory to a part of any State;(b) increase the area of any State;(c) diminish the area of any State;(d) alter the boundaries of any State;(e) alter the name of any State; Provided that no Bill for the purpose shall be introduced in either House of Parliament except on the recommendation of the President and unless, where the proposal contained in the Bill affects the area, boundaries or name of any of the States, the Bill has been referred by the President to the Legislature of that State for expressing its views thereon within such period as may be specified in the reference or within such further period as the President may allow and the period so specified or allowed has expired Explanation I In this article, in clauses (a) to (e), State includes a Union territory, but in the proviso, State does not include a Union territory Explanation II The power conferred on Parliament by clause (a) includes the power to form a new State or Union territory by uniting a part of any State or Union territory to any other State or Union territory

1. What does Article 2 of the Constitution of India say?Article 2 says: “Parliament may by law admit into the Union, or establish, new States on such terms and conditions as it thinks fit.” However, Parliament cannot establish a new union territory by passing a law; that can only be done through a constitutional amendment. States like Sikkim (previously not within India) became a part of the country under Article 2.
2. What was the Constituent Assembly’s debate on Article 2?Article 2 was not deliberated on much because the Constituent Assembly agreed that given India’s size and diversity, a central authority was needed to hold together the country’s administrative structure and prevent it from disintegrating. So the centre was given the power to ‘admit and establish’ new states.
3. Which changes to Article 2 were proposed during the debate?During the debate, Assembly member Naziruddin Ahmad argued that Articles 2 and 3 overlapped to a large extent and must be amalgamated. He proposed that Articles 2 and 3 be substituted with Article 2. Assembly member H.V. Kamath proposed that instead of the word ‘Parliament’, Article 2 must use the ‘Parliament of the Union’ to make it absolutely clear which parliament was being referred to. 
4. Did the Constituent Assembly accept any of these amendments?None of these amendments were accepted and the Draft Article 2 was made part of the Constitution without any changes.

What is Article 1 of the Constitution?

Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution gives Congress its powers and limits. Congress is the legislative branch of the government, meaning they are the ones to make laws for the United States of America. The article also creates the two sections of Congress, which is called a bicameral legislature. The first of the two is the Senate, which is made up of two senators from each state. The second is the House of Representatives, which has representatives from each state based on the population.

How is Article 1 Broken Down?

Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution has ten parts or sections. Within each section, the article is broken down even more into clauses.

Section 1 of Article 1

Section 1 of Article 1 is known as the vesting clause. This clause gives Congress the government’s power to make laws. There are similar vesting clauses in article two and article three, which give powers to the other branches of the government. This means no other branch is allowed to exercise the same power.

Section 2 of Article 1

Section 2 of Article 1 gives information about the United States House of Representatives. This part of Article 1 says that there will be elections for members of the House of Representatives every second year. These representatives are voted in by the people, meaning the citizens of each state will choose the representatives. Any representative who decides to run for a seat on the House of Representative’s bust be at 25 years old, and must have been an American citizen for at least 7 years. He or she must also live in the state that he or she wishes to be a representative for

Section 3 of Article 1

Section 3 of Article 1 describes explains how the Senate should be. This section says that there will be two Senators for each state, and they will have 6-year terms. In order to be a Senator, a person has to be at least 30 years old and must have been an American citizen for at least 9 years. He or she must also live in the state that he or she wishes to be a representative for

Section 4 of Article 1

Section 4 of Article 1 explains that the States have the power to determine where, when, and how elections will be held for Senators and Representatives. The section also states that Congress must meet at least once each year, and this meeting must be on the first Monday in December.

Section 5 of Article 1

Section 5 of Article 1 talks about how the procedure should be for each House of Congress. This includes the qualifications of members, the rules they must follow, how to keep records for what happens, and how a house can adjourn.

Section 6 of Article 1

Section 6 of Article 1 looks at the privileges, restrictions, and compensation of anyone who is a Senator or a Representative. These civil officers get paid by the Treasury of the United States. They cannot be arrested unless it is for a felony, treason, or a breach of peace. They also cannot take an office in the Executive government while they are still in Congress.

Section 7 of Article 1

Section 7 of the Article explains how Congress can make acts through bills. A bill can start in either the House of Representatives or in the Senate. Once the bill is passed in both houses, it can become a law. After it is passed, it will go to the president, who can let it pass or choose to veto the bill.

Section 8 of Article 1

Section 8 of Article 1 gives the Enumerated Powers of congress. The enumerated powers are a list of items that Confess is specifically allowed to do. Examples of these powers include making money or setting up taxes.

Section 9 of Article 1

Section 9 of Article 1 is a list of limits on the powers of Congress. For example, Congress cannot create any titles for royalty, like a King.

Section 10 of Article 1

Section 10 of Article 1 is the last section of Article 1. Section 10 limits the powers of the states. For example, the first part of section 10 says that states do not have certain powers that the federal government has. For example, they cannot create money.

Article 21 of Constitution of India: Protection of Life and Personal Liberty

Article 21 states that “No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to a procedure established by law.” Thus, article 21 secures two rights:

• Right to life, and
• 2) Right to personal liberty.

The Government of India Act, 1935 provided for the establishment of Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. It declares that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law. Article 21 comes under the Part III of the Indian constitution and is one of the fundamental rights guaranteed to all citizens of India. In this article, we will discuss various rights and liberties that are a part of Article 21.

Article 21 of Indian constitution

• Article 21 is a fundamental right and is included in Part-III of Indian Constitution. 
• This right is available to all citizens as well as non-citizens alike. 
• Supreme Court has described this right as the “heart of fundamental rights”
• According to Justice Bhagwati, Article 21 “embodies a constitutional value of supreme importance in a democratic society.”
• Article 21 secures two rights: The right to life and the Right to personal liberty.
• Article 21 cannot be suspended during an emergency. 

Meaning and Scope of Article 21 of Indian Constitution

The right to life in Article 21 of Indian constitution does not mean animal existence or the mere act of breathing. It guarantees the right to a dignified life. Some of the rights that are currently included in the ambit of Article 21 includes (mentioned in Menaka Case):

• Right to live with human dignity.
• Right to the decent environment including pollution-free water and air and protection
• against hazardous industries.
• Right to livelihood.
• Right to privacy.
• Right to shelter.
• Right to health.
• Right to free education up to 14 years of age.
• Right to free legal aid.
• Right against solitary confinement.
• Right to a speedy trial.
• Right against handcuffing
• Right against inhuman treatment.
• Right against delayed execution.
• Right to travel abroad.
• Right against bonded labor.
• Right against custodial harassment.
• Right to emergency medical aid.
• Right to timely medical treatment in a government hospital.
• Right not to be driven out of a state.
• Right to a fair trial.
• Right of prisoner to have necessities of life.
• Right of women to be treated with decency and dignity
• Right against public hanging.
•  Right to hearing.
• Right to information.
• Right to reputation.

The Union executive consists of the President, the Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as the head to aid and advise the President.

President

The President is elected by members of an electoral college consisting of elected members of both Houses of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies of the states in accordance with the system of proportional representation, by means of single transferable vote. To secure uniformity among state inter se, as well as parity between the states as a whole, and the Union, suitable weightage is given to each vote. The President must be a citizen of India, not less than 35 years of age, and qualified for election as member of the Lok Sabha. His term of office is five years, and he is eligible for re-election. His removal from office is to be in accordance with procedure prescribed in Article 61 of the Constitution. He may, by writing under his hand addressed to the Vice-President, resign his office.

Executive power of the Union is vested in the President, and is exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the Constitution. Supreme command of defence forces of the Union also vests in him. The President summons, prorogues, addresses, sends messages to Parliament and dissolves the Lok Sabha, promulgates Ordinances at any time, except when both Houses of Parliament are in session, makes recommendations for introducing financial and money bills and gives assent to bills, grants pardons, reprieves, respites or remission of punishment or suspends, and remits or commutes sentences in certain cases. When there is a failure of the constitutional machinery in a state, he can assume to himself all, or any of the functions of the government of that state. The President can proclaim emergency in the country if he is satisfied that a grave emergency exists, whereby security of India or any part of its territory is threatened, whether by war or external aggression or armed rebellion.

The Indian judicial system follows the common law system based on recorded judicial precedents as inherited from the British colonial legacy. The court system of India comprises the Supreme Court of India, the High Courts and subordinate courts at district, municipal and village levels.

I. Hierarchy of courts

The Indian judiciary is divided into several levels in order to decentralize and address matters at the grassroots levels. The basic structure is as follows:

1. Supreme Court: It is the Apex court of the country and was constituted on 28th January 1950. It is the highest court of appeal and enjoys both original suits and appeals of High Court judgments. The Supreme Court is comprised of the Chief Justice of India and 25 other judges. Articles 124-147 of the Constitution of India lay down the authority of the Supreme Court.

2. High Courts: High Courts are the highest judicial body at the State level. Article 214 lays down the authority of High Courts. There are 25 High Courts in India. High Courts exercise civil or criminal jurisdiction only if the subordinate courts in the State are not competent to try the matters. High Courts may even take appeals from lower courts. High Court judges are appointed by the President of India upon consultation with the Chief Justice of India, the Chief Justice of the High Court and the Governor of the State.

3. District Courts: District Courts are established by the State Governments of India for every district or group of districts based on the caseload and population density. District Courts are under the direct administration of High Courts and are bound by High Court judgments. Every district generally has two kinds of courts:

a. Civil Courts

b. Criminal Courts

District Courts are presided over by District Judges. Additional District Judges and Assistant District Judges may be appointed based on the caseload. Appeals against District Court judgments lie in the High Court.

4. Lok Adalats/Village Courts: these are subordinate courts at the village level which provide a system for alternate dispute resolution in villages.

5. Tribunals: the Constitution provides the government with the power to set up special Tribunals for the administration of specific matters such as tax cases, land cases, consumer cases etc.

Appellate jurisdiction refers to the authority of a court to rehear/review a case decided by a lower court. In India, appellate jurisdiction is vested in both the Supreme Court and High Courts. They may either overrule or uphold the judgments of lower courts.

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II. Civil Courts

Civil courts provide remedies for civil wrongs committed by individuals against other individuals and entities. Civil matters range from property disputes to breaches of contract to divorce cases. Civil courts follow the principle of ubi jus ibi remedium (for every wrong the law provides remedy). Unless expressly or impliedly barred by any other law in force, civil courts have the jurisdiction to try all suits of civil nature.

The Code of Civil Procedure (CPC) 1908 governs the procedures to be followed by civil courts in administering civil cases in India.

As a matter of fact, every suit must be instituted before the court of lowest jurisdiction (the Munsif court). Upon institution, it is decided whether the respective court has competence to try the case.

The Civil Court hierarchy in districts is as follows:

1. District Court: The court of district judges is the highest civil court in a district. It exercises both judicial and administrative functions. The District Judge combines the powers of trying both civil and criminal cases. Hence, they are designated the District and Sessions Judge.

2. Sub-judge Court: if the value of the subject-matter of the suit is worth more than Rs. 1 lakh, the Sub-judge and Additional Sub-judge courts may try the suit.

3. Additional Sub-judge Court: this is created based on the case-load.

4. Munsif Court: if the value of the subject-matter of the suit is worth Rs. 1 lakh or below, the Munsif court is competent to try the suit.

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III. Criminal Courts

The power of the various criminal courts is mentioned under the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC).

According to Section 26 of the CrPC, any offence mentioned under the Indian Penal Code may be tried by:

1. High Courts
2. Courts of Session
3. Any other Court as specified in the First Schedule of the Code of Criminal Procedure

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IV. Judicial Authority of the Supreme Court

Articles 141 and 144 of the Constitution uphold the authority and jurisdiction given to the Supreme Court to make decisions and uphold the law of the land. These Articles give animal welfare judgments their binding force, ensuring that they are appropriately enforced and implemented by the respective authorities. They allow for the Supreme Court to issue directives and fill gaps in law until the legislature steps in.

Article 141

Article 141 lays down that “the law declared by the Supreme Court shall be binding on all courts within the territory of India.”

This Article embodies the English principle of stare decisis which holds that law must be definite, fixed, known and consistent. Since the Supreme Court is the Apex court of the country and all courts and tribunals are bound by its decisions, Supreme Court judgments become a source of law in themselves.

The binding part is the operative part of the judgment or the ratio decidendi (“reason of decision) determined after reading the judgment in its entirety. It is the general principle derived from a judgment that is deduced by courts when deciding the case based on facts. Mere observations, or the obiter dicta (“said by the way”), on the other hand, refer to those parts of judicial decisions which are general observations of the judge in the case. Obiter dicta have only persuasive value, not binding authority.

Article 144

Article 144 lays down that “all authorities, civil and judicial, in the territory of India shall act in aid of the Supreme Court.”

The Supreme Court has the power to hold any authority in contempt if they disregard or disobey the order of the court.

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V. Binding value of Judicial Precedents

Since India is a common law country, previously decided judgments of higher courts such as the Supreme Court and High Courts are binding on subordinate and lower courts, i.e., subordinate courts are bound to follow the decisions and hold them to be the law. Precedents are an important source of law in India. The binding value of different courts in the court hierarchy is as follows:

1. Decisions of the Supreme Court are binding on all courts in India. The Supreme Court is not bound by decisions of High Courts, lower courts or other judicial authorities.
2. Decisions of a High Court are binding on all inferior courts (as long as they don’t conflict with Supreme Court decisions) within its jurisdiction but holds only persuasive value for courts outside its jurisdiction. In case the decisions of the High Court conflict with the decisions of a similar bench, the matter is referred to a higher bench.
3. Lower courts are bound by decisions of higher courts in their own states. Decisions by High Courts of other states hold only persuasive value.

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VI. Public Interest Litigation (PIL)

Public Interest Litigation (PIL) is an effective tool to advance social justice in India. Borrowed from the American tradition of Social Action Litigation, PILs have been widely used in India to advance the causes of disadvantaged and marginalized communities. The general rule to bring a cause of action in court is the rule of locus standi i.e. the party must possess sufficient connection or suffer particular harm in order to be a party to the case. In PILs, this rule is relaxed considerably as any citizen of India may bring an action in court to reduce a wrong if there has been a breach of Fundamental Rights. PILs are an effective tool in the furtherance of animal protection by allowing animal rights groups and activists to file PILs at the Supreme Court and give a voice to the voiceless.

Some landmark PILs related to animal welfare filed in the Supreme Court of India include the cases of People for Ethical Treatment of Animals v. Union of India (a case regarding the protection of animals against exploitation and ill-treatment during film-making) and Animal Welfare Board of India v. A. Nagaraja & Ors. (a case regarding the prohibition of a traditional bull-fighting practice called Jallikattu).

A variety of people exist in our country. People of different religions, castes, colors, and beliefs. Harmony cannot always be ensured. But society has to work in decorum and someone has to lay down the rules for the society to function in an organized way. These rules and principles are laid down in the constitution.

A constitution is an important document laying down the fundamental principles of a country. The country is governed by these principles. The constitution is regarded as the fundamental law of the country. 

Importance of the constitution 

1. Our constitution contains valuable information regarding the structure, organs, duties, and responsibilities of the government.
2. Our constitution regulates the relationship between the various organs in existence and also tries to ensure a harmonious relationship between the citizens and the government.
3. Also, it contains a system of checks and balances which prevents misuse of power vested in the government.
4. Since a good proportion of the population is minorities, their rights are also protected by the constitution. 
5. It also guarantees certain fundamental rights to the citizens to protect them against any injustice by the government.

Need for laws – Laws are meant for the welfare and security of the people. They serve as a means of bringing about social change and establishing a near to perfect society. In a traditionally unequal society like India, which is plagued by social evils such as dowry and female foeticide, the need for laws becomes even more important.

It is important to look into some early social practices which were overcome by the use and bringing of laws.

1. Dowry-  It is the money or gifts given to the groom and his family by the bride’s family at the time of marriage. Often dowry demands continue long after marriage. The inability to fulfill the same results in physical or mental torture of the bride and some unfortunate and extreme cases leads to death. To bring control over this evil practice, the government passed the Dowry Prohibition Act in 1961. This prohibited giving and taking of dowry. Anyone caught indulging in these practices is liable for both imprisonment and a fine.
2. Female foeticide- One of the fallouts of the dowry system is the practice of female foeticide. Even today daughters are considered a financial burden by many people. Thus, female foeticide is on the rise. This practice has affected India’s sex ratio. To curb this practice, the government passed the Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of misuse) Act in 1994. This act strictly prohibits the determination and disclosure of the sex of the fetus.

Many social evils like these exist and the Constitution provides laws for the eradication of the same.

Hence, we must follow these laws to make the country even better.

Source- Wikipedia, Quora

On 31 December 2019 in China and on 27 January 2020 in India, the first case of COVID-19 was reported and we are still fighting against this disease.Later on 24th March 2020, the Indian government ordered the nationwide lockdown for 21 days because of the rapid increase in COVID-19 cases.While, on one hand, we all […]

Covidheros : The heroes who define courage & bravery

PARTICULARS	BILL OF EXCHANGE	CHEQUE
MEANING	A bill of exchange is a negotiable instrument which orders to drawee to pay a fixed amount of money to payee on demand	The Cheque is a document which contains an order to a bank to pay fixed amount of money from the account of the client.
EXISTENCE	A bill of exchange exists in section 5 of the negotiable instruments act, 1881.	A cheque exists in section 6 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881.
GRACE PERIOD	A bill of exchange has three days of grace period.	A cheque has no grace period once it is presented for the payment.
APPORVED	A bill of exchange needs an approval from the drawee for the payment.	A Cheque does not need any approval from the parties before presented for payment
VALIDITY	A bill of exchange has no validity for the payment.	A cheque has a validity of 3 months.
LIABILITY	In the bill of exchange, the parties who do not get notice of dishonour are free from the liability of paying.	Parties remain liable to pay also in case notice of dishonour is not given.
NOTICE OF DISHONOUR	In a bill of exchange, notice of dishonour is mandatory.	In cheque, notice of dishonour is not compulsory.

BILLS OF EXCHANGE VS PROMISSORY NOTE 

PARTICULARS	BILL OF EXCHANGE	PROMISSORY NOTE
MEANING	A bill of exchange contains an order from the creditor to the debtor to pay a specified amount to a person mentioned therein.	A promissory note is an instrument in writing containing an unconditional undertaking, signed by the maker to pay a certain sum of money.
NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT ACT	Bill of exchange defined under section 5 of Negotiable Instrument Act.	Promissory Note defined under section 4 of the Negotiable Instrument Act.
PARTIES	There may be three parties I.e., the drawer, the acceptor and the payee.	There are only two parties I.e., Maker and Payee.
DRAWN BY	It is drawn by the creditor	It is drawn by the debtor
LIABILITY	The liability of a drawer of bill of exchange is secondary and conditional.	The liability of the maker of a promissory note is primary and absolute.
ACCEPTANCE	Bill of Exchange requires an acceptance by the drawee.	A Promissory Note does not require any acceptance by the drawee.
COPIES	A single copy is prepared, except in case of foreign bills.	One copy is prepared in all cases.
NOTICE IN CASE OF DISHONOUR	In case of dishonor of bill of exchange either due to non-payment or non-payment or non-acceptance, notice must be given to all person liable to pay.	In case of dishonor of promissory note, notice of dishonor to maker is not necessary.
STAMPS	Stamping is necessary for a bill of exchange except for “bills payable on demand”.	Stamping is necessary for promissory notes without any exceptions.
PAYABLE TO BEARER	A bill of exchange can be so drawn provided it is not payable to bearer on demand.	A promissory note cannot be made payable to a bearer.
PAYABLE TO MAKER	In the case of bill of exchange, the drawer and the payee may be one person.	In a promissory note, the maker cannot pay to himself.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS 

These classifications depend on various features like transferability, negotiability, rights of holders, etc. 

BEARER INSTRUMENTS : There are two important conditions for negotiable instruments to become payable to bearers. Firstly, parties to the transactions must express it to be so payable. Secondly, the only endorsement for it should be an endorsement in blank. These two requirements imply that any holder of such instruments can obtain payment for them. For example, a bill of exchange is payable to any person who holds it. These bearer instruments include cheques, bills of exchange and promissory notes. 

ORDER INSTRUMENTS 

 Negotiable instruments can often be payable to order in certain cases. They are payable when the instruments expressly state them to be so. Furthermore, they may be payable to order only to a specific person. The only requirement is that there should be no prohibition on their transferability. 

INLAND INSTRUMENTS 

Section 11 of the NI Act deals with inland instruments. This provision regulates instruments that are drawn and made payable in India. Alternatively, they may be payable outside India but only if they are drawn upon by an Indian resident. 

FOREIGN INSTRUMENTS 

Every instrument that is not inland automatically becomes a foreign instrument. These instruments are drawn in a foreign country but may be payable within or outside India. They may even originate in India but only for payment to a person who resides abroad. 

DEMAND INSTRUMENTS 

Sometimes, an instrument may not specify a time during which it remains payable. Such instruments are payable whenever the bearer demands. Examples of such instruments include promissory notes and bills of exchange. 

TIME INSTRUMENTS 

Unlike demand instruments, time instruments carry a fixed future date for payment. For example, a promissory note may carry a maturity date arising after 24 months (about 2 years) of its issue. Such instruments may even become payable upon the happening of a specific future event. 

AMBIGUOUS INSTRUMENTS 

An ambiguous instrument is 0ne that may be either a bill or a note for its holder. Such situations arise in peculiar circumstances only. For example, sometimes the drawee may be a fictitious person, or he may be incompetent to contract. Under such circumstances, the holder of such instruments may treat them either as bills of exchange or as promissory notes. Section 17 of the Negotiable Instruments Act deals with such situations. 

INCOMPLETE INSTRUMENTS 

Incomplete instruments lack certain essential requirements of typical negotiable instruments. In such cases, the holder of the instrument has the authority to complete it up to the amount mentioned therein. This, in turn, results in the creation of legally binding negotiable instrument payable by law. Not only the first holder but also any subsequent holder who procures such instruments can complete them. 

Plastic roads also offer several benefits. These roads have better durability compared to traditional asphalt concrete roads, they can withstand water better, have smoother surfaces, develop lesser cracks and potholes which means lesser maintenance costs. The environmental benefits are an add-on to this.

To construct a single lane road stretch of 1 kilometer, 10 tonnes of bitumen is used. In a plastic road, this composition can be altered to 9 tonnes of bitumen and 1 tonne of plastic. So, on an average, 1 tonne plastic consisting of more than 10 lakh (1 million) waste plastic bags can be consumed in a single kilometre. Considering that the world has millions of kilometres of roads, imagine the amount of plastic waste that can be re-used or recycled for surfacing or building new roads.

Road construction provides a solution to the problem of plastic waste. Of the 8.3 billion tonnes of plastic produced over the last 70 years, less than 10% has been recycled. That proportion can go up dramatically, with the use of discarded and waste plastic in road construction. India generates about 15,000 tonnes of plastic waste every day, only 7,000-9,000 tonnes is recycled. To increase the recycling rates, in 2015, the central government made the use of plastic waste in road construction mandatory — shredded waste plastic is mixed with bitumen at high temperatures. Not all plastic can be used, the guidelines list plastic film (carry bags, cups), hard foam, soft foam and laminated plastics (packaging for biscuits, chocolates and chips). Several Indian cities such as Pune, Indore, Surat, Chennai — are already constructing roads using the plastic-bitumen mix. These roads are longer lasting, and do not develop cracks and potholes, which account for one-tenth of the road deaths in the country. Depending on the quality of tar, plastic waste can replace 10-30% of conventional material.

 The issues highlighted above throw light on the urgent needs for re-examining and formulating new guidelines/specification with regard to design and construction of concrete roads in India. The issues raised become more pertinent in the context of the large scale construction of cement concrete roads at the anvil. Feedback from the various construction agencies and from research and development fraternity can lead to meaningful contribution in solving many issues at stake in the field of design and construction of concrete roads in India. The polymer coated aggregate bitumen mix forms better material for flexible pavement construction as the mix shows higher Marshall Stability value and suitable Marshall Coefficient. Hence the use of waste plastics for flexible pavement is one of the best methods for easy disposal of waste plastics.Plastic roads would be a boon for india’s hot and extremely humid climate where durable and eco-friendly roads which will relieve the earth from plastic waste. As the population increases, the solid waste also increases proportionally. The best alternative is the usage of waste as construction material assuring a good disposal. As this method is economic the practice would be on satisfactory extent aiding the future generations for a good solid waste management

Studies show plastic waste can last three times more than usual materials used for roads today. They produce lower transportation and labor  costs. Moreover, they reduce flooding and incidences of potholes.

 ADVANTAGES OF PLASTIC ROADS :

• A light weight pre fabricated construction
• Faster construction and less maintenance  time
• Higher quality and loger life span
• Little to no maintenance required .The material is virtually impervious to conditions such as the weather and weeds
• The innovation is considerably  more sustainable
• The goal is to make plastic road out of 100%  recycled plastic and to make it fully reusable . It is perfectly in line with the cradle to cradle philosophy and the principles of the circular economy
• Double use of space . The hollow space in the design can be used to store water or as a space for cables and pipes
• The possibility of constant safety and water drainage
• Everything on and around  the road can be prefabricated
• The concept offers opportunities for further innovation .Examples include solar heated roads, light poles,  traffic loop sensors
• Contibution to the social problem of plastic waste

Oligopoly is a market situation in which there are a few firms selling homogeneous or differenti­ated products. It is difficult to pinpoint the number of firms in ‘competition among the few.’ With only a few firms in the market, the action of one firm is likely to affect the others. An oligopoly industry produces either a homogeneous product or heterogeneous products.

The former is called pure or per­fect oligopoly and the latter is called imperfect or differentiated oligopoly. Pure oligopoly is found primarily among producers of such industrial products as aluminium, cement, copper, steel, zinc, etc. Imperfect oligopoly is found among producers of such consumer goods as automobiles, cigarettes, soaps and detergents, TVs, rubber tyres, refrigerators, typewriters, etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OLIGOPOLY

• Interdependence

There is recognised interdependence among the sellers in the oligopolistic market. Each oligopolist firm knows that changes in its price, advertising, product characteristics, etc. may lead to counter-moves by rivals. When the sellers are a few, each produces a considerable fraction of the total output of the industry and can have a noticeable effect on market conditions.He can reduce or increase the price for the whole oligopolist market by selling more quantity or less and affect the profits of the other sellers. It implies that each seller is aware of the price-moves of the other sellers and their impact on his profit and of the influence of his price-move on the actions of rivals.

Thus there is complete interdependence among the sellers with regard to their price-output policies. Each seller has direct and ascertainable influences upon every other seller in the industry. Thus, every move by one seller leads to counter-moves by the others.

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The main reason for this mutual interdependence in decision making is that one producer’s fortunes are dependent on the policies and fortunes of the other producers in the indus­try. It is for this reason that oligopolist firms spend much on advertisement and customer services.As pointed out by Prof. Baumol, “Under oligopoly advertising can become a life-and-death matter.” For example, if all oligopolists continue to spend a lot on advertising their products and one seller does not match up with them he will find his customers gradually going in for his rival’s product. If, on the other hand, one oligopolist advertises his product, others have to follow him to keep up their sales.

• Competition

This leads to another feature of the oligopolistic market, the presence of com­petition. Since under oligopoly, there are a few sellers, a move by one seller immediately affects the rivals. So each seller is always on the alert and keeps a close watch over the moves of its rivals in order to have a counter-move. This is true competition.

• Barriers to Entry of Firms

As there is keen competition in an oligopolistic industry, there are no barriers to entry into or exit from it. However, in the long run, there are some types of barriers to entry which tend to restraint new firms from entering the industry.

They may be:

(a) Economies of scale enjoyed by a few large firms

 (b) control over essential and specialised inputs

(c) high capital requirements due to plant costs, advertising costs, etc.

 (d) exclusive patents and licenses; and

(e) the existence of unused capacity which makes the industry unattractive. When entry is restricted or blocked by such natural and artificial barriers, the oligopolistic industry can earn long-run super normal profits.

• Lack of Uniformity

Another feature of oligopoly market is the lack of uniformity in the size of firms. Finns differ considerably in size. Some may be small, others very large. Such a situation is asymmetrical. This is very common in the American economy. A symmetrical situation with firms of a uniform size is rare.

• Demand Curve

It is not easy to trace the demand curve for the product of an oligopolist. Since under oligopoly the exact behaviour pattern of a producer cannot be ascertained with certainty, his demand curve cannot be drawn accurately, and with definiteness. How does an individual seller s de­mand curve look like in oligopoly is most uncertain because a seller’s price or output moves lead to unpredictable reactions on price-output policies of his rivals, which may have further repercussions on his price and output.The chain of action reaction as a result of an initial change in price or output, is all a guess-work. Thus a complex system of crossed conjectures emerges as a result of the interdependence­ among the rival oligopolists which is the main cause of the indeterminateness of the demand curve.

• No Unique Pattern of Pricing Behaviour

The rivalry arising from interdependence among the oligopolists leads to two conflicting motives. Each wants to remain independent and to get the maximum possible profit. Towards this end, they act and react on the price-output movements of one another in a continuous element of uncertainty.On the other hand, again motivated by profit maximisation each seller wishes to cooperate with his rivals to reduce or eliminate the element of uncertainty. All rivals enter into a tacit or formal agreement with regard to price-output changes. It leads to a sort of monopoly within oligopoly.They may even recognise one seller as a leader at whose initiative all the other sellers raise or lower the price. In this case, the individual seller’s demand curve is a part of the industry demand curve, having the elasticity of the latter. Given these conflicting attitudes, it is not possible to predict any unique pattern of pricing behaviour in oligopoly markets.

Monopoly is a market situation in which there is only one seller of a product with barriers to entry of others. The product has no close substitutes. The cross elasticity of demand with every other product is very low. This means that no other firms produce a similar product. According to D. Salvatore, “Monopoly is the form of market organisation in which there is a single firm selling a commodity for which there are no close substitutes.” Thus the monopoly firm is itself an industry and the monopolist faces the industry demand curve.

The demand curve for his product is, therefore, relatively stable and slopes downward to the right, given the tastes, and incomes of his customers. It means that more of the product can be sold at a lower price than at a higher price. He is a price-maker who can set the price to his maximum advantage.

However, it does not mean that he can set both price and output. He can do either of the two things. His price is determined by his demand curve, once he selects his output level. Or, once he sets the price for his product, his output is determined by what consumers will take at that price. In any situation, the ultimate aim of the monopolist is to have maximum profits.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MONOPOLY

The main features of monopoly are as follows:

1. Under monopoly, there is one producer or seller of a particular product and there is no differ­ence between a firm and an industry. Under monopoly a firm itself is an industry.

2. A monopoly may be individual proprietorship or partnership or joint stock company or a co­operative society or a government company.

3. A monopolist has full control on the supply of a product. Hence, the elasticity of demand for a monopolist’s product is zero.

4. There is no close substitute of a monopolist’s product in the market. Hence, under monopoly, the cross elasticity of demand for a monopoly product with some other good is very low.

5. There are restrictions on the entry of other firms in the area of monopoly product.

6. A monopolist can influence the price of a product. He is a price-maker, not a price-taker.

7. Pure monopoly is not found in the real world.

8. Monopolist cannot determine both the price and quantity of a product simultaneously.

9. Monopolist’s demand curve slopes downwards to the right. That is why, a monopolist can increase his sales only by decreasing the price of his product and thereby maximise his profit. The marginal revenue curve of a monopolist is below the average revenue curve and it falls faster than the average revenue curve. This is because a monopolist has to cut down the price of his product to sell an additional unit.

The above two conditions between themselves make the average revenue curve of the individual seller or firm perfectly elastic, horizontal to the X-axis. It means that a firm can sell more or less at the ruling market price but cannot influence the price as the product is homogeneous and the number of sellers very large.