District Administration and Competency of Government

The district is the geographical unit where the complete instrument of administration can be traced. It is the cutting edge level of administration that policies are transformed into action. The success or failure of policies are dependent on the efficiency of District Administration.

It is impossible for union government to manage entire nation in one unit so it is important to distribute the power into different units. Every state is divided into a number of administrative sub centres to needs of the people in the areas comprised in small areas.

According to Willoughby, field administrative organization falls under either of the patterns of areas including territorial, functional or unitary and multiple areas. These areas organized in horizontally , vertically and hierarchically. The office incharge of the area is the head, the head of all other specialized units at that level are his subordinates.

All communication from the field station to the head office and back are routed through him and he has a responsibility for the acts of all other departmental heads. The position is very different in a multiple or functional form of organization, where different division or branches of the headquarters office have their equitable field establishment at different areas and maintain direct contact with them. There is no coordinating or integrating authority at the area level, each service or agency is treated as an independent entity unrelated to other services the line of authority runs direct by from it’s headquarter office.

Luther Gulick described three patterns of field organization as all finger, short Arms long fingers and long Arms short finger. All fingers agencies are controlled by the headquarters office directly. Short arms long fingers patterns, agencies are controlled by the division, they communicate with control field officers in their respective areas.

Long Arms short fingers pattern geographical sub division, to these sub division are located in the central office itself each with an extensive staff and they communicate with the central field office in three respective areas. These districts split into tehsils/Taluks, headed by tehsildars, tehsil lies the pargana/revenue circle under the charge of revenue inspector then primary unit, village official is the patwari or Lekhpal or village accountant.

Constitution of India did not mentioned the term ‘district’ excluding Article 233 mentioned in term of ‘district judge’s. The 73th and 74^th Amendment Act of 1992 including the term district at several places under Part IX and IX A dealt with panchayat and muncipalities respectively.

District Administration is the total management of public affairs, within this unit. DA is that portion of Public Administration which functions within the territorial limits of a district as explained by S S khera who is prominent figure in describing District Administration.

District as a unit of administration has a long history from the time of Medieval times. District called Sarkar and headed by Karori faujdar under the direct control of subedar. District administration and the office of district collector existence during the of British East India Company.

After independence the office of the District collector suffered in order to maintain status and authority due to expansion of governmental activities and emerged as Panchayati Raj, replacement of ICS into IAS, influence of pressure Group and Growth of Commissionerate system.

The programme are executed under the supervision direction and leadership of the collector. Development had a top down approach where people brought under the umbrella of one or in other development Programme. District collector’s main responsibility was identification of beneficiary in the development activities. District collector regulate the development.

The task of good District Collector is the ability to work with all people. This requires good human resource management, strategic thinking and financial management. Village Panchayat refer to the councils of the local government of India, look after the administrative affairs of the rural regions. The local government of India are self sufficient and self enabled units that work under the State Government of India. The 73^rd and 74^th Amendment Act 1992 attach with development of city and village councils in India. Local government have regular elections, fixed five year term and review and augmentation of finance by the State Finance commission.

Public policy And Politics in India : How institution matterBy kuldeep Mathur, Oxford University Press 2013; ISBN -13: 978-0-19-9466054

Public policy is a new discourse that emerged in the early 1950s. Public policy is designed as goal oriented action to stimulate decision making. Policy mounted on law & regulations, funding management with the concern of governmental representation. It is a discipline to solve the Conflict by making policies such as education Policy, health Policy, employment policy, foreign policy, Agriculture Policy and labor policy.

Public policy developed in the context of the Indian governance scenario; is becoming more and more significant in today’s world. The importance of civil societies, non-profit organizations, and the media have a communicative role in producing policies.

This book carved out a few questions that needed to be answered like what is the nature of this new style of governance ? How does it affect the role of the state in framing public policy? And this book also delve deep into the nature and role of these networking to determine public policy, promoting the sledgehammer research in this area of public policy.

Kuldeep Mathur, the author of this book put forward his own research essays that focus on an analysis of Indian public policies. The theme of the book also concerned the processes of policy making. Author explores the impoverished aspects of Policies in india; what was lost in the dominant theme pursued by most scholars was that policy was an arena of Contestation – of bargaining & Compromises of politics.

Questioning the bureaucratic imperative of impersonality and neutrality inhibited an understanding of how policies were formulated and implemented.

Main Content

This book emphasizes on certain Sphere or excessive involvement of political executive, exclusiveness of politics in Policy Making. Discuss the Guidance of Governance in India, Research bases Policy Analysis and how policy research organized in the South Asian region provides the understanding for Supreme Court, Technocrats and populist Politics in india in the sphere of Policymaking, importance of policy evaluation for education Policy.

The impact of privatization, Liberalization and public sector Enterprises in India, how governance is used as networks between state, Business, NGOs for enhancement of relationships. Development of cognitivism towards strengthening the Bureaucracy: state and Development in India, enforces the Administrative reform in india as policy fixation and Consequences.

Following tenets explained by author; Book explained the Policy mechanism of different Commissions, Active inputs of parliamentary Committees, Concentrate on political and Administrative Constraints. Introductory policy Analysis from planning to implementation failure.

Articulation of how formulation of policies differ in South Asia; social political environment and character of Social Science research context that shapes the characteristics of policy research organization, emergence of policy research organization in South Asia. However, South Asian Countries do not have Common model for the growth of such institutions. Below mentioned important outlining from the book.

“Initiative taken by the govt establishing research institution at the beginning of the planning period indicates recognition of the fact that research can contribute to policy making”. Policy failure were seen to be located in the bureaucratic/managerial process rather than in programme design & formulation of objectives.

“The dilemma of increased political participation within a system of limited economic benefit is the major Challenge for policymakers as india enters the second millennium”.Author underline the role of supreme Court in Policymaking; Political Contestation & govt reluctance in implementing what had already long been on the statute books and nature of environmentalist politics.

Explored the role of various actors in shaping outcomes, the impact of education policy since independence. The significance of privatization emphasis on the virtue of the market is highlighting the weaknesses of the public sector hence the need of privatization political leadership

promoting economic reform in india, prescribed few reforms and possible reasons for failure lead to desirability of wholesome privatization.

Consideration of the role of legislation in the making of Public Policy has been a relatively neglected area of Political environment. Articulation of Governance as networks with ngos, state & market ponderability of relationship of the state with the corporate sector is based on a transformed view of the role of the state in neo liberal economic framework.

Also, In this book the author emphasizes strengthening of bureaucracy for ameliorate the Governance. All the following, explanatory principles in the book require the administrative Reforms; changing the intellectual climate that provides understanding of the role & scope of Public Administration propelled this discourse.

Conclusion

I highly recommend this book not only to those who are studying Public Policy but to all who desire to acquire knowledge regarding public policies mechanisms & approaches of Public Policy in India. The language of the book is moderate to understand, easy to absorb and grasp.

Also, This book clear the idea of policy making, social science, economic decision making, necessity of pivotal agencies gravitate our attention towards policy

processes rather than focus on consequences. Dominant Strategy of development and the state determined development outcomes. Propounded economic reform was a response to the economic crisis and became an instrument of crisis management by the government.

Critical significant stream in the general area of policy studies which here attracted considerable attention of policy evaluation. Critical evaluations of various policies and programmes have sought to identify the factors responsible for policy failures and to suggest what the Government should have done to improve their chances of successful Policy structure.

Policies could not achieve their objectives without bureaucratic and administrative adequate sophistication. Discussion on little attention was paid to the policies themselves and their appropriateness by Government, Policies began to be assessed in relation to plan models, sectoral relationships and the global economic context. Importance of public policies have primarily focused on the dimensions of efficiency and effectiveness.

Policies are shaped and designed. Social scientists need to fill the gap in our comprehension of how state institutions function particularly when policy is a political statement and not a techno-rational output of State action. This book provide all kind of reasoning and perception to improve the Public Policy structure.

STOP BARRING THE VOICES OF NATION

Source: The Guardian (New Zealand start climate change protest)

When countries are facing crisis in the form of protests that simply means government and others should focus on their needs. Protests emphasized on the fact that we do have problems in our countries which we need to address as early as possible. Protests are a wake call to the country.

Source: The Washington Post (Chile demonstration March October 2019)

In Modern era protests become the vitality of the democracy. If government tries to shut the voices of the protests then we should raise our voices even more because if we don’t react today it will be become more dangerous to the Constitution, then their is no meaning to enjoying the ‘DEMOCRACY’.

Source: New York times (French union workers strike against Government for pension reform Plan Dec 2019)

Protests are not just some voices against injustice or representing dissent. It is much more than this, more meaningful; it is AWAKENING. Awakening of people, awareness of surrounding. Awakening cannot die and it should not die because this is a combination of our consciousness or subconsciousness.

Our history and freedom is a reflection of stand against the cruelty , knowing the fact if we don’t speak today, tomorrow will be in dark. JP Narayan movement which was started as protest against the government (Emergency) eventually become the movement for country. At the end of the movement what happened to “INDIRA” government was fallen Apart.

Source: TOI (From Right to Left Mandal commission, CAA Protests in foreign & Indian University)

Mandal commission another vicious mistake of government. This particular protest turned into violence. Commission introduced high reservation to Social and educationally backward classes in the central government and public sector.

Citizenship Amendment Act 2019 was passed by the parliament of India on December 11 2019. This act amended the 1995 citizenship Act by providing a pavement to indian citizen for persecuted religious minorities from the countries like Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan; who are only Hindus, Sikhs , Buddhist, Jains, Parsis or Christian, the law does not grant such eligibility to Muslims from these Muslim majority countries. The act was declared as first act in the history of India and lndian law that used religion as criterion for citizenship. The amendment has been criticized on the basis of religious discrimination which targets one community.

United Nations Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) called this act fundamentally discriminatory. The protests first began in Assam and spread swiftly in the other states such as Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura. The CAA protests rests on 14 Match 2020 because of coronavirus. This protests led Police brutality at University campus, violence brokedown against protestors. Through Section 144 Curfew Internet shutdown and paramilitary forces were imposed in various parts of the country. According to Police record, more than 65 died, 175 injured and 3000+ we’re arrested.

Thousands of farmers protest against three most problematic agricultural reform laws that they say government putting corporate interests over the country requirement. The 3 laws introduced to loosen the grip of rules around the sale, pricing and storage of farm produce in india. Government claimed that these changes make it easier for farmers to bypass regulatory farming market and sell their produce directly to Private buyers like supermarkets chains. As per Government, laws would benefit farmers and make investment to a agricultural sector that makes up nearly 15% of Indian $3.8 trillion economy.

Source: Indian Express (Police use water canons to disperse & stop Farmer activits from marching into New Delhi)

Now discuss if laws sounds too accurate then where is a problem? Problem lies in Government’s intension. Farmers were worried that they don’t have enough bargaining powers to get the kinds of prices they want for their products especially when they are negotiating with bigger companies. There was one more tassel over MSP – Minimum Support Price which is a price the government guarantees for certain crops like wheat and rice. The protests were largely peaceful until 26 January after this it took drastic sight. The central government again shut down mobile internet services at several protest sites and putting the fundamentals rights of people’s on threshold.

Many socio – Political movements occurred in the past for instance Chipko movement, silent valley protest, Assam movement, Jungle bachao Andolan, Great Bombay strike, Narmada bachao Andolan, Dalit Agitation in Maharashtra (2006), Nandigram and singur protests in West Bengal (2007), Nirbhaya protest, FTII protest against chairman many more in different part of country, CAA Protest and widespread Farmer Protest.

Now Remember, we living in the kind of society where we know when we have to pick up our placard, flags, slogans, singing songs and show our dissent.

What should government do in such situations is a biggest question – firstly they should not adopt such policy which go against the people. Even if it is beneficiary to few people but at the same time going against the numerous number of population. Take affective measure to control the situation; Use the effective power of bureaucracy. It is government responsibility that make sure people must believe the government and their style of policy implementation is good for nation; after all Our constitution stand on – OF THE PEOPLE, BY THE PEOPLE, FOR THE PEOPLE!!

Reasons for the failure of the Policy Implementation

Policy Implementation is the soul of Administration and Public Policy, one of the problem with Policy making in India is extreme fragmentation in the structure that fragmentation fails to acknowledge the action taken in one area have implications on another and may work at Cross purpose with policies of other sector. Implementation is not automatic that is more structured and scheduled. Implementation works as make or break the deal of Public Policy.

Effective implementation requires a chain of command, and the capacity to coordinate and control; often there are shortfalls in this exercise, more so in a developing country like India. Problem in the implementation of Policy are common in all countries, be they developed or developing. Even with relatively good administrative structure, Public Policy does not have it’s intended impact due to conceptual and political problem. Implementation deficit may be due to insufficiency of the requisite resources – of time, money or manpower.
Let’s discuss the implementation problem under the headings:

1) Conceptualization Issue of Policy Implementation

Conceptual Problem become the most crucial step in Policy Implementation that holds the high capacity to hinder the implementation. Understanding the nature of contextual problems, acknowledgement to those kind of policies and procedures which can address the inside problems. These conceptual problem majorly related to Policy design and anaylsis conflicts.

• Policy Design Conflict

Hogwood and Gunn stressed if at the stage of Policy design, attention is given to potential problems of implementation; successful outcome will increased. In order to avoid major shortcomings in implementation take care of few preposition that prescribed by Hogwood and Gunn and Policy makers must ensure that:

A) Adequate time and sufficient resources are made available to the programme

B) No constraints in terms of overall resources, and even at each stage in the implementation process.

C) Policy must based on valid theory of cause and effect.

D) Single implementation agency that need not depend upon other agencies for success.

E) Good communication among co – ordination, various elements involved in the programme

The problem of Policy design in Poli design include ambiguous and ill – defined objective and inappropriate measure to achieve the stated goals. Lack of adequate political will, sufficient social support are other reason. For example, National Water Policy (NWP) adopted by Water Resource Council in 1987 was a wanted step in the direction of evolving national consensus. But, because of poor design remained unimplemented. NWP lacks the blue print

• Policy Analysis Conflict

Implementation of Public Policy has also been hampered by conceptual weaknesses of Policy anaylsis. For instance, National health Policy (1983) was adopted without considering alternative Policy option. This inability to set priorities and evolve appropriate strategies for reduction in health problems by the state department

• Policy Statement Conflict

Policy statement announced by the government contain ambiguous and contradictory terms, posing problems in implementation. The implementers at the field level often face a variety of issues because the policy statement lack clarity. Consequently, implementers use their own discretion while implementing them or they refer the statement back to the higher paths of Administration for clarification.

2) Political Pressure

Political Pressure in implementation always been evident and complex. This kind of pressure cannot let bureaucracy to work efficiently.

• Centralisation of Policy Process

Tassel between Central and state government relation has affected the policy implementation process adversely. Environment protection is heavily centralized. Although the central government has been enthusiastic in adopting innovative population, health, education and environmental policies and programmes as a result, health or environment quality has hardly improved in terms of availability of safe water, clean air, and provision of healthy living conditions.

• Unionisation of Bureaucracy

Another important of failure of Policy implementation is due to the Unionisation of civil services, at the lower level in particular. This has destroyed not only the work culture and discipline, but it also demoralized considerably the supervisory levels into withdrawal and promoting them to take least resistance. Higher and middle levels of bureaucracy are not so powerful and marginalized to give any relief to citizen in cases of corruption. Further, political interference by the political executive has compounded the marginalisation of higher bureaucracy thereby undermining it’s capacity to implement Public policies effectively.

• Politics of Interest Group

Many times, it is observed that the policies are not implemented because of to satisfy the interest groups. For example, several industries have little concern about environmental consequences of sitting decisions; industrialist influence the environmental Policy implementation process either directly or through business lobbies and representative of the business interests concerned. Pressure by industrial association during consideration of Environmental Protection Act in parliament resulted in a weakening of government and also forced the government to delay enforcement of enacted legislation. They are links with elites of ruling parties. It’s is, common for exertion of political influence in the environmental Policy process.

3) Bureaucratic Incompentency

Christopher Hood uses the term ‘Perfect administration’ in comparison to comparison to ‘Use of Perfect Competition’. He defines ‘ Perfect administration’ as a condition in which external elements of resources availability and political acceptability combine with administration to produce Perfect policy implementation.

• Lack of Adequate Institutional Capacity

The institutional structure and administrative capabilities for implementation of environmental laws and policies, for example, by no means Adequate in terms of political, social, and economic problem. Institutional structure includes the whole system of rules and regulations by which administrative tasks and responsibilities are clearly defined and juxtaposed with the capabilities of the administrators concerned. Let’s understand by example, when 30 industrial units, including few MNCs in West Bengal failed to comply with environment laws, the supreme Court had to play the role of the executive. In 1995 two judge bench of supreme Court expressed ” these multinational concerns have huge resources yet they are not bothered about protecting the environment”.

• Lack of Personnel and Financial Resources

Many policies will diffuse because of insufficient staff and lack of financial resources. Policies in developing nation have not been implemented in full scale owing to lack of trained staff. Well structured policies fail to attain the proper goals without competent Personnel. Implementation implies allocating personnel resources to the appropriate tasks and activities tasks and activities, motivating them to do well rewarding them for action. Regardless of their status, specialized knowledge, experience and qualifications, the programme personnel need to work as a cohesive team for the purpose of achieving policy results.

• Working under heavy pressure of Time

Pressure of time often creates the implementation gap. While fixing the time frame, the policy formulators do not take into consideration the prevailing conditions. The implementation agencies under pressure are unable to fulfill the targets allocated under the said Policy.

• No Administrative Will and Motivation

Without the conscious cooperation of implementers, nothing can be done. It is responsiblity of government to ensure the working conditions for implementers so that they will not lost their interest. Social policies have remained unimplemented largely for lack of administrative will and motivation. In current environment, officials are not likely to feel enthusiastic about implementing policies. Even when officials willing to implement environment laws, government undermined by manoeuvre of industrial bigwigs. Many of them fall to the dominance of economic interests and monetary temptations end up in formal enforcement of the regulation.

• Cooperation and Coordination

Poor coordination and missing links among the administrative agencies have stood in the way of adequate and appropriate Policy actions. For example, at the administrative level, different department are concerned with implementing policies related to poverty alleviation programme. Gap in Policy implementation are found in population and family planning programme.

• Lack of people’s participation

Public involvement in Policy Implementation such as education, population control, health, pollution control and forest conservation etc have tremendous pressure on administrative staff to cultivate results. By demonstration, protest and Public has tried to offset the power base of interest groups and lobbies that influence Policy Implementation in their favour.

The strength and endurance of the people’s movement for implementing and enforcing regulations have not been a link to that vests interest.

Conditions for proper implementation

W. William inakes an attempt to identify ways in which Policy failure can be prevented. He exhorst policy makers to pay more attention to implementation capacity like must underline few questions:

I) How capable are Policy makers in developing meaningful guidelines for and assistance to implementers?

II) How capable are implementers to do their work efficiently?

III) How well implementer articulated the Public Policy?

Mazmanian and Sabatier formulate a sufficient conditions of effective implementation;

I) The enabling legislation mandates Policy objective that are clear and consistent or at least provides substantive criteria for resolving goal conflicts.

II) The leaders of the implementing agency possess substantial managerial and Political skills. They are committed to statutory goals.

III) The programme is actively supported by organized constituency groups and key through out the implementation process, with the courts being neutral and supportive.

IV) The relative priority of statutory objective is not undermined overtime by emergence of conflicts of Public policies or by changes in relevant socio – economic conditions that weaken the statute’ s casual theory or political support.

Conclusion

Policy Implementation requires a wide variety of actions, including issuing Policy directives that are clear and consistent; creating organisational structure and assigning personnel with the information and authority necessary to administer the policies; coordinating personnel, resources and expenditure to ensure benefits for target groups and evaluating actions of personnel regarding implementation. Therefore, serious efforts are required for Policy Implementation at the level of Policy making itself, because it’s starts from beginning right from the policy making stage.

There’s tremendous gap between Public opinion and Public Policy – Noam Chomsky

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Child Marriage legalised on Rajsthan

Currently, Rajasthan govt released an amendment “Rajasthan compulsory Registration of Marriage Amendment Bill 2021” it allowed registration of child marriages, it’s 21 century and we all are aware of how heinous child marriage is, here are some of my views on this act

In my views law is not wrong
Those who commit or help in child marriage will still be punished, but those who already had marriage were not allowed to have registration and so they were not able to avail all govt schemes and benefits, those saying it will make it easier to do child marriage remember availing govt benefits are everyones fundamental rights.

Those saying it’s illegal look it like this rape is illegal but rape victim and culprit both have some rights that we can’t snatch, like culprit must be allowed to go court etc, ofcourse child marriage is as heinous as rape and here victims are both boy and girl but why they suffer whole life for it, they can’t get rashion, jobs, water, now as everything is more and more digitalizing and you can’t prove you’re married, it will become more hard to avail services like jacha bacha Suraksha and this are thee parents who most need it.

Also one negative point is it will make child marriage easier, but many people will not be able to avail fundamental rights isn’t it totally wrong also we can make child marriage hard by making strong rules. As we have data of child marriage we can ask govt employee who are posted there why they let it happen like police or magistrate, they will become more accountable this way.

If I’m missing some points or you want to share your views here’s my email soni362002@gmail.com

Environmental laws in india

Either Stable burning in various states accrued the air pollution in Delhi and created a gas chamber around NCR ; SC came upon a committee to observe scenario , Or 4 industries inflicting stream pollution were shut down by Maharashtra pollution board . Everybody has responsive to environmental problems as higher than . The key solution for resilience to environmental issues are provided by government in various legislations , enactments and provisions on environment laws .

In republic of India environmental law is concern with the policy and law for protection of the environment . It aims for achieving carbon free economy through taking measures for reducing climate change. All the acts under this laws are safeguards in ensuring effective management of the environment and its multiple ecosystems . It provides for preventing environmental damage .

Natural resources in the earth were unscathed from millions of years. It were remain pure until the industrialized started . After the industrialization this resources have been exploited in Spain of 100 years only . From 19th century, the environment (air , water and land ) is directly exploited by rapidly growing population at alarming-rates.

environment includes water, air and land and the inter-relationship which exists among and between water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms and property , as mentioned in section 2 of environmental protection Act of 1986 . Environment is a wide sphere , it consists of social, economically , political , religious dimensions .

Addressed area of environmental laws in India :

1. Quality of water : For the prevention and control of water pollution and to maintain or restore wholesomeness of water in the country the water act of 1974 was enacted. It further provides for the establishment of Boards ( CPCB and SPCB ) for the prevention and control of water pollution with a view to carry out the aforesaid purposes. This act prohibits the discharge of pollutants into water bodies beyond a given standard, it also lays down fine and penalties for non-compliance.

2. Reduction of air pollution and maintaining air quality : The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (the “Air Act”) is an act to provide for the prevention , protection and abatement of air pollution .It provides for establishment of Boards at the Central and State levels with a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes.

3. Hazardous Waste management : legislations that directly or indirectly deal with hazardous waste management are the Factories Act, 1948, the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991, the National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 and rules and notifications under the Environmental Act.

4. Containment cleanup, damage mitigation : preventing future damage to the environment is undeniably the primary objective of environmental law, mitigating and reducing existing damage is also important. This area most often deals with issues like toxic leaks and oil spills. The central objective of this branch of environmental law is deciding liability, planning an appropriate response, and also determining the best process of investigation and monitoring in the overall clean up process. This area also concerns itself with the study and assessment of risk in the long term, to better mitigate any future accidents and risks.

5. Sustainability of resources : United Nations has put great emphasis on ensuring the sustainability of resources. For this vision , it has advocated the formation of various legal principles and legislation. In this regards concept of environmental impact assessment introduced .

Noble legislations and enactments on environment law in India :

Laws on Forest and wild life protection:
• The Indian Forest Act, 1927 ; The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972; The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 ; The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986; The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010.

Laws on Water pollution :
• The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.

Laws on air pollution :
• The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (the “Air Act”)

Laws on hazardous waste management :
• Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 ; Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 ; Batteries (Management & Handling) Rules, 2001 ; Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary) Rules, 2008 ; E – Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 .
Laws on wetlands

•Ramsar convention (1971) : This convention was initiated to push for greater conservation and sustainable use of wetlands ; Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017.
Constitutional provisions on environment laws

• Part IVA (Art 51A-Fundamental Duties) of the constitution casts a duty on every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.

• the Constitution of India under Part IV (Art 48A-Directive Principles of State Policies) stipulates that the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.

environment makes human life possible, and our cultural environment helps define who we are. It is therefore essential that our population and economic growth are environmentally sustainable.

Horticulture

Horticulture, the branch of plant agriculture dealing with garden crops, generally fruits,vegetables, and ornamental plants. The Horticulture falls between domestic gardening and field agriculture, through all forms of cultivation naturally have close links.

It is divided into the cultivation of plants for food and plants for ornament. Pomology deals with fruit and nut crops. Oliericuture deals with herbaceous plants for the kitchen, including, for example carrots, cauliflower. Floriculture deals with the production of flowers and ornamental plants; generally, cut flowers, pot plants, and greenery. Landscape Horticulture is a broad category that includes plants for the landscape, including lawn turf but particularly nursery crops such as shrubs, trees, and vines.
The specialisation of the horticulture and the success of the crop are influenced by many factors. Among these are climate, terrain, and other regional variations.

HORTICULTURAL REGIONS :

TEMPERATURE ZONES :

Temperature zones for horticulture cannot be defined exactly by lines of latitude or longitude but are usually regarded as including those areas where frost in winter occurs, even though rarely. Thus, most parts of Europe, North America and Northern Asia
are included, though some parts of the United States, such as southern Florida, are considered subtropical.
The temperature zones are also the areas of the grasses – the finest lawns particularly are in the regions of moderate or high rainfall- and of the great cereal crops. Rice is excluded as being tropical, but wheat, barley, corn and Rye grow well in the temperature zones.
Plants in the temperature zones benefit from a winter resting season, which clearly differentiates them from tropical plants which tend to grow continuously. Most of the great gardens of the world have been developed in temperature zones. Particular features such as rose gardens, herbaceous borders, annual borders, woodland gardens, and rock gardens are also those of temperature zone gardens. Nearly all depends for their success on the winter resting period.

TROPICAL ZONES :

There is no sharp line of demarcation between the topics and the subtropics. Just as many tropical plants can be cultivated in the subtropics, so also many subtropical and even temperature plants can be grown satisfactorily in the tropics. Elevation is a determining factor. In addition to Elevation, another determinant is the annual distribution of rainfall. Plants that grow and flower in the monsoon areas, as in India, will not succeed where the climate is uniformly wet. Another factor is the length of day, the number of hours the sun is above the horizon;some plants flower only if the day is long, but others make their growth during the long days and flower when the day is short.
In the tropics of Asia and parts of central and south America, the dominant features of the gardens are flowering trees, shrubs, and climbers. Herbaceous plants are relatively few, but many kinds of orchids can be grown.

PROPAGATION :

propagation is the controlled perpetuation of plants,is the most basic of Horticulture practices . It’s two objectives are to achieve an increase in numbers and to preserve the essential characteristics of the plant. Propagation can be achieved sexually by seed or asexually by utilising specialised vegetative structures of the plant or by employing such techniques are cutting, layering, grafting and tissue culture

SEED PROPAGATION :

The most common method of propagation for self- pollinated plants is by seed. In self-pollinated plants,the sperm nuclei in pollen produced by a flower fertilize egg cells of a flower on the same plant. Propagation by seed is also used widely for many cross- pollinated plants pollen is carried from one plant to another.
The practice of saving seed to plant the following year has developed into a specialized part of horticulture. Seed technology involves all of the steps necessary ensure production of seed with high viability, freedom from disease, purity, and trueness to type. These processes may include specialized growing and harvesting techniques, cleaning, and distribution. Germination in such seed may be accomplished by treatment to remove these inhibitors. This may involve cold stratification, storing seed at high relative humidity and low temperatures, usually slightly above freezing. Cold stratification is a prerequisite to the uniform germination of many temperature-zone species such as apple, bear, and redbud.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION :

Asexual or vegetative reproduction is based on the ability of plants to regenerate tissues and parts. In many plants vegetative propagation is a completely natural process; in others it is an artificial one. It has may advantages. These include the unchanged prepetuation of naturally cross pollimated palnts and the possibility of propagation seedless progeny.
Vegetative propagation is accomplished be use of

Apomictic seed
1. Specialized vegetatice structres such as runners, bulbs, corms, rhizomes, offshoot, tubers, stems and roots.
Layers and cuttimgs
Grafting and budding
1. tissue culture.

Ideal student

An ideal student is one who is good at skills and an motivation to everyone in the class. Schooling is one of the best blessings that a child can have. It is one of the best feelings which no others can have.

The ideal student is the one who respects others feelings and who will be obedient in many of the situations.

The student’s relation with the teacher is a great one. A student must maintain a healthy relationship with the teachers. Teachers play a very important role in making the student perfect and make them to understand the need of the situation. Teachers help the students to reach their desired goals and in any situation teacher motivates a student to get up and stand in all the ups and downs. Like that of the mother and the father, the teacher also feels equally happy when their student acheives high in their life and when they reach their desired goals.

An ideal student will never feel low at the failures. Instead, they will take their mistakes as an experience and will continue the hard work.

Some of the qualities that make an ideal student are :

Hard work
Discipline
Taking responsibility
Maintaining friendly relationships
Respecting everyone
Raising diubts without features.

SOME QUALITIES THAT MAKE AN IDEAL STUDENT FOR KIDS :

• Ideal student traits make him uniqu, anong others.
• It is believed that an ideal student will never waste his time and energy on non- productive things.
• The ideal student has inborn winning qualities.
• Ideal students will always goal- oriented. Thys, they play according to actions to reach their goals.
• It is proven that ideal students will punctual in school and always on time regularly.
• He respects everyone. He also obeys their instructions and others.
• Ideal students are not bookwarms. They keenly observe and read wisely.
• Ideal students take his studies with all seriousness. They dont’t allow any other activites to disturb them
• Ideal students always seek the teacher’s guidance. Also, they believe in the knowledge of their teachers.
SOME QUALITIES THAT MAKE AN IDEAL STUDENT FOR SCHOOL STUDENTS :

• Ideal students are always thirsty to gain knowledge.
• They always strive to reach their goals
• Ideal students always dedicated to their education and work.
• Ideal students behave well and very attentive in classes. They always listen to their teachers while classes are going on
• They never hesitate to raise their doubts about studies if they feel some difficulty in understanding.
• one of the best things about ideal students is that they are very friendly. Also, they help yo his friends regarding studies.
• Ideal students are creative and think out of the box for any completion of tasks.
• He always inspire eveyone and attracts the teachers and elders easily.
• Ideal students are very responsible and underdtand the value of every wird from their elders.
SOME QUALITIES THAT MAKE IDEAL STUDENT FO HIGHER CLASS STUDENTS :

• Ideal students are always fit both physically and mentally.
• Ideal students can differentiate between what is right and what is wrong .
• Ideal students always keep friendly relations with othet students even though he has many competitors
• He always maintains his promise and never feels proud of his awards and achievements.
• Ideal students will nevet trust in superstitions, but believe beliefs. It is because they think very logically abd ratinally.
• An ideal students tries to improvr in all aspects of his life and to reach goals.
• Ideal students show affection and respect towards their elders and parents.
• Ideal students read a lot of books.
• The ideal students will take responsibility for their society and country.
• An ideal student will never look fir shortcuts. They believe that hard work is the only way to succeed in life.

In simple terms, an ideal students is science towards academics and maintains friendly relations with teachers and elders. Aldo, an ideal student will have leadership and communication skills.
The role of an ideal student is both attentibe and punctual in duties. He goes to his school, college or university in time. He attends the classes on regular basis .

Animals

Since the time Earth developed the quality of sustaining life, life has always gone under the process of evolution. Life started from single celled organisms and developed stage by stage. One organism extinct to develop into its better developed species or even at times it happens that some animals get erased from the surface of the earth due to extreme environmental condition.

EXTINCT ANIMALS: Species of animals which existed in the surface of the earth once upon a time but has no current existence, this may have been a result of extreme environmental condition or some other condition for existence. For example, we have dinosaurs, Dodo.

ENDANGERED ANIMALS: The species of animals which have only a few animals left on the surface of the earth and are in the mouth of being extinct are known as endangered, currently this is a result of poaching i.e., unethical killing of wild animals with purpose or change in the climate due to pollution and other factors. For example, we have the Royal Bengal Tiger.

We cannot do anything for the species which are extinct but we can definitely take steps and save our endangered species. Poaching laws should be made stricter and it should be taken care that people follow them.

Different types of animals :

Scientists sort the different types of animals in the world into categories based on certain characteristics. Animals are generally grouped into six types of aninals. The system for animal classifications is called taxonomy.

The Animal Kingdom :

All animals belong to a biological kingdom called kingdom Animalia. This kingdom is then broken down into over 30 groups. About 75% of all species on earth are aninals. Animals are then broken down into two types : vertebrates and invertebrates.

* Animals with a backbone are vertebrates.

* vertebrates belong to the phylum called phylum chordata.

* vertebrates are classified into five classes. They are amphibians, birds, fish,mammals, and reptiles.

* Animals without a backbone are invertebrates.

* Most invertebrates are in the phylum Arthropoda.

1. Amphibians :

All amphibians are vertebrates, and they need moist environment or water to survive.

* They are cold- blooded.

* They absorb water and breathe through their thin skin

* They have at least one special king gland used for defense.

* Most follow the life cycle of egg-larva- adult.

* examples : frog , newts, salamanders, toads.

2. Birds

Birds are a type of warm- blooded vertebrate that are adapted to fly.

* Not all birds can fly, but they do all have wings.

* Birds have beaks that help them catch and swallow food.

* The digestive system of a bird allows it to eat whenever it can and digest that food later.

* Birds lay egg to reproduce.

* They are endothermic, mening they maintain their own constant body temperature.

* They are bipedal, which means they have two legs.

* They have hollow bones and their bodies are covered in feathers.

* Birds belong to the class called Aves.

* Examples : albatrosses, chickens, hummin birds, falcons, falmingoes, ostriches, owls, parrot, penguins, pigeons.

3. Fish :

Fish are also vertebrates, and they are considered the oldest-known vertebrates.

* They are ectothermic, or cold- blooded, which means they rely on their surroundings to regulate their body temperature.

* Fish have funs.

* Most, but not all, fish have bodies covered in scales and breathe through gills.

* Fish live under water.

* Examples : eels, hangfish, lampreys, minnows, rays, salmon, seahorses, sharks.

4. Mammals :

Mammals are another type of vertebrate that belongs to the class Mammalia.

* young mammals get nourishment from milk produced by their mothers.

* Most mammals have hair.

* Their jaw is hinged directly to their skull unlike all other vertebrates.

* Almost aĺl mammals give birth to live bsbies.

* They are endothermic, or warm- blooded.

* Examples : there are over 5500 living species of mammals all over the world. Aardvarks, bats, elephants, hamsters, human, rabbits, rhinoceroses, whales.

5. Reptiles :

Reptiles are thought to be the first vertebrates to live completely on land. But, not all reptiles live only on land today.

* They are cold- blodded, or ectothermic

* They lay eggs to reproduce.

* They have four legs or descended from animals with four legs.

* They breathe through lungs

* Their bodies are covered in scales or scutes.

* Examples : crocodiles, geckos, lizards, sea turtles, snakes, tortoises.

Invertebrates :

Approximately 95% of all animals are invertebrates. Invertebrates do not have a backbone. There are different types of invertebrates, but they all share a few characteristics.

• They are made up of many cells that work together, or multicellular.

• Most, but not all have tissues, cells that work together in a more complex way.

• Most, but not all, can move.

• There are over 35 phyla of invertebrates.

• They generally have soft babies.

● Types of Invertebrates :

There are eight phyla of invertebrayes that are alive today.

* Annelida – have a segmented body and primitive brain

* Arthropoda – have jointed appendages and an exoskeleton.

* Cnidaria – have tissues and an incomplete digestive system

* echinodermata – have some type of spiny structure on their bodies

* Mollusca – generally have sofy bodies and a hard exoskeleton.

* Nematoda – unsegmented with worm- shaped bodies

* platyhelminthes – have soft, ribbon- like worms with no respiratory system.

* porifera – multicellular organisms living in water with no organs or tissues.

Examples : anemone( cnidaria) , clams ( mollusca), coral,

The doctrine of Separation of Powers:

Introduction: –

The concept of separation of powers is that the basic element for the governance of a democratic country. This principle endorses fairness, impartiality, and uprightness within the working of a government. Although it’s not followed within the strict sense yet, most of the democratic countries have adopted its diluted version in their respective constitution.

Meaning: – The term “trias politica” or ‘separation of powers’ was first coined by Montesquieu in 18th century French social and political philosopher. Under his model, the political authority of the state is split into Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary powers.

Generally, all the powers of the govt. will be categories into these three classes:

(1) Enactment of law created

(2) Interpretation of the enacted laws

(3) Enforcement of the enacted laws Separation of power, therefore, refers to the division of presidency responsibilities into distinct branches to limit anybody branch from exercising the core function of another.

Historical origin and Evolution: –

The doctrine of separation of powers is of ancient origin. The separation of powers concept was 1st originated in Greek and has become widespread within the Roman Republic as a part of the initial constitution of the Roman Republic. The history of the origin of the doctrine traceable to Aristotle in the 16th and 17th centuries, French philosopher John Bodin and British politician Locke respectively had expounded on the doctrine of separation of powers.

But it was Montesquieu ( a French jurist) who initially conveyed scientific evidence of separation of powers in his book “Espirit des Lois ” (The spirit of laws). Montesquieu’s view: – Montesquieu said that – ‘The accumulation of all power’s legislature, executive, and judicial within the same hand’s weather of 1, a few, or many and whether hereditary, self-appointed or elective, may justly be pronounced the very definition of tyranny.

Aristotle(384-322BC) in his book “The politics” stated that “These are three elements in each Constitution in respect of which each serious lawgiver must explore for what’s advantageous to it; of those are well arranged, the constitution is beyond to be arranged and also the differences in constitutions are sure to correspond to the difference between each of those elements.

The three are first the deliberative (which discuss everything of common importance), second the officials; and third the judicial element.

Objectives of separation of powers: –

(1) It aims to eliminate arbitrariness, totalitarianism, and tyranny and promote an accountable and democratic variety of government.

(2) It prevents the misuse of powers within the various organs of the govt..

(3) It keeps a check on all the branches of the govt by making them in control of themselves.

(4) This principle allows all the branches to specialize themselves in their respective field to boost and improve the efficiency of the govt.

Elements of Separation of powers: –

(1) Legislative: – Legislative means involving or regarding the method of creating laws. the first function of the legislature is to form laws for the governance of the state. it’s the authority of amending the present rules and regulations furthermore. Generally, in India, the parliament holds the facility of creating rules and laws.

(2) Executive: – The executive is that the part of the govt. exercising authority and holding responsibilities of the governance of the state. the chief executes and enforces laws made by the legislature. The president and therefore the Bureaucrats from the manager branch of the presidency.

(3) Judiciary: – The judiciary is that the branch of authority during a state which is anxious with the law and also the system or is that the system of courts that interprets defends and applies the law within the name of the state and safeguards the rights of the individuals. It can even be thought of because of the mechanism for the resolution of disputes within the state or internationally.

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Introduction: –

Historical origin and Evolution: –

Objectives of separation of powers: –

Elements of Separation of powers: –

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